Mindsets shape consumer behavior

Author(s): Mary C. Murphy and Carol S. Dweck

Source: Journal of Consumer Psychology , January 2016, Vol. 26, No. 1 (January 2016), pp.
127-136
Published by: Wiley

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Journal of Consumer Psychology 26, 1 (2016) 127 – 136

Research Dialogue
Mindsets shape consumer behavior
Mary C. Murphy a,⁎, Carol S. Dweck b
a
Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, USA
b
Department of Psychology, Stanford University, USA

Accepted by Joseph R. Priester, Editor

Received 24 June 2015; accepted 24 June 2015

Available online 27 June 2015

Abstract

Mindsets—or implicit theories—are the beliefs people have about the nature of human characteristics. This article applies mindset theory and
research to the field of consumer behavior. Specifically, we suggest how a fixed or growth mindset may shape consumer product preferences,
acceptance of brand extensions, trust recovery following product failures, as well as the effectiveness of advertising and marketing campaigns. We
argue that people with a fixed mindset are more likely to seek products and brands in line with their goals to burnish their self-image and
demonstrate their positive qualities, while people with a growth mindset seek products that help them pursue their goals to improve and learn new
things. Thus, products and brands may serve important self-enhancement functions—encouraging consumers to reinforce or expand core aspects
of their identity. We also suggest that brands and companies can project a fixed or growth mindset. In turn, these organizational mindsets should
shape consumers' expectations of, and relationships with, products, brands, and companies.
© 2015 Society for Consumer Psychology. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Fixed and growth mindset; Lay theories; Implicit theories; Consumer behavior

Introduction and morality—are relatively fixed. In this view, people are who
they are and there is not much that can be done about it (Dweck,
Advertisers, managers, and industries think long and hard 1999). Some people are smart; others are not. Some people are
about how best to present their products to consumers. What good at sports; others are not athletic. Some people have social
can their product do for people? Can it help people improve and skills; others do not. Some people are winners; others are not.
grow? Will it make them feel better about themselves? Boost As we will see, fixed mindsets make people concerned about
their self-confidence? Social psychological research suggests whether they have the good traits or not.
that different product appeals may speak to different people Other people subscribe to a growth mindset, believing
based on their implicit theories. that people can substantially change (Dweck, 1999; Dweck &
Implicit theories—or mindsets—are the beliefs that people Leggett, 1988). Instead of believing that people have fixed, core
have about the nature of human characteristics (Dweck, 1999; essences, people with a growth mindset believe that learning and
Dweck & Leggett, 1988). These mindsets are important because experience can foster development and significantly change who
they shape people's motivation (Dweck, 1999; Plaks, Grant, & a person is and how they behave. While a fixed mindset suggests
Dweck, 2005). Some people subscribe to a fixed mindset, that people are either intelligent or not, a growth mindset suggests
believing that human traits—such as intelligence, personality, that those who strive to improve their intelligence can do so. Not
athletic? Not to worry—one can practice and persist and become
a sportier person over time. As we will see, a growth mindset may
⁎ Corresponding author at: Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, free people from concerns about their image in the moment and
Indiana University, 1101 E. 10th Street, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA. motivate them to seek opportunities to enhance their skills and
E-mail address: [email protected] (M.C. Murphy). abilities over time.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2015.06.005
1057-7408/© 2015 Society for Consumer Psychology. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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128 M.C. Murphy, C.S. Dweck / Journal of Consumer Psychology 26, 1 (2016) 127–136

