B IOD I V E R S I TA S ISSN: 1412-033X

Volume 23, Number 4, April 2022 E-ISSN: 2085-4722

Pages: 2167-2176 DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d230452

The composition of fatty acids in several vegetable oils from Indonesia

HAMIDAH RAHMAN1,♥, JOHNNER P. SITOMPUL2, SURYATI TJOKRODININGRAT3

1Department of Public Health, Faculty of Health Science, Universitas Muhammadiyah Maluku Utara. Jl. KH. Ahmad Dahlan No. 100, Ternate 97719,
North Maluku, Indonesia. Tel.: +62-921-326136, email: [email protected]
2Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Industrial Technology, Institut Teknologi Bandung. Jl. Ganesha No. 10, Bandung 40132, West Java,

Indonesia
3Department of Agriculture, Universitas Khairun. Jl. Pertamina Kampus II Gambesi, Ternate 97719, North Maluku, Indonesia

Manuscript received: 14 January 2022. Revision accepted: 27 March 2022.

Abstract. Rahman H, Sitompul JP, Tjokrodiningrat S. 2022. The composition of fatty acids in several vegetable oils from Indonesia.
Biodiversitas 23: 2167-2176. Fatty acids are generally incorporated into a triglyceride structure in vegetable oils and this indicates
vegetable oils are a source of fatty acids. Fatty acids and triglycerides are fatty groups commonly known to have a detrimental effect on
health but have an important role in terms of nutrition, health, and are also a source of industrial raw materials. Therefore, this study was
conducted to identify the composition of fatty acids in several edible vegetable oils which are quite widely available in Indonesia such as
coconut oil, palm kernel oil, palm oil, nutmeg oil, cinnamon oil, and canarium oil. The fatty acids profile of these vegetable oils was
determined using high-performance liquid chromatography while the composition was determined by comparing the peaks in each
vegetable oil with the standard fatty acids. It was discovered that all the six vegetable oils contain fatty acids with different
compositions, and this signifies the availability of a complete variety of fatty acids in Indonesia. Moreover, the highest fatty acid content
in coconut oil and palm kernel oil was found to be lauric acid with a concentration of 49.00% and 49.25% respectively while the
contents in palm oil include palmitic acid with 44.00% and oleic acid with 41.00%. The nutmeg oil was dominated by myristic acid with
78.00%, cinnamon oil by stearic acid with 50.16%, and canarium oil by oleic acid with 51.71%. Furthermore, the concentration range
for all the vegetable oils includes 14.66-91.20% saturated, 6.30-52.31% monounsaturated, and 1.35-33.03% polyunsaturated fatty acids.
These results can be used as a source of information in the process of utilizing fatty acids and triglycerides in vegetable oils, and also
provide the data required to estimate the nutritional value of the plant biodiversity originating from Indonesia.

Keywords: Edible oil, fatty acids, high-performance liquid chromatography, vegetable oil

Abbreviations: CBO: cinnamon bark oil, CO: coconut oil, CSO: canarium seed oil, FFA: free fatty acids, HPLC: high-performance
liquid chromatography, MCFA: medium chain fatty acid, MUFA: monounsaturated fatty acid, NO: nutmeg oil, PKO: palm kernel oil,
PO: palm oil, PUFA: polyunsaturated fatty acid, SFA: saturated fatty acid, UFA: unsaturated fatty acid, sn-: stereospecific numbering

