현대물리 솔루션

Chapter 1 - Relativity Problems that involve relativistic effects at speeds much smaller than the speed of light, or the equivalence of special relativity and Newtonian mechanics at low speeds, often require finding differences such as when vc. These are both differences between quantities that are equal to 1 in the limit as v—+ 0, but as the quantities are not the same for v # 0, we are interested in how the differences depend on v (more specifically, the ratio v/c) in the limit v < c. There are many ways to find the functional form of these differences; four familiar methods are explained here. I- Binomial Theorem for Non-integral Exponents This is the method used in Section 1.8. A familiar form of the binomial theorem is (L42)* =1tar4 SOR) gy Me—ME=2) 2 2-3 Ifa is a nonnegative integer, the coefficients of the powers of z are the usual binomial coefficients, and the series truncates. However, if |2| <1, the series will converge for other values of a, particularly negative integers or fractions. Specifially, if a = —}, crsrinan se CIN BLD go MIN B/2N8/0) =1-1,43,2_5,3 =1 patee wet v7) an When x = — (3): this becomes : Yoae oe -gatga tetChopter 1 Similarly, when a = 1/2, (ite) =14d a-}e 24 atte and i-3 In the limit v g:seqrt(1-(v/c)°2); >series(g,v-0,8); >series(1/g,v=0,8); In the “series” commands above, the last argument is the order to which the series are calculated, and may be changed as desired (default is 6). Since the functions considered are even in u/c, the order is not the same as the number of terms. 1-1: Allelse being the same, including the rates of the chemical reactions that govern our brains and bodies, relativisitic phenomena would be more conspicuous if the speed of light were smaller. If we could attain the absolute speeds obtainable to us in the universe as it is, but with the speed of light being smaller, we would be able to move at speeds that would correspond to larger fractions of the speed of light, and in such instances relativistic effects would be more conspicuous.4 Chapter 1 1-2: The beam consists of different electrons and is not a single particle moving across the screen. The electrons are “aimed” at the screen in different directions, but the rate at which this aiming angle can be changed is not constrained by special relativity. A similar situation would be row of headlights far away which are lit and then extinguished quickly in order. ‘To a distant observer, this might appear to be a single light moving, and as there is no practical limit on the time between the lighting of successive headlights, this apparent single light could be seen to move with an arbitrarily high speed. 1-8: Even if the judges would allow it, the observers in the moving spaceship would measure a longer time, since they would see the runners being timed by clocks that appear to run slowly compared to the ship’s clocks. Actually, when the effects of length contraction are included (discussed in Section 1.4 and Appendix 1), the runner’s speed may be greater than, less than, or the same as that measured by an observer on the ground. 1-4: We'll need to assume that the car on the earth is moving much slower than the speed of light, so that the speed of the spacecraft relative to the moving car is also 0.700c. In Equation (1.3), t = 40 min is the time measured by the observer in the moving spacecraft, while to is the time that the driver has noticed to elapse in the course of the trip, and so to anfi-¥ = (40.0 min) /1 — (0.700)? = 28.6 min. 1-5: Note that the nonrelativistic approximation is not valid, as u/c = 2/3. (a) See Example 1.1. In Equation (1.3), with t representing both the time measured by A and the time as measured in A’s frame for the clock in B’s frame to advance by to, we need 7 trtont(i- yi =*(1- 1- (3) = ¢(0.255) = 1.008, from which t = 3.93, (b) A moving clock always seems to run slower. In this problem, the time ¢ is the time that observer A measures as the time that B’s clock takes to record a time change of ty.Relativity 5 1-6: See Example 1.1 and Problem 1-5. In Equation (1.3), with ¢ representing the elapsed time measured by an observer on the earth and the time as measured on the earth for the clock in the airplane to advance by to, This can be solved for t with a calculator or with sufficient precision, but for a ten-place calculator, the quantity 4/1 — % is indistinguishable from 1. Using any of the techniques outlined at the beginning of this chapter, vl i a~oew i tase 13. 