We propose that these mindsets are important for understand- suggests that one is not smart or talented (Blackwell et al., 2007;
ing consumer behavior. For example, mindsets should influence Hong et al., 1999) and can threaten people's fundamental
the products consumers are drawn to and the messages they find motivation to see themselves as good, competent people
most persuasive. Mindsets should also influence how groups, (Dweck, 1999).
brands, and organizations are perceived and the degree to which Consumers, product/brand managers, and even companies
people accept product changes, adaptations, and extensions. can subscribe to a mindset about their own qualities or the
Finally, mindsets should play a central role in intergroup qualities of others. For example, product managers with fixed
perception and experience. Companies considering ventures mindsets are likely to adopt performance goals, feeling that
into new markets or launching efforts to attract diverse audiences their personal and professional reputation is dependent on the
would be well advised to consider how their mindsets may immediate success of their product launch, without requiring
influence their ability to attract new consumers and shape the many tests and iterations that are often necessary to
people's perceptions of their products. cultivate a successful product. They would be likely to seek
In this paper, we briefly review research on mindsets, positive feedback about their performance as well as praise for
describing their role in human motivation. We present hypotheses their creativity and intelligence as their feelings of worth rest on
about how mindsets guide consumer behavior and how knowledge demonstrating these traits.
of mindsets can inform corporate behavior, and we highlight Conversely, growth mindsets orient people toward learning
empirical evidence that speaks to those hypotheses. goals in which they strive to increase their competence and
mastery (Blackwell et al., 2007; Dweck & Leggett, 1988;
Two views of human nature: fixed and growth mindsets Erdley et al., 1997). Thus, growth mindset managers might
approach a product launch differently than fixed mindset
Is human nature fixed or are people relatively malleable and managers. The growth mindset might inspire them to pursue
capable of change? Believing that one's qualities are carved in learning goals, seeking not only encouragement but also critical
stone (an entity theory or fixed mindset) activates the motivation feedback from within and outside the company that they then
to prove oneself over and over. If intelligence or competence is a incorporate into the product launch. If the launch fails, they
fixed quality, it becomes important to prove—to oneself and would be more likely to take the time to reflect on the reasons
others—that one has that quality in spades. Research shows that for the failure and work to make certain those same issues do
people with a fixed mindset will go to great lengths to feel not impact future launches. That is, they would use the failure
or appear successful, even if it sometimes involves cheating as an opportunity to learn how they can make the next launch
(Blackwell, Trzesniewski, & Dweck, 2007). If they are not more successful.
successful, people with the fixed mindset may engage in a variety In the domain of consumer behavior, while fixed and growth
of defensive behaviors to hide this (Hong, Chiu, Dweck, Lin, & mindset consumers may be equally interested in a cookbook, for
Wan, 1999; Nussbaum & Dweck, 2008). Above all, they want to example, different goals are likely to inspire their interest. The
have “the right stuff” (Dweck, 1999, 2006). consumer with a growth mindset may be interested in learning
In contrast, some people believe that where they start is just and mastering a new cuisine—discovering how exotic spices and
the beginning of their development. While some may start with ingredients change the flavor of dishes. The consumer with a
an advantage or disadvantage, a growth mindset suggests that fixed mindset may purchase the cookbook in anticipation of
all people can change and develop by applying effort and an upcoming dinner party in which they hope to wow their
gaining experience. Thus, people who subscribe to a growth guests with their cooking prowess and to bask in their guests'
mindset are more willing to make mistakes or appear foolish in compliments and appreciation. Performance and learning goals
the short run in the service of maximizing their development have important implications for consumer behavior, some of
over time (Blackwell et al., 2007; cf. Mueller & Dweck, 1998). which we outline below. Specifically mindsets, and the goals they
In this mindset, even failures can be seen as part of a learning inspire, should be useful in predicting the products and messages
process by providing important information for how to succeed people find most compelling.
the next time.
Mindsets shape views of effort
Mindsets inspire different goals
Mindsets also shape the way people think about effort
Another way to say this is that mindsets are associated with (Blackwell et al., 2007; Grant & Dweck, 2003; Hong et al.,
divergent goals (Dweck, 1996; Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Erdley, 1999; see also Middleton & Midgley, 1997). Those with a fixed
Cain, Loomis, Dumas‐Hines, & Dweck, 1997). The fixed mindset believe that if you have high ability, you should not
mindset orients people toward performance goals in which they need high effort. Moreover, if you need high effort, that means
strive to gain favorable judgments of their worth and competence you do not have high ability. To these individuals, effortless
(Blackwell et al., 2007; Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Erdley et al., success is the most rewarding (Murphy, Dweck, Chapman, &
1997). As we have noted, if abilities are inherent and fixed, Kray, 2013). In contrast, people with a growth mindset view
those abilities need to be demonstrated—thus, performing and effort as the fuel that makes the engine run. Even more, effort is
exhibiting those abilities is a primary goal of those who subscribe highly valued by people with growth mindsets because it
to a fixed mindset (Blackwell et al., 2007). In this mindset, failure indicates that they are stretching themselves and developing.

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 M.C. Murphy, C.S. Dweck / Journal of Consumer Psychology 26, 1 (2016) 127–136 129