INTRODUCTION The main content of vegetable oil is triglyceride as well

as several bioactive compounds such as carotenoids,
Indonesia has a diverse range of habitats and plant lecithin, lignans, phytosterols, and tocopherols which have
species with the potential to serve as a source of food, the ability to maintain and improve human health.
medicine, and raw materials for the chemical industry Moreover, several nutraceuticals product innovations have
(Sutarno and Setyawan 2015). This diversity of plants leads been made in the form of vegetable oil-based bioactive
to the existence of different sources of vegetable oils, both compounds using nano formulation technology. Palm oil,
edible and non-edible. These vegetable oils, especially palm kernel oil, olive oil, coconut oil, and cottonseed oil
edible ones, are rich in triglycerides and fatty acids which are edible vegetable oils that have been formulated as
are considered useful as a food source. Soybean, sesame, nutraceuticals because of their pivotal role in human health
sunflower, and canola produce edible oils that have long and nutrition (Vergallo 2020). These oils are also used in
been used in the world’s food industry (El-Hamidi and manufacturing structured triglycerides or structured lipids
Zaher 2018; Górska-Warsewicz et al. 2019). Fatty acids by modifying their natural triglycerides. One of the
and triglycerides are also useful in making drug objectives of modifying triglycerides in vegetable oils is to
formulations to prevent and improve health (Vergallo repair the position of the fatty acids so as to provide
2020), and oleochemical industries as bio-based products benefits both for favorable food consideration and for
(Laverdura et al. 2020). Common fatty acids in vegetable improving their physicochemical properties. In addition, by
oils include caprylic acid, lauric acid, myristic acid, inserting essential fatty acids and as well as short-chain and
palmitic acid, stearic acid, palmitoleic acid, oleic acid, medium-chain fatty acids in triglyceride, a product for
linoleic acid and linolenic acid. Some of these oils also structured lipid is produced with benefits for the prevention
contain several bioactive compounds such as antioxidants and cure of disease (Moreira et al. 2017; Shah and
which have a health-promoting effect (Mazzocchi et al. Limketkai 2017).
2021). Triglycerides are a group of lipids composed of three
fatty acids which are incorporated in the sn-1, sn-2, and sn-
2168 B I OD I V E R S ITA S 23 (4): 2167-2176, April 2022

3 positions of the glycerol backbones. This implies the fatty This study was, therefore, conducted to identify the
acids composition of the triglycerides need to first be fatty acids contained in edible vegetable oils such as
released from the structure before they can be analyzed and coconut oil (CO), palm kernel oil (PKO), palm oil (PO),
this can be achieved through several methods including nutmeg oil (NO), cinnamon bark oil (CBO), and canarium
chemical reaction such as saponification as well as seed oil (CSO) which are widely available in Indonesia.
enzymatic reaction using lipase (Lopes et al. 2016; Moreira This is expected to assist in predicting the benefits of these
et al. 2017). In the process of triglycerides metabolism in oils as a food source, cosmetic raw material, and their
the human body, the pancreatic lipase enzyme has an applications in the chemical industry.
important role in converting triglycerides so that they can
be absorbed and oxidized to produce a certain amount of
energy. The fast or slow fat metabolism process is MATERIALS AND METHODS
determined by the presence of fatty acid incorporated in the
sn-1 and sn-3 positions in the structure of the triglycerides. Preparation of oils
Short and medium chain fatty acids in this position will be Coconut oil (CO) which was produced by the local
converted into energy rapidly (Shah and Limketkai 2017). people was purchased from the local market in Ternate
Each type of oil has different triglycerides composition, Island, Maluku, while palm kernel oil (PKO) and palm oil
fatty acids, and components of bioactive compounds. Olive (PO) were purchased from locals of South Sumatra,
oil contains triglycerides with 86% unsaturated fatty acids Indonesia. Subsequently, nutmeg oil (NO), cinnamon bark