1-1-3 5 y= 8.00x 10", so that 100s 12 t= Epp ic Tgsas = 2.00 102? 5, which is about 63 millennia. 1-7: From Equation (1.3), for the time t on the earth to correspond to twice the time ty elapsed on the ship’s clock, v= Bee B roo x 10° m/s) = 2.60 x 10° m/s, retaining three significant figures. 1-8: From Equation (1.3), the time difference will be t-t=t (0-8 : As in Problem 1-6 above, the ratio of the average speed of the spacecraft to the speed of light is too small for this to be handled by standard calculators, and the same approximation may be necessary. Then, _t vy? _ (86,4005) (1.08 x 10¢ m/s \? _ am totam 5 (5) = ee ee aE) = 865% 108 = 56, (The use of a solar day instead of a siderial day is arbitrary in this problem.)6 . Chapter 1 1-9: The lifetime of the particle is to, and the distance the particle will travel is, from Equation (1.3), pg Ute — (0:99)(2.008 x 10° ms)(1.00 x 10-78) _ 949 5 Vi-e 7 — (0.89) to two significant figures. 1-10: Using either Equation (1.6) with v = 0.97¢ or Equation (1.8) with v= —0.97, the pulses are received at a rate of fiz 1-097 v= TTA = (.00x 10 puses/e) fF oF = 3:9 * 10° pulses/s. 1-11: See Example 1.3; for the intermediate calculations, note that where the sign convention for v is that of Equation (1.8), with v positve for an approaching source and v negative for a receding source. For this problem, v __(1.50.x 104 km/s)(10° m/km) _ e (2.998 x 108 m/s) 7 = five e [T$00500 _ A= TZ ofe = 502m) =o 9500 = 978 am 1-12: Using v = 3 vo in Equation (1.6) and squaring, 4_1~(v/e) 9~ TF (u/c) 0.0500, ‘80 that which is solved for If, instead, Equation (1.8) is used, the corresponding calculations lead to 4/9)-1 8 + (479) °° 13% the negative of the previous result; this is of course consistent, in that Equation (1.8) uses the convention that o negative v corresponds to a receding source.Relativity 7 1-13: This problem may be done in several ways, all of which need to use the fact that when the frequencies due to the classical and relativistic effects are found, those frequencies, while differing by 1 Hz, will both be eulficiently close to UY = 10° Hz 80 that vp could be used for an approximation to either. In Equation (1.4), we have » = 0 and V = —u, where u is the speed of the spacecraft, moving away from the earth (V <0). In Equation (1.6), we have v =u (or v = —u in Equation (1.8)). The classical and relativistic frequencies, v, and respectively, are Tewujey? OVTE (u/e) ~ TF (ule) ‘The last expression for v; is motivated by the derivation of Equation (1.6), which essentially incorporates the classical result (counting the number of ticks), and allows expression of the ratio Ye A= (u?, 2)" Use of the above forms for the frequencies allows the calculation of the ratio Ay _ ver Vi-W/A}_ ltz _ 49-0 » % 1+ (u/c) 1H Attempts to solve this equation exactly are not likely to be met with success, and even numerical solutions would require a higher precision than is commonly available. However, recognizing that the numerator 1— ,/1— (u*/c*) is of the form that can be approximated using the methods outlined at the beginning of this chapter, we can use 1 — /1— (u#/e) = (1/2)(u?/c?). ‘The denominator will be indistinguishable from 1 at low speed, with the result 2 4 =1079 z 10°, nie which is solved for u= 2x 10-9 c= 1.34 x 104 m/s = 13.4 km/s. Similar to what was done at the beginning of this chapter, the Taylor series for the desired function of u can be found by a computer. The Maple commands would be8 Chapter 1 >tr=(1-sqrt (1-0"2))/(1+w) 5 >series(f,u=0); (note that for these commands, “u” represents the ratio of the recessional speed to the speed of light). Mention had been made above of the limited possibility of a numerical solution. Depending on which release of Maple is used, a numerical solution is indeed possible. Maple 7 will solve the given equation with the command >solve(f=1E-9) ; with the results 0004472235955, —.00004472035955 for u/c (Maple will give both positive and negative roots, and we need to recognize which we want, as well as the limitation on precision). 