Indeed, if things come too easily, it means they are staying in for those in a fixed mindset. For example, one study (Park &
their comfort zone and not realizing their full potential. Applied John, 2010) found that women with a fixed mindset perceived
to product framing and advertising, products that are framed as themselves to be better looking, more feminine, and more
easy to use—like Baby Einstein videos that involve placing the glamorous after using a Victoria's Secret shopping bag relative to
baby in front of the television to absorb the information, or a plain non-branded pink bag. In a second study (Park & John,
hypnotherapy tapes that promise to increase your cognitive skills 2010), students who subscribed to a fixed mindset rated
while you sleep—are likely to be highly appealing to people with themselves as being more intelligent, more of a leader, and
a fixed mindset. Their benefits are conferred almost effortlessly. more hardworking after using a MIT-branded pen than a regular
On the other hand, products that require high effort to reap un-branded pen. The self-perceptions of people in growth
the benefits—such as Lumosity, which promises to “train your mindsets were unaffected by the products that they used. Thus,
way to a brighter life” by providing daily brain strengthening managers could focus on making products hip and image
exercises, puzzles, and teasers that require sustained practice over enhancing if they wanted to appeal to people with fixed mindsets.
time (www.lumosity.com)—may appeal more to people with the Some brands, like Apple, are known for their strategic ad
growth mindset, who are willing and even eager to apply effort to campaigns (“Think Different”) that do just that—they associate
mastering new tasks or to improving themselves. their brand with creativity, uniqueness, and coolness, qualities
that their consumers can demonstrate by acquiring their products
Mindsets and consumer behavior (e.g., Hormby, 2007; Siltanen, 2011).
Previous research suggests that growth mindset people are
Signaling the self with brands and product choice especially tuned to process, that is, the process through which
something comes to have an effect (Hong, Chiu, Dweck, &
Due to their focus on learning and development, growth Sacks, 1997; Levy, Stroessner, & Dweck, 1998). Whereas fixed
mindset individuals should differ from fixed mindset individuals mindset people focus almost exclusively on their traits, people
in the kinds of product information they attend to and the benefits who adopt a growth mindset may be attracted by marketing
they seek from particular products. Indeed, research supports campaigns that spend time describing how a product will help
these intuitions. In a set of interesting experiments, Park and John them improve (Hong et al., 1997; Levy et al., 1998). For
(2012) found that when people subscribed to a fixed mindset, ads example, infomercials that describe in detail how a particular
suggesting that a consumer could display desirable traits to others nutritional supplement works with people's digestive system to
by using the product were more effective in changing attitudes improve their health may be more effective than marketing
relative to ads focused on self-improvement. For fixed mindset campaigns for the same product that feature only “before” and
individuals, messages such as “there's no better way to show “after” shots. While “before- and -after” ads demonstrate the
others you have a modern sense of beauty” and “show off your effectiveness of the product, they leave out how the results were
analysis skills using this amazing app” generated favorable achieved, information that speaks to growth mindset individ-
attitudes toward the products. However, ads that emphasized the uals' sense of self. In the growth mindset, people's attention
self-improvement appeal of using the product were most effective should be directed to information about the ways in which a
with growth mindset consumers. For these people, messages such product can help them become better and they should consume
as “there's no better way for you to learn how to have a modern products that allow them to signal the values (e.g., growth and
sense of beauty” and “your efforts will be rewarded with better learning) that are congruent with their self-concept.
analysis skills using this amazing app” produced the most
favorable attitudes (Park & John, 2012). Mindsets and product preferences
Consistent with these findings, additional research has shown
that mindsets play an important role in self-enhancement through In what follows, we develop a few illustrative predictions
the use of distinctive and prestigious brands (Park & John, 2010). about when people's preferences and choices are likely to be
In this work, people who subscribed to the fixed mindset influenced by their mindset. In particular, we suggest how
attempted to self-enhance by using brands with appealing mindsets might influence people's preferences and choices in
personalities as a signal to themselves and others that they shared the domains of parenting, health and wellness, and online
the positive qualities associated with the brands. Associating with dating.
certain glamorous or prestigious brands, such as Victoria's Secret As parents, people want to make the best decisions for their
or MIT, allowed individuals to prove their attractiveness and children and to provide them with the things that are good for
competence in line with the performance goals that a fixed them. But what's “good” for a child? Imagine that a mother and
mindset engenders (Park & John, 2010). father hold a fixed theory of intelligence for their 10-year-old son.
Specifically, people in the fixed mindset were more likely to What types of products would they prefer? They would likely be
agree that performance goals shaped their attraction to particular drawn to products that reveal the amount of intelligence he
brands. These individuals reported that they used brands “to possesses. They want toys that assess their son's ability so that
reflect on who I am, to communicate who I am to other people, to they have a sense of where he stands. What are his strengths?
feel more positive about myself, and to make a better impression What are his weaknesses? By “knowing” his intellectual capacity,
on other people” (Park & John, 2010). Indeed, studies show that parents, family, and teachers can provide activities where his
the self-enhancing benefits of brand signaling are effective strengths will shine, bolstering his self-image. If a child is good

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130 M.C. Murphy, C.S. Dweck / Journal of Consumer Psychology 26, 1 (2016) 127–136