(UFA) and the highest fatty acid composition is oleic acid oil (CBO), and canarium seed oil (CSO) were obtained
which has the ability to regulate cholesterol. Olive oil also from the extraction of nutmeg seeds, cinnamon barks, and
contains linoleic acid which plays a role in preventing canarium seeds respectively using the soxhletation method.
cardiovascular diseases and is considered vital for the These three materials were obtained from Ternate Island,
growth of children (Hilali et al. 2020). In addition, the North Maluku Province, Indonesia.
dominant fatty acid in cocoa beans oil is stearic acid. The
position of stearic acid in the oil is symmetrical which Oils extraction
causes the physicochemical properties of cocoa beans oil to Each nutmeg seed, cinnamon barks, and canarium seed
be very specific, namely having a sharp melting point and were dried and smashed into smaller pieces, after which
the melting point is close to human body temperature. This 100 g of each was weighed, wrapped in filter paper, and
attribute is normally exploited in the chocolate-making loaded into the chamber of the Soxhlet extractor. The
industry as indicated by the immediate melting of chocolate extraction was conducted using the extraction solvent, n-
when in contact with body temperature (Ostrowska-Ligeza hexane, and the temperature was set at 70°C for 6 hours
et al. 2021). The dominant triglycerides in olive oil are after which the extracted liquid was collected and the
OOO (oleic-oleic-oleic) with oleic acid and linoleic acid remaining solvent evaporated using a rotary evaporator. Oil
occupying the sn-2 position (Hilali et al. 2020). Cocoa of each seed was stored in a refrigerator in brown glass
bean oil contains triglycerides with oleic acid dominantly bottles at 8°C before the analyses.
occupying at sn-2 position (Ostrowska-Ligeza et al. 2021),
while the dominant triglycerides are POP (palmitic-oleic- Preparation and purification of free fatty acids (FFA)
palmitic), POS (palmitic-oleic-stearic) and SOS (stearic- by saponification reaction
oleic-stearic) (Hatmi et al. 2021). As much as 100 g of each oil was added 200 mL of
Fatty acids are classified into saturated fatty acids NaOH solution and heated at 60°C while stirring at 550
(SFA) and unsaturated fatty acids (UFA) with the SFA rpm for 1 hour. Next, the solution was added with 40 mL
observed not to have any double bond due to its 4-16 distilled water and 400 mL of n-hexane and the mixture
carbon atoms while UFA has one or more double bonds was stirred again for 1 hour. The preparation of the solution
with a terminal of the carboxylic group. The UFA is was based on the description in Chen and Ju (2001) and
subdivided into two groups based on the number of double Sitompul et al. (2018). Further, separatory funnel was used
bonds which include the monounsaturated fatty acids to separate the results of the saponification reaction through
(MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). They are solvent extraction. The aqueous phase was added to 160
also biochemically categorized based on the active site of mL of distilled water and acidified by adding 12 N HCl
the fatty acids into omega 3, 6, 7, and 9. Meanwhile, fatty while shaking vigorously up to the moment the pH of the
acids are also grouped into essential and non-essential from solution reached 1. Moreover, the free fatty acids in the
the nutritional perspective with the essentials defined as upper layer were dried with anhydrous sodium sulphate
those that cannot be synthesized in the human body and while the remaining solvent was evaporated in a rotary
need to be obtained from a diet source such as vegetable vacuum evaporator at a temperature of 35ºC. The result of
oils. This essential type includes linoleic and linolenic acid this process was used to analyze the fatty acid composition
with the metabolism of linoleic acid discovered to have the using HPLC.
ability to produce arachidonic acid (ARA) while the
linolenic acid produces eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and Derivation reaction for the formation of p-
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) (Ivanova et al. 2016; Oboh et bromophenacyl esters
al. 2017; Whitmore et al. 2019). The structure of fatty acids does not have a chromophore
group, and this indicates it is necessary to conduct a
 RAHMAN et al. – Fatty acids in vegetable oils 2169