1-14: In this situation, there are two fequencies that are ler-shifted. ‘The original frequency is received at the speeding car as / = 1» } aa and the police car receives the reflected signal at elt w/a "T= fy The frequency difference detected at the police car is Z = 2v/e) Aya vary = i's useful to find v __ (150 km/h)(3.600 (m/s)/(Im/h)) 7 e- (2.998 x 10* m/s) 1.80 x 10°°, a sufficiently small ratio that the denominator in the above expression for Av may be set to 1; then, Av =2(15 x 10° Hz)(1.80 x 107°) = 5.4 x 10* Hz = 54 kHz. 1-15: The transverse Doppler effect corresponds to a direction of motion of the light source that is perpendicular to the direction from it to the observer; the angle @ = £4 (or +90°), so cos® = 0, and v = 9 V/1—09/e, which is Equation (1.5).Relativity 9 For a receding source, @ = x (or 180°), and cos @ = —1. ‘The given expression becomes ;-& 1-2 fit vantL—# aw 7 = 1=ve = f= = | : ree fit fast t+/e which is Equation (1.6). For an approaching source, @ = 0, cos@ = 1, and the given expression becomes uw v v ven Wire _, Vitevi se _,, [reve =u = = Mae ate ole which is Equation (1.7). 1-16: (a) Using the hint, with z = becomes This is Equation (1.4) with V = 0, and, if v > 0, represents an observer approaching asource. For a source approaching an observer, » = 0 in Equation (1.4). and setting V =v (not the same “v” in the two usages) to match the notation of Equation (1.7); using the same approximation as above, i v yews (1+2). e (b) The formulas will be those obtained by replacing v by —v; the needed approximation would now have z = 2, so 1/(1+v/c) ~ 1—v/c, and similar (almost identical) calculations give vem (1 1-17: The astronaut’s proper length (height) is 6 ft, and this is what any observer in the spacecraft will measure. From Equation (1.9), an observer on the earth would measure L=lo (6 ft) Vi— (0.90)? = 2.6 ft.10 Chopter 1 1-18: Solving Equation (1.9) for Lo, . __ 13m L Io= = 33 = i6m. f_ vi- (oP a 4-19: The time will be the length as measured by the observer divided by the speed, or F L_Foy!— a _ (1.00m) YI- 1007 _ 7 t= =a = (000)(2.908 x 108 may = 282% 10 = 1-20: Solving Equation (1.9) for v in terms of L and Lo, veeqf1— (2) = esos 108 n/a) 3 = .60 x 10° m/s. ‘The time it takes the meter stick to pass is the observed length divided by the speed, or 0.500 m = ye0% 108 m/s = 1.92 x 10-°s. 1-21: If the antenna has a length L’ as measured by an observer on the spacecraft (L’ is not either L or Lo in Equation (1.9)), the projection of the antenna onto the spacecraft will have a length L' cos(10°), and the projection onto an axis perpendicular to the spacecraft’s axis will have a length L' sin(10°). To an observer on the earth, the length in the direction of the spacecraft’s axis will be contracted as described by Equation (1.9), while the length perpendicular to the spacecraft’s motion will appear unchanged. The angle as seen from the earth will then be arctan | 2 sin(10°) I! cos(10°) i-3 ‘The generalization of the above is that if the angle is > as measured by an observer on the spacecraft, an observer on the earth would measure an angle 0 given by tang = 124,Relativity i 1-22: (The unit “ly” for “light-year”, although officially “deprecated”, will be used for the solution to this problem.) (a) Twin A, who is always moving, finds the entire distance to be 2x (12 ly) V1 — (0.6) = 19.2 ly, and hence will measure the time of the journey to be (19.2 ly)/(0.6c) = 32 yr, and will send out 32 signals. Twin B will measure the time for the round trip to be 2 x (12 ly)/(0.6c) = 40 yr and so will send out 40 signals. (b) Each twin will receive every signal the other sent, and so twin A will receive 32 signals and twin B will receive 40. Neither twin will receive these signals at a uniform rate (see Example 1.4), but the total number of signals sent by one twin will be the number of signals received by the other. 