at math, but not very musical, parents with the fixed mindset conceal their trouble spots, people with a growth mindset might
are likely to be drawn to math products and services while strive to change and improve them. These individuals might be
minimizing musical ones. This pattern of strategic acquisition attracted to products and services that help them attack the root
highlights and reinforces their child's fixed strengths. In short, cause of a problem, such as overeating. Thus, these individuals
parents with a fixed mindset will be interested in products that might enjoy services like Weight Watchers that require them to
assess and measure their children's attributes—intelligence, actively count calories, measure portions, track the amount of
personality, natural abilities in sports, music, art, drama, etc.—so exercise they do, and attend meetings each week in order to
that they can create and seek out experiences where their children lose weight and become more healthy.
will excel. Another context where mindsets should influence con-
By contrast, parents who subscribe to a growth mindset sumer behavior is online dating sites, where people are
might prefer different products and product features. They seeking new relationship partners. The online dating industry
would want products that help their child build and grow is large and growing. Today, approximately 22% of
their abilities. What toys will help their child “stretch” the heterosexual couples and 61% of same-sex couples report
most? If a child demonstrates math abilities, but can't carry a meeting their partner online (Rosenfeld & Thomas, 2012).
tune or follow a beat—growth mindset parents might focus Mindsets should play a role in the type of features and sites
on both math and music because there is room for preferred by people seeking romantic partners. Some sites,
development in both domains. Growth mindset parents may for example, require joiners to take an extensive battery of
also use evidence of a child's learning over time as a source questionnaires and personality tests to determine the “type”
of inspiration for the child—showing them how far they've of person one is. They then promise to search their databases
come and motivating them to push forward, beyond their to match people with others who will “fit,” based on their
current abilities. qualities and attributes. Although these kinds of web services
Research supports these predictions. In a set of studies, may not realize it, the idea of matching people based on fixed
Mukhopadhyay and Yeung (2010) examined how adults' traits and personalities is likely to appeal most to those with a
implicit theories of self-control influenced the decisions they fixed mindset because it is congruent with their view of
made for their children. When parents believed in a malleable human nature.
view of self-control they tended to choose products and engage Different online dating services might appeal to people with
in behaviors to help their children develop self-control. For incremental theories of human nature. These people might look
example, these parents valued products that delivered greater to join sites that pair people with others who will help them
value in the long run than in the short run—teaching their grow on various dimensions. They might want partners who
children to self-regulate by exposing them to contexts requiring share similar tastes in some things, but divergent tastes in
delayed gratification. In addition to choosing gifts that involved others—all the better to explore new things in life together.
delayed gratification, these parents were more likely to restrict People with a growth mindset might appreciate a website that
unhealthful snacking and fast-food consumption and to choose asks people to report what they were like ten years ago, how
more educational (vs. entertaining) television programs for they have changed over time, and how they hope to change or
their children (Mukhopadhyay & Yeung, 2010). Parents who grow in the future. This information would allow people to
believed that self-control is fixed, however, did not show this assess whether a potential date complements his or her own
pattern in the types of products they sought for their children. growth trajectory, allowing them to find partners who might
We also predict that people's lay theories will influence their introduce them to new things, help them develop, or challenge
preferences when it comes to health and wellness. The them to become a better person.
products, services, and advertising messages that people are Together, these examples suggest hypotheses about how and
attracted to are likely to differ between those who hold a fixed when implicit theories may influence consumer preferences and
or malleable view of these qualities. In line with what we behavior. People who adopt a fixed mindset are likely to seek
suggested earlier, messages that portray a product's ability to products in line with their performance goals and their desire
effortlessly solve or minimize health problems are likely to be for low-effort successes. In other words, they will be attracted
most appealing to people with the fixed mindset. For example, to messages and products that allow them to readily confirm
if the problem is too much body fat, under the fixed mindset it and display their strengths while minimizing or camouflaging
might be highly appealing to use products like Spanx body their weaknesses. They are likely to be attracted to services
shapers to minimize the appearance of a muffin-top and that view people, personalities, and problems as knowable. In
bulging thighs, as well as products like diet pills that promise contrast, people with a growth mindset are likely to seek
to shrink fat cells quickly and effortlessly. These people may products that allow them to meet their goals of learning and
be attracted to services, such as Jenny Craig, that in many developing. From a managerial perspective, then, perhaps the
ways promise to do the hard work of calorie counting for most effective product campaigns may be those that include a
consumers by providing all the food needed to help them hybrid message by speaking to the desire of fixed mindset
reach their goals. consumers to bolster their self-image by associating with
People with a malleable view of health and wellness might prestigious products, as well as the desire of growth mindset
be more interested in products that require them to put in the consumers to acquire products that help them grow and
time and effort to achieve their wellness goals. Rather than develop.

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 M.C. Murphy, C.S. Dweck / Journal of Consumer Psychology 26, 1 (2016) 127–136 131