derivatization reaction to form the p-bromophenacyl esters et al. 2016; Vergallo 2020), cosmetics (Burnett et al. 2017;
using p-bromoacetophenone bromide (PBPB) and an 18- Yang et al. 2020) and in other chemical industries
crown-6-ether catalyst based on the method used in Arcos (Biermann et al. 2021). There are also currently several
et al. (2000). A sample of 1 mg/mL of FFA produced from studies and innovations being conducted to produce
the saponification reaction was prepared in chloroform and structured triglycerides also known as structuredlipidsd
300 µL of the mixture was added to the 100 µL of 18- using vegetable oils as the main raw material (Ract et al.
crown-6-ether 0.5 mg/mL solution in acetonitrile after 2015; Moreira et al. 2017; Nicholson and Marangoni 2021;
which 200 mg potassium carbonate was added. Temkov and Muresan 2021). Basically, vegetable oils
Subsequently, the mixture was heated in a water bath at contain triglycerides and fatty acids are the basic building
80ºC in a closed vial for 30 minutes, cooled in an ice bath blocks of triglycerides. Fatty acids are generally
for 15 minutes, filtered using a 0.45 µm membrane filter, incorporated into a triglyceride and occupy the sn-1, sn-2,
and the product was prepared to be analyzed using HPLC. and sn-3 positions in the glycerol backbone as shown in
Figure 1.
Measurement of fatty acids composition using HPLC Fatty acids first need to be liberated from triglycerides
The fatty acids were measured using HPLC based on through a saponification reaction to form free fatty acids to
the working procedure of Arcos et al. (2000) and Sitompul analyze the fatty acids composition in the triglycerides of
et al. (2018). This involved injecting 20 µL of the free fatty the six vegetable oils studied. Moreover, a derivatization
acids sample derivatized into the HPLC equipped with a reaction was also conducted to form a p-bromo-phenacyl
UV detector at a wavelength λ=254 nm. The mobile phase ester compound which can be measured on a UV detector
used was acetonitrile with water (87:13 v/v) at a flow rate due to the absence of a chromophore group in the structure
of 1.5 mL/min while the fatty acids were separated using of the fatty acids. This further allowed the measurement of
Luna column 5µm C8(2) 100 Ǻ 0.15 m x 4.6 mm. the free fatty acids using the HPLC equipped with a UV
detector at λ= 254 nm. The results obtained from the
Data analysis measurement procedures of each type of vegetable oil used
The fatty acids composition contained in each vegetable in this study are presented as follows.
oil was determined by comparing the chromatogram peaks
of the content in each oil to the standard. Moreover, the Determination of fatty acids in coconut oil
identification process was based on the similarity of the The analysis showed that there are ten fatty acids in CO
fatty acid retention time tested against standards while the as indicated in Table 1 and Figure 2, and those observed to
value of the fatty acid content was calculated based on the be most abundant include lauric acid with 49.00%, myristic
normalization of the area expressed in mol %. acid with 15.50%, and palmitic acid with 9.35%. Lauric
acid, myristic acid, and palmitic acid are a group of
saturated fatty acids because they do not have double bonds
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION in their chemical structure. It is also important to note that
the oil also contains significant amounts of MUFA such as
The current advancement in science and technology has oleic acid 6.30% and PUFA such as linoleic acid 2.50%.
allowed several countries to be using vegetable oils as a These findings were discovered to have similarities with
source of nutritious food (Kumar et al. 2016; Gorska- those reported by Azevedo et al. (2020) that the fatty acid
Warsewicz et al. 2019; Zhao et al. 2021), fuel for energy in CO include lauric acid at 38.40%, myristic acid at
known as biodiesel (Demirbas et al. 2016; Silalahi et al. 20.20%, and palmitic acid at 13.50%, and the same trend
2020), pharmaceutical products such as medicines (Górecki was also recorded by other studies (Silalahi et al. 2018).