1-23: The age difference will be the difference in the times that each measures the round trip to take, or i aenale (1 1-3)= ZF (1- Vi= 05) = 5 yr. * 1-24: (a) From Equation (1.16), the ratio of the momenta will be Pose _ Me (0.40)/V1— 0.4 =o, Poze me(0.2c)/f1—(0.2)? ~ ” slightly more than 2, the classical value. (b) A similar calculation gives Pose _ me (0.80)/VI= ORF _ 4 og Pose m.(0.4c)//1—(04)? noticeably more than the classical ratio. 1-25: It is convenient to maintain the relationship from Newtonian mechanics, in that a force on an object changes the object’s momentum; symbolically, F= dp should still be valid. In the absence of forces, momentum should be conserved in any inertial frame, and the conserved quantity is p = ymv, not mv.12 Chapter 1 1-26: Taking the magnitudes of both sides of Equation (1.16) and squaring, ‘This expression certainly may be solved for v? and rearranged to give the result, but a somewhat easier method is to add m?c? to both sides, and put the right side ‘over a common denominator to obtain 2, P4+me= we. l-a Dividing by m?c? gives the desired result. (This problem clearly anticipates the material of Section 1.9, but the above solution does not rely on the relation between relativistic energy and momentum.) 1-27: For a given mass M, the ratio of the mass liberated to the mass energy is 08 3/ Mx (5.4 x 108 J/kg) _ i TEx (0.998 x 10° mje)? ~ 90% 10". 1-28: In order to melt the ice, heat must be added; to melt a mass M of ice, an amount of heat ML; must be absorbed by the ice, where Ly is the latent heat of fusion of the ice, 334 kJ/kg. This added energy becomes mass energy of the melted ice; if the mass of the water (the melted ice) increases by AM, then ML, =AM@, or Ms = = 2.69 x 10"! keg. ‘This would be a square volume of ice 1 km thick and about 16.5 km on a side. 1-29: If the kinetic energy KE = Ey = mec?, then E = 2me? and Equa- tion (23) reduces to (7 = 2 in the notation of Section 1.7). Solving for v, v3 2.60 x 10° m/s.Relativity 13 1-30: At rest, the spacecraft has a mass of M, and the energy needed (the final kinetic energy) per unit mass is E-Me = 1 = = ? eae yz 1] = (2.998 x 10° m/s) lara rd = 1.16 x 107 J/kg. 1 __ [2KE __ [2(0.100 Mev)(1.602 x 10-19 J/ev) _ v= (= = eos x gy 1B 10° m/s. 2 Classically, Relativistically, solving Equation (1.23) for v as a function of KE, a tite 2)? _ me _\? vse f- (m2 ) weyt- (es) 7 3 =-y!-(teRemen): With KE/(m, c?) = (0.100 MeV)/(0.511 MeV) = 0.100/0.511, = 1.64 x 10° m/s. r 3 ‘v= (2,998 x 10° m/s)4/1— (aa) ‘The two speeds are comparable, but not the same; for larger values of the ratio of the kinetic and rest energies, larger discrepancies would be found. 1-32: Using Equation (1.22) in Equation (1.23) and solving for 3 o_ f(y fy - 5)” o7 BE) = E . Using the binomial theorem (as done in Section 1.8 and the beginning of this chapter), valid when (Eo/E) <1, Bs) 3) - wl- ale vin14 Chopter 1 For an algebraic alternative, Equations (1.22) and (1.23) may be combined and rearranged to give , 1- Ba (4 ‘)(0-2)= (2) : The condition E >> Ep will only be valid if v = c (but of course v < c), in which case (1+ 2) «2, 80 that v_ 1 (Eo\? 1 eat (PB), giving the same result. This result is often expressed as — eei- 3. 4-83: Using Equation (1.22) in Equation (1.23) and solving for 3 ve (2 ie e- With E = 21 Ep, that is, Es 1 1- (4) = 0.9989c. (This is consistent with the expression derived in Problem 1-32.) 1-34: (a) The kinetic energy of a particle in terms of the rest mass and the speed is found by using £ = Eo +KE in Equation (1.23) and solving for KE, giving 1 KE=m)c z Vi-g 80 for a particle of any (non-zero) mas =44, KEowe _ | Vi- roam KEo2e Vi- 20" which is comparable to, but larger than, the classical ratio of 4. (b) Similarly, ate KEosoe _ | VIZ OBOE = = 7.3, KEowe 1 __,|7"% Vi~ (40 almost twice the classical ratio of 4.Relativity 15 1-35: The difference in energies will be, from Equation (1.23), 1 1 med (a = (ale? acta] L 1 = (0511 Mev) Fe =@aysop 1 (1.2/5.0) to three significant figures. 