Organizational mindsets influence employee and consumer employees endorse a fixed or growth mindset and pursue
experience learning or performance goals when delivering their services.
Ads featuring customer service employees who spend time
While mindsets have traditionally been conceptualized at the investigating consumers' needs and making efforts to constant-
individual level (e.g., people subscribe to a fixed or malleable ly improve their services by relying on consumer feedback may
view of their own traits and abilities), research suggests that these signal a growth mindset on the part of the organization. The
mindsets might also operate at the group—or organizational— “We're # 2—we try harder” Avis car rental ads emphasized just
level (Murphy & Dweck, 2010). An organizational mindset is this message. These ads described Avis's mindset in a series of
the shared belief of people within a group that human attributes ads titled “No. 2ism. The Avis Manifesto” which stated: “We
(like intelligence or personality) are fixed and relatively stable or, are in the rent a car business, playing second fiddle to a giant.
instead, malleable and expandable. For example, some organiza- Above all, we've had to learn how to stay alive…The No. 2
tions create a culture of genius (Murphy & Dweck, 2010) in which attitude is: Do the right thing. Look for new ways. Try harder.”
they extol and even worship inherent brilliance. These group-level (Time, 1964; www.projectbrief.com/avis). In contrast, ads
mindsets can operate as implicit norms in an environment, which featuring customer service representatives who try to signal
influence the characteristics and traits people value in themselves their stature and prestige may convey a more fixed organiza-
and others. When organizations endorse a fixed or growth mindset, tional mindset.
it is likely to be evidenced by the behavior and motivation of their In addition to shaping consumer expectations, ads highlight-
employees. Research demonstrates that people often try to take on ing an organization's mindset may also influence its current
the attributes most valued by fixed and growth-mindset organiza- workforce. Research has shown that customer service ads
tions (Murphy & Dweck, 2010). Ultimately, then, organizational inform workers about how employees of a particular company
mindsets are likely to shape employees', as well as consumers', are expected to behave (Wentzel, Henkel, & Tomczak, 2010;
downstream experiences. Zeithaml, Parasuraman, & Berry, 1990). That is, employees
In general, we have found that when people compare featured in an ad may set an example for other employees,
fixed-mindset organizations to growth-mindset organizations, serving as a model for behavior, attitudes, and mindsets. For
they often perceive organizations with a fixed mindset to be instance, a growth mindset organization could create ad
more prestigious than those with a growth mindset (Emerson & campaigns that feature employees learning and improving on
Murphy, 2014; Murphy & Dweck, 2010). However, they report the job or executives welcoming mistakes if the employees
trusting growth mindset organizations more than those with have learned from these mistakes or improved company
fixed mindsets (Emerson & Murphy, 2014; Murphy & Dweck, practice based on them. To the extent that employees take on
2010). Projecting prestige may be beneficial, but developing the motivation and behavior displayed in the ads, such ads may
and maintaining the trust of consumers (and employees) may be reinforce the organization's mindset and shape consumer
even more fundamental. New and ongoing research conducted experiences as they interact with employees who have adopted
with five Fortune 100 companies examined employees' the mindset.
perceptions of their company's mindset (Murphy et al., 2013). Research suggests, however, that organizations might wish
These data revealed that when employees perceived their to consider their employee's personal mindsets when selecting
organization to endorse a fixed mindset, they trusted the which leaders or role models to feature. Extremely successful
company less and reported weaker commitment to their role models may motivate people with a growth mindset, but
organization than those who believed their organization intimidate people with a fixed mindset. In two experiments,
endorsed a growth mindset. These workers were more likely researchers exposed people with growth or fixed mindsets to
to report that their company spawned unethical behaviors, such successful role models (Hoyt, Burnette, & Innella, 2011).
as cheating or cutting corners, than were those who worked for Results revealed that when exposed to a successful role model,
growth-mindset companies (Murphy et al., 2013). This growth mindset individuals experienced more self-confidence
organizational-level research is consistent with studies at the and greater identification with the successful role model and
individual level that have found that the performance goals tied actually performed better on a task than did fixed mindset
to the fixed mindset may lead people to engage in unethical individuals (Hoyt et al., 2011). People with fixed mindsets,
behavior as a means to prove themselves (Blackwell et al., however, felt more anxious and threatened by the successful
2007; Robins & Pals, 2002; Van Yperen, Hamstra, & van der role model and lost confidence in their own abilities as they
Klauw, 2011). Over time, these behaviors are likely to damage compared themselves to the model (Hoyt et al., 2011). Thus,
the reputation of organizations and violate consumers' trust. companies might wish to be careful about the role models they
Firms and managers would do well to consider the type of select to communicate their mindset and shape employee
mindset they cultivate at the organizational level to create behavior. Extremely successful models may be motivating to
ethical organizations and protect consumer trust. one portion of their workforce but threatening to another. On
One way an organization's mindset can be conveyed to its the other had, if an organization fosters a widely shared growth
customers is through ads, particularly service ads in which mindset, perhaps the highly successful role model will do the
people working in customer service are featured as model job.
representatives of the organization. For example, such ads can In a similar vein, the impact of a model employee's behavior
inform consumers about whether the organization and its in an ad may depend on whether people believe their own

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132 M.C. Murphy, C.S. Dweck / Journal of Consumer Psychology 26, 1 (2016) 127–136