O
CH3
H2 C O C C
sn-1 position
H2

O
CH3
sn-2 position
HC O C C
H2

O
CH3
sn-3 position
H2 C O C C
H2

Figure 1. The relative positions of fatty acid in the sn-1, sn-2 and sn-3 in structure triglyceride
2170 B I OD I V E R S ITA S 23 (4): 2167-2176, April 2022

A B

Figure 2. A. Chromatogram of several fatty acid standards. B. Chromatogram of fatty acids in CO

It was interesting to see that the CO contains MCFAs in CO is obtained from coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) which
significant quantities as indicated by caprylic acid at is a fruit considered to have economic value due to its
6.94%, capric acid at 6.36%, caproic acid at 0.50%, and several benefits such as its use in traditional foods and
lauric acid at 49.00%. This is due to the fact that the intake cooking oil in different countries, especially Asia and the
of MCFAs is an advantage considering the fact that they Pacific. The global need for coconut is mostly met by
can be quickly converted into energy and this means the Asian countries due to its cultivation in Indonesia, the
fatty acids will not accumulate in the body as fat reserves Philippines, India, Sri Lanka, and Thailand (Patil and
(Schönfeld and Wojtczak 2016). MCFAs also have a Benjakul 2019; Perera et al. 2020). Cocos nucifera is also
shorter number of carbon atoms (C6-C12) compared to used to produce VCO (virgin coconut oil) which has many
LCFAs (C14-C24) and this shows they can be transported health benefits, including as an antiviral (Ramesh et al.
directly from the portal vein to the liver during the process 2021). The product of coconut processing, namely crude
of metabolism while the LCFAs predominantly enter the coconut oil (CCO) is one of the mainstay products for
lymphatic system. This means the absorption of MCFAs Indonesian exports along with increasing world demand for
causes faster digestion and absorption and also makes vegetable oils as a source of alternative energy raw
energy available rapidly (Deen et al. 2021; Ramesh et al. materials (Yulhar and Darwanto 2019).
2021). The innovation of making structured triglycerides
by placing MCFAs at the sn-1 and sn-3 positions is based Determination of fatty acids in palm kernel oil
on the ability of lipase enzymes to easily cut fatty acids at Palm kernel oil (PKO) is derived from the kernel of the
these positions during the fat metabolism process (Moreira oil palm fruit through the pressing method. The analysis
et al. 2017). showed that it has nine fatty acids with the highest being
The dominance of lauric acid makes CO different from lauric acid with 49.25% followed by myristic acid with
other vegetable oils (Deen et al. 2021) because the SFA in 16.30%, and palmitic acid with 8.00%. The lauric acid is a
the oil is 92.00% with 62.00% having a carbon chain of 8 MCFA with 12 carbons atom as indicated in the structure
to 12. It is pertinent to restate that lauric acid is the presented in Figure 3.
dominant medium chain fatty acid in CO (Perera et al. Another fatty acid observed in this oil includes oleic
2020) and has several benefits with those contained in the acid with 16.35 % which is a MUFA group. Meanwhile,
form of monolaurin reported to have antiviral activity the fatty acid composition in PKO is presented in Table 2.
based on their ability to increase human immune system Fatty acids level in PKO measured using gas chromatography
(Subroto and Indiarto 2020; Ramesh et al. 2021) and also by Nainggolan and Sinaga (2021) showed that lauric acid
has antibacterial activity against gram-positive and gram- was the highest with 45.61% followed by myristic acid
negative bacteria (Nitbani et al. 2016; Anzaku et al. 2017; with 16.26%, and palmitic acid with 9.70%. A similar trend
Silalahi et al. 2018). Some of the other bioactive was also observed in the findings of Paulin and Irene
compounds found in CO include phenolic compounds, (2019) and Tambun et al. (2019) that lauric acid is the most
flavonoids, and phytosterols (Ghani et al. 2018; Perera et abundant fatty acid in PKO. The results of the present
al. 2020). This oil is widely used in the cosmetic industry study are in line with the findings of these previous studies.
(Ghani et al. 2018; Boisa et al. 2020), infant foods, and
functional food (Ghani et al. 2018).
 RAHMAN et al. – Fatty acids in vegetable oils 2171