0.294 MeV, 1-36: (a) Cerenkov radiation can be emitted if v > £. From Equation (1.20), or Equation (1.22), KE=me (see the solution to Problem 1-34 above). If v > £, 1 n KE> me? ro ome [apa], and so the minimum kinetic energy needed to emit Cerenkov radiation is KBgig= me [ae -1]. (b) Using n = 1.5 and me? = 511 keV in the above expressions, 15 Vasy=1 KEnmin = (511 keV) = | = 175 keV. 1-37: Using the expression in Equation (1).20 for the kinetic energy, the ratio of the two quantities is16 Chapter 1 Algebraically, this quantity is not equal to 1 except at v = 0. For low speeds, v € c, the quantity in square brackets is approximately +4 (see the text at the end of Section 1.8 or the beginning of this chapter), reflecting the fact that the classical and relativistic kinetic energies have the same form in the nonrelativistic limit. However, as v -+ c (or 7 —> 00), the expressions are not the same, even though both }yme? and KE =(7— 1) me? become infinitely large. ‘To see this explicitly, note thatthe ratio (—7) -+1 a 7 -+ co, 0 thatthe expression approaches 4 as v-+ c. This is consistent with setting v = c in the last expression on the right above. 1-38: ‘The straightforward use of Equation (1.24) in the form E? = mc + p’c? leads to a solution by straightforward algebra. Denote the initial electron momentum and energy as p; and E} and the common final momentum and energy of each particle as pz and E. These four quantitites are related by Equation (1.24), ER = (mme?)* + (pic)®, BF = (mec?) + (pac)? Conservation of momentum and energy are expressed as. Pi=4p, Ey +m? = 4B ‘There are four algebraic relations between the four unknown quantities p1, p2, Ey and E. These relations are not linear, but a solution is available by direct methods. Since we are interested in the initial electron energy F;, eliminating E will be advantageous. The last two of the above equations may be squared and combined as [:+m.2)? - ore?) = 16 [53 - @20)"] = 16 (mec)? Using the relation (Equation (1.24)) between Ey and p; to eliminate (pic)*, (Ey + m.c*)? = (Ey)? = 15 (mec*)’. Expanding the binomial and rearranging terms, noting that the E? terms cancel, 2E,m.2 =14(m.2)*, from which E,=Tmc and = KE=E,- mc =6m.c. The algebra involved, although not especially complicated, can be done using symbolic-manipulation programs. The commands for Maple (any release) are:Relativity 17 solve({e1,62,63,e4},{p-1,p-2,E.1,E.2}); (note that in the above, c = 1 has been used, and symbolic answers would be multiplied by c or c#). Depending on the release used, explicit answers for p, and 2 may or may not be given, but the needed answer F = 7m (and Ez = 2m) are obtained explicitly. A conceptually more advanced, but algebraically simpler method is to consider the collision in the center-of: momentum frame (which is nof the center-of-mass frame for relativistic or massless particles). To use this method, however, students should be familiar with the velocity addition formulas derived in Appendix I, especially Equation (1.49). If the incident electron has speed vp in the lab frame, both it and the target electron have speed v’ in the center-of-momentum frame. The advantage to this method is that in this frame, all of the particles are at rest after the collision. Therefore, each original electron must have had energy E’ = 2m.c? in the center-of momentum frame; in the center-of momentum frame each original electron had 7’ =2, and so” i. ‘The initial speed in the lab frame is obtained ¢ from Equation (1.49), with V! = v =v! = \/3/4e, which gives wo _ V8At V3 _ v3 _ [a8 c 1+@/) ~~ 7 Va’ Using this in Equation (1.23) gives Ey = Tmec?. 1-39: Measured from the original center of the box, so that the original position of the center of mass is 0, the final position of the center of mass is M L M L (F-) (+8)- (a+) (7-8) =0 Expanding the products and cancelling similar terms (44, mS), the result MS = mL is obtained. The distance $ is the product ut, where, as shown in the problem statement, v & E/Mc (approximate in the nonrelativistic limit M >> E/c?) and tx L/c. Then,18 Chapter 1 1-40: Using the basic SI unit conversions 1 V = 1J/C and 1 J = 1 kg-m?