abilities are fixed or malleable. A set of experiments at a Swiss perceived to differ with regard to personality traits such as
bank (Wentzel et al., 2010) revealed that the information in ads sincerity and honesty (e.g., Hallmark cards), excitement (e.g.,
was filtered through employees' personal mindsets. These MTV channel), competence (e.g., The Wall Street Journal
studies demonstrated that the effectiveness of a pair of financial newspaper), sophistication (e.g., Guess jeans), and ruggedness
advisor ads was influenced by two factors: the implicit theory (e.g., Nike tennis shoes) (Aaker, 1997). Brand managers
of the employee (a financial advisor) watching the ad, as well as designed Coca-Cola's image to include personality traits such
whether the financial advisor in the ad was dealing with a as “all-American,” and “real” (Prendergast, 1993). These traits
moderately challenging or a strongly challenging situation in allow Coke to distinguish itself from its competitors such as
the ad. In both ads, a client called his financial advisor to Pepsi, which is associated with traits such as “young” and
inform him that he would be late due to a delayed flight. In the “exciting”, and Dr. Pepper, which is associated with traits such
moderately challenging ad, the client arrived a few minutes as “nonconforming” and “unique” (Prendergast, 1993). Based
before the branch was scheduled to close and the model advisor on such perceived traits, consumers may form deep relation-
waited for and assisted the client. In the strongly challenging ships with brands that mirror the relationships they have with
ad, the client reached the branch many hours after the branch people. In fact, Aaker and colleagues found that people's
was scheduled to close and the model advisor waited for and relationships with brands perceived as sincere deepened over
assisted the client. time, similar to those of actual human friendships; while
The results of these experiments revealed that financial people's relationships with brands perceived as exciting were
advisors who subscribed to a fixed theory of ability were more more likely to resemble short-lived flings (Aaker, Fournier, &
motivated to imitate the model's behavior when his task was Brasel, 2004).
moderately challenging and thus perceived to be relatively If some brands or products are perceived as classic,
attainable (i.e., when the model put in a small amount of “heritage” brands (e.g., the Ralph Lauren classic polo shirt,
overtime to meet a customer's needs) (Wentzel et al., 2010). Levi's jeans, Werther's Originals candy)—and these charac-
However, when the task was strongly challenging (i.e., when teristics are what make the brand popular—these brands may
the model put in a large amount of overtime to meet the have a harder time extending to novel products or product
customer's needs), the motivation of fixed mindset employees categories because this change may be perceived as inconsis-
to adopt the modeled behaviors was low. Financial advisors tent with the “fixed mindset” that the brand has cultivated. A
who endorsed a growth mindset were unaffected by how paradigmatic example of this difficulty was Coca-Cola, which
challenging the model's behavior was; these individuals were in 1985, attempted to introduce a new soft drink called “New
as likely to model the behavior as were the fixed mindset Coke” with an updated formula (Prendergast, 1993). While
advisors exposed to the moderately challenging model (Wentzel consumers in a blind taste test preferred the taste of New Coke
et al., 2010). Thus, when communicating goals and behavior to both Coke and Pepsi, people were extremely nostalgic for the
through ads, it is important to consider how people may be original Coke. Following much public protest and pressure,
differently influenced by those ads based on their own personal Coca-Cola ultimately returned to the original formula, market-
implicit theories. Including several models that appeal to both ing the revised product as “Coke Classic” which was, and
fixed and growth mindset employees—or cultivating a widely continues to be, extremely successful (Prendergast, 1993).
shared growth mindset—may be effective ways to shape people's Other brands may be more successful when expanding into
motivation and behavior in response to models. new products and product categories because they cultivate a
In summary, organizations may take on a predominant growth mindset and portray themselves as ever growing. These
mindset and signal that mindset to employees and consumers. brands are associated with being cutting edge and actively
Employees (and consumers) may learn the values and norms of reinventing themselves. A good example is the Virgin group
the company through these ads, but the motivational impact of that began as Virgin Records, a progressive rock record label,
such information may differ depending of the mindset of the but has since enjoyed several successful brand extensions into
employee. products and services as varied as air and space travel, mobile
phones, wines, game stores, and video stores. We suggest that
Mindsets and brand extensions these types of growth mindset brands cultivate an expectation
of evolution and expansion in consumers. Thus, these brands
Eight out of every ten new products are brand extensions in are likely better suited for extension into new product
which a company with a well-developed image uses the same categories because transition and change is compatible with
brand name in a different product category (Ourusoff, Ozanian, the mindset brand managers have fostered.
Brown, & Starr, 1992). Predicting which extensions are likely Fascinating research by Yorkston, Nunes, and Matta (2010)
to be successful, and with which segment of the population, is demonstrates that people's personal mindsets and the mindsets
vitally important. We suggest that people's mindsets (or the that they hold about brands influence their acceptance of brand
mindset the brand has cultivated) may influence acceptance of extensions (see also, Mathur, Jain, & Maheswaran, 2012).
brand extensions. When faced with examples of brand extensions in multiple
Research suggests that brands are intentionally imbued with categories, fixed mindset individuals were found to be less
personality traits in order to make them more attractive and accepting of a brand's ability to change. These people were less
relatable to consumers (Aaker, 1997). For example, brands are accepting of attempts to extend into new, dissimilar categories

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 M.C. Murphy, C.S. Dweck / Journal of Consumer Psychology 26, 1 (2016) 127–136 133