O There are two different oils that can be produced from

oil palms (Elaeis guineensis) and they include PKO and
OH PO. Moreover, Indonesia and Malaysia are the largest
producers of crude palm oil globally (Sequino and Avenido
2015; Ayompe et al. 2021) and the PKO is observed to be
Figure 3. The structure of lauric acid widely applied throughout Indonesia as part of products
used daily in the form of biofuels, agri-food, and personal
O
care products (Ayompe et al. 2021).
OH
Determination of fatty acids in palm oil
Palm oil (PO) is derived from the extraction or
compression process of the mesocarp of the oil palm tree
(Elaeis guineensis) and its fatty acid composition as
measured using HPLC is presented in Table 3.
Figure 4. The structure of palmitic acid PO and PKO are derived from the same plant species
but their SFAs composition differs (Dian et al. 2017;
Gesteiro et al. 2019). This is indicated by the findings of
O
this study that the three most abundant fatty acids in PO
OH
include palmitic acid with 44.00%, oleic acid with 41.20%,
and linolenic acid with 8.00%, and these were observed to
be in line with the results of Gesteiro et al. (2019) that
reported palmitic acid at 39.30-47.50%, oleic acid at 36.00-
Figure 5. The structure of myristic acid
44.00%, and linoleic acid at 9.00-12.00%. A similar trend
O was also recorded in another study that showed that the PO
from Indonesia mostly contains palmitic acid at 44.00%,
OH oleic acid at 39.20%, and linoleic acid at 10.10% (Hariyadi
2020).
Palmitic acid is a saturated fatty acid with 16 carbon
chains as shown in Figure 4 and is categorized as LCFA. It
is the predominant SFA found in breast milk in the form of
beta-palmitate which indicates it is at the sn-2 position of
Figure 6. The structure of stearic acid the triglyceride structure and provides several physiological
functions for infants such as an increase in calcium
O
absorption, improvement in bone matrix quality,
enhancement of bowel consistency, and a positive effect on
OH the digestive system (Havlicekova et al. 2016). The
technology used in manufacturing structured lipid and
formula milk mimics the composition of triglycerides in
breast milk and this means the palmitic acid in PO
triglyceride can be used to produce formula milk through
Figure 7. The structure of oleic acid chemical or enzymatic reactions.
PO also contains a composition of omega 6 fatty acids
such as linoleic acid at 8.00% and omega 3 such as
The description of the fatty acid composition in PKO is linolenic acid at 0.50% which are a group of essential fatty
similar to CO as indicated by the presence of MCFAs acids that cannot be synthesized in the human body and
which are dominated by the lauric acid. An important needs to be obtained from food such as vegetable oils. The
physical property of PKO is its sharp melting point which enzymatic reaction in the body allows these essential fatty
makes it suitable for use as raw material in certain food acids to experience elongation and desaturation reactions in
products such as margarine and different types of chocolate order to form fatty acids with longer chains and more
(Dian et al. 2017). Moreover, fatty acids and their derivates double bonds such as EPA, DHA, and ARA (Oboh et al.
produced from PKO are used in the chemical industry to 2017; Whitmore et al. 2019). There are some other
produce tires, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, plastics, paints, bioactive compounds in PO such as vitamin E which
soaps, detergents, and others (Tambun et al. 2019). This oil functions as an antioxidant, anti-aging, anticancer, and
also has bioactive compounds with antimicrobial and carotenoids with heart-protective and anticancer activities
antioxidant activities that the antimicrobial and antiviral as well as phytosterol compounds which have cholesterol-
activities are due to the large composition of lauric acid it lowering and cardioprotective properties, squalene, and
contains while the antioxidant activity is associated with others (Mancini et al. 2015; Gesteiro et al. 2019; Hariyadi
the presence of polyphenols, α-tocopherol, carotenoids, and 2020). Moreover, approximately 90% of the world’s PO oil
β-sitosterol (Paulin 2020; Nainggolan and Sinaga 2021). products are normally used to manufacture food products
such as margarine and cooking oil (Absalome et al. 2020).
2172 B I OD I V E R S ITA S 23 (4): 2167-2176, April 2022