than were growth mindset individuals—and this was especially be rebuilt following a trust violation (Haselhuhn, Schweitzer, &
the case when the extension was incongruent with the brand's Wood, 2010). In this research, because growth-mindset
personality, such as when a rugged brand, like Subaru, extended individuals believe in people's ability to change, they were
into product categories considered less so, like motorized expected to perceive trust-repair efforts, such as an apology or
scooters (Yorkston et al., 2010). People with a growth mindset, promise of change, as sincere and thus be quicker to forgive
by contrast, tended to view brand stretches more positively. than their fixed mindset counterparts. Indeed data revealed
However, an informative study demonstrated a boundary that during a repeated trust game in which trust was initially
condition to growth mindset individuals' latitude of acceptance violated by a partner, people who adopted a growth mindset
for brand extensions (Yorkston et al., 2010, Study 2). When a were more likely to regain trust following the partner's
brand went too far—changing both its personality and its attempt to repair trust than people who adopted a fixed
physical traits—even people with a growth mindset were wary mindset (Haselhuhn et al., 2010). Thus, the growth mindset
of the change, perceiving a poor fit between the original and the may orient consumers to be more accepting of repair
extension (Yorkston et al., 2010). behaviors that aim to restore trust and consumer
An intriguing possibility is that companies may be able to satisfaction.
prepare consumers for changes or brand extensions by shifting For example, imagine an airline trip in which your baggage
consumers' perceptions of a brand's mindset through marketing— is lost. Theory suggests that growth mindset individuals may be
moving from a “classic,” unchanging image to one that suggests satisfied with a travel voucher that essentially allows the airline
reinvention and improvement. By doing so, companies may an opportunity to “try again” and earn their satisfaction. As in
be able to enhance the probability that consumers will accept the study described above (Haselhuhn et al., 2010), people with
brand and product extensions, viewing the extensions as now a growth mindset may be more likely to give the company
compatible with the new growth mindset cultivated by the another shot. People with a fixed mindset, on the other hand,
marketing campaigns. Future research is needed to explore are more likely to believe that their one experience is indicative
whether anticipating brand changes in this way would be an of the airline's underlying (poor) quality. These individuals
effective method for shaping consumer evaluations of brand may insist on being reimbursed for the cost of their trip (rather
extensions. than accepting a voucher for future travel), and may refuse to
fly that airline in the future if at all possible. Indeed, research
Mindsets and customer complaints suggests that people with a fixed mindset are oriented toward
retribution when deciding how to punish wrongdoing than
Another context in which people's mindsets may influence those with a growth mindset. On the other hand, growth
consumer behavior is the domain of product or service failures. mindset individuals, in line with their belief in the possibility of
In these situations, a failure could easily reflect poorly on change, favor rehabilitation over punishment (Chiu, Dweck,
the brand or the larger organization, and managers must often Tong, & Fu, 1997; Gervey, Chiu, Hong, & Dweck, 1999;
decide what steps to take to reassure consumers when a Quintanilla, 2012).
product or service failure occurs. Should these reassurances
take the form of monetary compensation or not? In general, Mindsets and intergroup perception
research suggests that people overestimate others' desire for
monetary rewards and, therefore, managers may overestimate Intergroup mindsets refer to people's theories about the
the effectiveness of monetary relief as a means of addressing characteristics of other groups—whether people believe that
consumer displeasure (Ratner & Kubowicz, 2004). We attributes of groups are malleable or fixed (Halperin, Russell,
hypothesize that whether people believe an organization has Trzesniewski, Gross, & Dweck, 2011; Rydell, Hugenberg, Ray,
the ability to change and improve may play an important & Mackie, 2007). Research shows that perceiving groups as
moderating role in consumer satisfaction with different types malleable improves people's attitudes toward outgroups, even
of relief. when the outgroup has a long-standing history of conflict and
If a product can be fixed or the service improved, people animosity with the ingroup (Halperin et al., 2011). In this new
with a growth mindset may be more likely than those with a line of research, perceiving groups as malleable instead of fixed
fixed mindset to give the establishment an opportunity to do so. led Jewish Israelis and Palestinians to report more favorable
For example, growth mindset individuals may be relatively attitudes toward each other, and substantially increased their
satisfied with information about how the organization plans to willingness to make major compromises for peace (Halperin et
improve in the future. They may be more willing to try the al., 2011).
service again, accepting relief in the form of a coupon or Thinking about groups as fixed or malleable may affect
voucher for future service. In contrast, people with a fixed organizations' willingness to engage and attract racially and
mindset, having had a bad experience, might be more skeptical ethnically diverse consumers. For example, a fixed view of
of whether the company can improve its products or service in groups may lead companies to pass on or withdraw from certain
general. Because of this, people with a fixed mindset may insist markets believing them to be “unwinnable” because “those
on monetary compensation for their loss or dissatisfaction. people” don't use our product. Beliefs that the attraction of
This prediction is consistent with research demonstrating different social groups to particular products reflects something
that people's mindsets moderate the degree to which trust can stable about the group may result in companies missing out on

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134 M.C. Murphy, C.S. Dweck / Journal of Consumer Psychology 26, 1 (2016) 127–136

opportunities to explore ways to expand their customer Changing mindsets

base. Conversely, considering groups as malleable may
encourage managers to pursue learning goals regarding As we have argued, people's mindsets are factors that product
outgroups. Believing that groups' preferences can be managers, developers, advertisers, and scholars should take into
understood or even developed with effort, managers may account when considering consumer behavior. However, while
be more likely to target and include outgroups in their people may chronically adopt one mindset or the other, mindsets
marketing campaigns. can also be situationally activated (e.g., Dweck, Chiu, & Hong,
Thus, people's mindsets about groups should be relevant to 1995; Nussbaum & Dweck, 2008) or directly changed (see
organizations and managers who are considering a move into Dweck, 1999).
new markets, particularly international markets where cultural Psychological experiments, for example, have influenced
norms and practices may differ from one's own. Thinking of people's mindsets by exposing them to materials, such as
groups as fixed may lead to two forms of misunderstanding. As scientific articles, that describe research supporting a fixed or
suggested above, a fixed mindset may lead companies to see growth orientation. Indeed, marketing researchers have experi-
outreach as futile. But it might also lead companies to impute mentally manipulated people's mindsets by exposing them to
local (e.g., American) values and goals to novel, unknown various television clips that portray characters as relatively
groups believing that all groups are the same. For example, fixed, or instead, malleable and changing (Jain, Mathur, &
Taco Bell attempted to enter the Mexican market twice, Maheswaran, 2009). In general, research shows that people find
failing both times because it assumed that their “Mexican” both fixed and malleable views of human traits (e.g., intelligence,
products in America would be just as popular in Mexico. personality) plausible. Therefore, clear and salient information in
Indeed, as the Mexico Managing Director, Steven Pepper the local environment can shift people's mindsets at least
boasted “our menu comes almost directly from the U.S. temporarily. Thus, if managers are interested in marketing a
menu” (Stevenson, 2007). A major problem for Taco Bell product to people with growth mindsets—creating television ads
was that the food served in restaurants had no resemblance that show how the product can help consumers grow and
to authentic Mexican food, leaving Mexican customers develop—they are likely to be most successful if they foster a
“baffled” (Stevenson, 2007). For instance, a popular staple growth mindset at the beginning of the commercial or pair their
on the Taco Bell menu in America is the taco served in a ads with shows that encourage consumers to adopt a growth
hard taco shell; however, hard taco shells do not exist in mindset. Television shows that reveal the development and
Mexican cuisine. Consumers who were interviewed, like change in its characters (The Bachelor, Grey's Anatomy, The
Marco Fragoso, were not happy with these items, remarking Biggest Loser) or whose characters themselves exhibit a growth
that “they're not tacos…they're folded tostadas. They're mindset (Dancing With the Stars, in which people devote
very ugly”(Stevenson, 2007). themselves to developing outstanding dancing ability) are more
By contrast, approaching market shifts from a growth mindset likely to shift people into a growth mindset.
should spur motivation to learn about the culture and explore It is an interesting empirical question as to how ads may most
what products and messages are congruent with different groups' effectively induce a mindset in consumers. Ads that begin by
goals and preferences. McDonald's and Kentucky Fried Chicken featuring the development or change of the actor (e.g., “I was once
(KFC) are examples of companies that have experienced great a 97 lb weakling, but now…”) may put viewers in a growth
success crossing into international markets. Both companies mindset when considering the message that follows. Other ads that
extensively researched regional consumers' preferences and encourage consumers to imagine what traits the product will
tailored their products accordingly. For example, beer is available confer on them may induce a more fixed mindset in the moment.
at McDonald's restaurants in France, Belgium, Germany, and Adopting a growth mindset may be particularly relevant for
Austria. Burgers in Italy are available with olive oil, parmesan companies when they try to reclaim their image following a
cheese, and pancetta. Poutine, a popular Canadian dish consisting company or product failure. For example, when a brand falls
of french fries smothered in gravy and cheese, is available at into ill repute (e.g., German cars after World War II) or when a
McDonald's in Canada, and Vegemite spread is featured company experiences a massive product failure (e.g., the
at McDonald's in Australia. In the Middle East, “McArabia” Tylenol capsule poisonings of 1982), what strategies should
uses flatbread instead of hamburger buns. Some these organizations adopt to most effectively recoup their
McDonald's restaurants in Israel are kosher while those in image? In these circumstances companies want to convey to
Muslim nations are certified halal (Daszkowski, 2013). consumers that the organization does not have fixed traits, that
Similarly, KFC adapted its menu to fit local tastes, serving past behavior is not indicative of who the company is now.
rice congee, egg custard tarts, and tree fungus salad in China They would thus want to display a growth mindset in order to
where the company has been very successful (Shen, 2008). make their products appealing to consumers.
Currently, there are 280 KFCs in India where chickpea In the case of Tylenol's tainted capsules, Johnson and
burgers and hot wings with chili lemon sprinkles are on the Johnson immediately showed itself to be in a learning mode.
menu (Business Wire, 2013; Sharma, 2013). Approaching They asked consumers and health professionals via the media
new groups and markets with a growth mindset is likely to to stop using Tylenol products until the company could
lead companies to adapt and change, learning about and investigate the poisonings. The company withdrew 31 million
accommodating local tastes and preferences. bottles of Tylenol capsules from stores as well as offered to

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 M.C. Murphy, C.S. Dweck / Journal of Consumer Psychology 26, 1 (2016) 127–136 135

exchange all Tylenol capsules in consumers' homes for tablets mindset are more likely to seek products and brands in line with
regardless of whether the capsules were included in the their goals to burnish their image and demonstrate their own
damaged lots (Johnson & Johnson, 1982). They also offered a positive qualities and abilities. Those who adopt a growth
$100,000 reward for information leading to the identification of mindset are more likely to seek products in line with their goal to
the person who laced the capsules with cyanide. Media learn new things, improve, and grow. Thus, products and brands
coverage of the crisis argued that “what Johnson & Johnson may serve important self-enhancement functions—allowing
executives have done is communicate the message that the consumers to exercise or reinforce core aspects of their identity.
company is candid, contrite, compassionate, and committed to As we have suggested above, ad and brand managers would do
solving the murders and protecting the public” (Knight, 1982). well to consider these differences when creating campaigns. It
This approach differed significantly from similar cases, where would be interesting to determine whether the most widely
companies, like Source Perrier, put themselves first when traces effective campaigns might be those that send a hybrid message—
of benzene were found in their bottled water. Rather than accept featuring a product's prestigious image as well as its potential to
responsibility, Source Perrier claimed that the contamination help people grow and develop.
was an isolated incident and recalled only a limited number Of course, consumer behavior is complex and multiply
of bottles (Kaplan, 1998). By trying to protect their image, determined, and implicit theories are but one of many factors
companies that adopt a fixed mindset approach ultimately do that shape consumer psychology. Nevertheless, the role of
more damage to their reputation. Another case in which a mindsets in consumer behavior is an exciting and promising
company adopted a growth mindset when faced with a product area of consumer research. Understanding how mindsets shape
failure is that of Mattel and its Fisher-Price toys that were found people's goals and expectations should help managers design
to contain lead-tainted paint (Hurley, 2012; Story, 2007). After marketing campaigns to reach their intended audience, should
investigating the source of the problem, Mattel embarked on shape how companies respond when recovering from product
massive public information campaigns urging parents to stop failures, and should provide guidance when extending into new
allowing their children to use the affected toys. Executives product categories and markets. We hope that mindset research
issued sincere apologies, taking responsibility and appealing to will inspire consumer psychologists to ask new and interesting
the interests they shared with parents (“absolutely nothing questions about consumer motivation.
is more important than the safety and well-being of our
children.”). Mattel provided clear instructions on returning the References
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