Table 1. Fatty acid composition in coconut oil The three highest fatty acids discovered in this oil using
HPLC include myristic acid with 78.00%, oleic acid with
Fatty acids Composition 12.50%, and palmitic acid with 6.90%, and these were
of fatty acids observed to be similar to the previous findings of
Groups Trivial names Symbol
(mol %)
Obranović et al. (2021) which showed myristic acid to be
SFA Caproic acid C6:0 0.50
Caprylic acid C8:0 6.94
the highest in this oil at 75.69%. It is also important to note
Capric acid C10:0 6.36 that this myristic acid has been previously discovered in
Lauric acid C12:0 49.00 CO and PKO as reported in Tables 1 and 2 respectively.
Myristic acid C14:0 15.50 Myristic acid is a long chain of saturated fatty acid with
Palmitic acid C16:0 9.35 14 carbons atoms as shown in the following Figure 5.
Stearic acid C18:0 3.45 Myristic acid is used in industries as a surfactant to
Arachidic acid C20:0 0.10 maintain foam stability during the process of
MUFA Palmitoleic acid C16:1n9 nd manufacturing fatty acid-based soaps, detergents, and
Oleic acid C18:1n9 6.30 cosmetics (Arnould et al. 2018) and is also observed to be
PUFA Linolenic acid C18:3n3 nd
Linoleic acid C18:2n6 2.50 useful in the pharmacological sector to maintain the
Note: ‘nd’ means not detected cardiovascular health. The consumption of myristic acid
increases the levels of omega-3 fatty acids in plasma
phospholipids which are considered one of the parameters
Table 2. Fatty acid composition in PKO for cardiovascular health (Verruck et al. 2019).
Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) has been popularly used
Fatty acids Composition as a spice throughout the world from ancient times. It is a
of fatty acids tropical plant that is available in Malaysia, India,
Groups Trivial names Symbol
(mol %) Indonesia, and South East Asia (Morsy 2016; Obranovic et
SFA Caproic acid C6:0 0.20 al. 2021). It was also mentioned in some literature to be a
Caprylic acid C8:0 2.65
native plant from Banda Island in the Moluccas which is
Capric acid C10:0 3.50
Lauric acid C12:0 49.25 one of the regions in Eastern Indonesia and also important
Myristic acid C14:0 16.30 to note that almost half of the world’s nutmeg is supplied
Palmitic acid C16:0 8.00 from the country (Ibrahim et al. 2020; Kumari et al. 2021).
Stearic acid C18:0 2.10 Moreover, the bioactive compounds in nutmeg seeds
Arachidic acid C20:0 nd including the oil and essential oil have been investigated
MUFA Palmitoleic acid C16:1n9 nd for their potential application as antidiabetic (Pashapoor et
Oleic acid C18:1n9 16.35 al. 2020), and in medical sciences (Ibrahim et al. 2020;
PUFA Linolenic acid C18:3n3 nd Weerakoon et al. 2021).
Linoleic acid C18:2n6 1.65
Note: ‘nd’ means not detected
Determination of fatty acids in cinnamon bark oil
Cinnamon bark oil (CBO) was obtained as an extract of
Table 3. Fatty acid composition in palm oil. the crushed bark of Cinnamomum burmannii through the
soxhletation method. The analysis conducted on this CBO
Fatty acids Composition of showed that the three most abundant fatty acids it contains
fatty acids (mol are stearic acid with 50.16%, linoleic acid with 21.05%,
Groups Trivial names Symbol
%) and palmitic acid with 16.24% as indicated in Table 5.
SFA Caproic acid C6:0 nd Stearic acid is a saturated fatty acid with a chain length
Caprylic acid C8:0 nd of 18 carbons as shown in Figure 6. It is neutral to blood
Capric acid C10:0 nd lipids and this implies it can be used in food formulations
Lauric acid C12:0 0.10
Myristic acid C14:0 1.00
(Garcés et al. 2017) and also has the ability to reduce LDL-
Palmitic acid C16:0 44.00 cholesterol level thereby preventing atherosclerosis,
Stearic acid C18:0 5.00 lowering blood pressure, improving heart function, and
Arachidic acid C20:0 0.10 reducing the risk of cancer (Senyilmaz-Tiebe et al. 2018).
MUFA Palmitoleic acid C16:1n9 0.10 Stearic acid can also be utilized in preparing cosmetics due
Oleic acid C18:1n9 41.20 to its ability to assist in the process of restoring the protective
PUFA Linolenic acid C18:3n3 0.50 properties of the skin (Mank and Polonska 2016).
Linoleic acid C18:2n6 8.00 Cinnamon belongs to the genus Cinnamomum and
Note: ‘nd’ means not detected Lauraceae family and has approximately 250 species
worldwide (Muhammad and Dewettinck 2017; Kumar et
al. 2019). C. burmannii also known as Indonesian
cinnamon is an endemic plant in Indonesia (Haddi et al.
Determination of fatty acids in nutmeg seed oil
2017; Kumar et al. 2019) which is found growing along the
The nutmeg oil was derived from the seeds of nutmeg
Bukit Barisan mountains from Aceh, North Sumatra,
fruit (Myristica fragrans Houtt) using a Soxhlet apparatus
Jambi, Bengkulu, to Lampung (Menggala et al. 2019). It is
and hexane as the solvent. The fatty acids composition
normally used as a spice due to its strong and distinctive
observed in this oil is presented in Table 4.
 RAHMAN et al. – Fatty acids in vegetable oils 2173

aroma while its stem and bark are also commonly used as a In conclusion, there are several sources of vegetable
seasoning and for herbal medicine (Kumar et al. 2019; oils in Indonesia each with its fatty acid composition,
Menggala et al. 2019). This signifies cinnamon is widely thereby, leading to significant benefits considering the fact
used as medicine and functional food due to its that the country has different types of fatty acids and
phytochemical composition (Muhammad and Dewettinck triglycerides. It is shown that from the measurement results
2017; Kumar et al. 2019; Błaszczyk et al. 2021). Apart of six vegetable oils, lauric acid was found to be dominant
from fatty acids, it also produces essential oil which is in coconut oil and palm kernel oil, palmitic acid and oleic
reported to have antibacterial potential, thereby, making it acid were found in abundance in palm oil and canarium oil.
suitable as a food preservative material (Al-Fekaiki et al. Myristic acid was abundant in nutmeg oil, while stearic
2017; Fajar et al. 2019). acid was found abundance in cinnamon bark oil.

Determination of fatty acids in canarium seed oil Table 4. Fatty acids composition in nutmeg seed oil
Canarium indicum is native to Indonesia, especially in
the Eastern part, with approximately 100 species Fatty acids Composition of
Groups Trivial names Symbol fatty acids (mol %)
discovered to be existing throughout the world (Bai et al.
SFA Caproic acid C6:0 nd
2017; Rashid et al. 2021). According to Bai et al. (2019), Caprylic acid C8:0 nd
the global tree nuts trade is dominated by almonds, Capric acid C10:0 nd
cashews, hazelnuts, pistachios, and walnuts even though Lauric acid C12:0 nd
there are others with great commercial potential such as Myristic acid C14:0 78.00
canarium nut. This is important because tree nuts are Palmitic acid C16:0 6.90
generally a source of minerals nutrients and beneficial fatty Stearic acid C18:0 1.00
acids (Bai et al. 2019). Arachidic acid C20:0 0.10
The canarium seed oil (CSO) was discovered to have MUFA Palmitoleic acid C16:1n9 0.15
Oleic acid C18:1n9 12.50
51.71% oleic acid as the dominant fatty acid while the
PUFA Linolenic acid C18:3n3 1.15
others include linoleic acid at 32.40% and palmitic acid at Linoleic acid C18:2n6 0.20
10.30% as presented in Table 6. These were, however, Note: ‘nd’ means not detected
observed to be different from those reported by Bai et al.
(2019) but the studies both agreed on the dominance of the Table 5. Fatty acid composition in cinnamon bark oil.
oleic acid.
This oleic acid belongs to the MUFA group and has 18 Fatty acids Composition of
carbons atom with one double bond as shown in Figure 7. Groups Trivial names Symbol fatty acids (mol %)
Oleic acid has several uses associated with nutrition due to SFA Caproic acid C6:0 nd
its ability to regulate human physiological functions toward Caprylic acid C8:0 nd
preventing disease disorders. An experimental study Capric acid C10:0 2.50
conducted on rats showed that a high oleic acid diet derived Lauric acid C12:0 1.25
Myristic acid C14:0 0,05
from olive oil was able to increase the levels of omega 3
Palmitic acid C16:0 16.24
PUFA such as EPA and DHA and this was further Stearic acid C18:0 50.16
positively correlated with the reduction in the risk of Arachidic acid C20:0 nd
cardiovascular diseases, increase in HDL-cholesterol level, MUFA Palmitoleic acid C16:1n9 nd
as well as a decrease in triglyceride level and body weight Oleic acid C18:1n9 8.75
(Nogoy et al. 2020). Oleic acid was also utilized as a raw PUFA Linolenic acid C18:3n3 nd
material to produce biodegradable surfactants which are to Linoleic acid C18:2n6 21.05
be used in the petrochemical industry to ensure the process Note: ‘nd’ means not detected
is environmentally friendly (Bhadani et al. 2017).
Table 7 shows the six samples of vegetable oil derived
from Indonesian plants presented in Figure 8 have different Table 6. Fatty acid composition in canarium seed oil
compositions of SFA, MUFA, and PUFA. It was
Fatty acids Composition of
discovered that CO, PKO, and NO contain the highest
Groups Trivial names Symbol fatty acids (mol %)
SFAs with 91.20%, 82.00%, and 86.00% respectively, PO
SFA Caproic acid C6:0 nd
has a balanced fatty acids composition between SFA and Caprylic acid C8:0 nd
MUFA while CBO contains a high PUFA composition in Capric acid C10:0 nd
the form of linoleic acid which was recorded to be 21.05%. Lauric acid C12:0 nd
It is also important to note that oleic acid which is Myristic acid C14:0 0.06
categorized as a MUFA group is dominant in CSO but Palmitic acid C16:0 10.30
there is also 33.03% of linoleic acid which is a PUFA Stearic acid C18:0 4.30
group in this oil. Besides differences in fatty acid Arachidic acid C20:0 nd
composition, several other studies have also noted some MUFA Palmitoleic acid C16:1n9 0.60
Oleic acid C18:1n9 51.71
differences in the bioactive chemical compounds and
PUFA Linolenic acid C18:3n3 0.63
essential oils of these vegetable oils. Linoleic acid C18:2n6 32.40
Note: ‘nd’ means not detected
2174 B I OD I V E R S ITA S 23 (4): 2167-2176, April 2022

Table 7. The content of SFA, MUFA, and PUFA in several edible oils from Indonesia

Fatty acids composition (%)

Sample of edible oils
SFA MUFA PUFA
Coconut oil 91.20 6.30 2.50
Palm Kernel oil 82.00 16.35 1.65
Palm oil 50.20 41.30 8.50
Nutmeg oil 86.00 12.65 1.35
Cinnamon oil 70.20 8.75 21.05
Canarium oil 14.66 52.31 33.03

A B C D E

Figure 8. The sources of vegetable oils. A. Palm was used to produce PKO and PO. B. Coconut for CO. C. Nutmeg for NO. D.
Cinnamon for CBO. E. Canarium for CSO

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS butter. Plos ONE 15 (4): e0232224. DOI:

10.1371/journal.pone.0232224.
Bai SH, Darby I, Nevenimo T, Hannet G, Hannet D, Poienou M, Grant E,
The authors would like to acknowledge the Head of the Brooks P, Walton D, Randall B, Wallace HM. 2017. Effects of
Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Instrument at roasting on kernel peroxide value, free fatty acid, fatty acid
School of Pharmacy, ITB, Bandung, Indonesia for composition and crude protein content. PLoS ONE 12 (9): e0184279.
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0184279.
permission of analyzed the samples. The authors declare Bai SH, Brooks P, Gama R, Nevenimo T, Hannet G, Hannet D, Randall
there is no conflict of interest. B, Walton D, Grant E, Wallace HM. 2019. Nutritional quality of
almond, canarium, cashew and pistachio and their oil photooxidative
stability. J Food Sci Technol 56 (2): 792-798. DOI: 10.1007/s13197-
018-3539-6.
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