/s, 1MeV _ 10°(1.602 x 10-! C)(1 kg-m?/s?-C) 7 20 a7 (2.508 10° m/e)? ea Ts Similarly, Ve 10° (1. 19 -m?/s?-C) inev 7 ee = 5.344 x 1072? kg-m/s. 1-41: To cross the galaxy in a matter of minutes, the proton must be highly relativistic, with v = c (but v < ¢, of course). The energy of the proton will be E = Eo7, where Ep is the proton’s rest energy and y = 1/ 1-2. However, 7} from Equation (1.9), is the same as the ratio Lo/L, where L is the diameter of the galaxy in the proton’s frame of reference, and for the highly-relativistic proton L = ct, where ¢ is the time in the proton’s frame that it takes to cross the galaxy. Combining, B= yy Fo wv By 22 x (10? ov x (3x 107 8/yr) = 10" eV. 4-42: The photon’s energy will be pe, where in this case p is the momentum of the proton whose kinetic energy is known. Expressing pe in terms of KE and MpC? = Eo using Equation (1.24), 7 Veer Ey mg = 2 f+) -1 = (938 MeV) (i + 1) - —1= 137 MeV. This proton is sufficiently slow that a nonrelativistic calculation, = Vim, KEc= \/2m,c?KE = V2E)KE = ¥2(038 MeV)(10.0 MeV) = 137 MeV is adequate. 1-43: Taking magnitudes in Equation (1.16), Mev _ (0.511 MeV/c?)(0.600c) _ = i aay — 7 0588 Move‘Relativity 19 1-44: From Equation (1.23), 2 _ (0.938 GeV/c?) B= ae = COB SO EIE = 2.15 Gev, ;_% ~— vi- (000 7 es and KE = B — mpc? = 2.15 GeV — 0.938 GeV = 1.21 GeV. From Equation (1.16), the magnitude of the momentum is (0.938 GeV /c?)(0.900¢) Tee amor Of course, anticipating Problem 1-46, = 1.94 GeV/c. peEta 2 2 = (2.15 GeV/c)(0.900) = 1.94 GeV/o. 2 1-45: When the kinetic energy of an electron is equal to its rest energy, the total energy is twice the rest energy, and Equation (1.24) becomes Amict = mic + p72, or p= V3(m.¢) Je = V3(511 keV/c) = 885 keV/c. The result of Problem 1-29 could be used directly; y = 2, v = (v¥3/2)c, and Equation (1.17) gives p= V3m.c, as above. 1-46: From Equation (1.23), B = ymc?, and taking the magnitudes in Equa- tion (1.17), p = ym, the result follows immediately for a massive particle. For a photon, v = c and E = pe, and again the result is immediate. 1-47: Solving Equation (1.23) for the speed v in terms of the rest energy Ep and the total energy E, numerically 2.888 x 10° m/s. (The result of Problem 1-32 does not give an answer accurate to three significant figures.) ‘The value of the speed may be substituted into Equation (1.16) (or the result of Problem 1-46), or Equation (1.24) may be solved for the magnitude of the momentum, (E]eP* — (BoJo}? = (8.500 GeV/c)? — (0.93828 GeV Je)? = 3.372 GeV/c. (Although the final result is not affected, a more precise value for the proton rest mass, taken from the front endpapers, was used in the last calculation.)20 Chapter 1 1-48: From Equation (1.24), E= (m2)? + (pe? = /((0.940 GeV/c?) 22)? + ((1.200 GeV/c)e)? = 1.52 GeV. 1-49: From E = me? + KE and Equation (1.24), (me + KB)? = mich + pe. Expanding the binomial, cancelling the m?c* term, and solving for m, (pe)? KE? _ (335 MeV)? ~ (62 MeV)? 2@KE 2e (62 MeV) ‘The particle's speed may be found any number of ways; a very convenient result is that of Problem 1-46, giving = 874 MeV/e. m= p_. pe 835 MeV 5B °me@+Ke 874 MeV +62 MeV ‘There’s a neat algebraic “trick” that may be used in this and many similar problems. (In what follows, factors of c will not be included.) Essentially, the problem reduces mathematically to solving the two equations E=m+KE, E?=m?+p? = 0.36.c. for E and m, given known values for p and KE. Rewrite the two equations as E-m=KE, E?-m?=(E-m)(E+m)=p* and substitute the first into the second to obtain B+ m = & (the KE = 0 case is trivial). Adding this to Bm = KE, and then subtracting the same relation gives as obtained above. 1-50: (a) Solving Equation (1.24) for m, ive =e? = 5vE0 GeV} = (1.45 GeV /e)e)? = 3.73 Gev/c?. (b) The mass will not depend on the frame, so Equation (1.24) may be applied directly to give (ne)? + (pe)? = (8.73 GeV)? + (2.00 GeV)? = 4.23 GeV. m ERelativity a1 1-81: The given observation that the two explosions occur at the same place to the second observer means that 2’ = 0 in Equation (1.41), and so the second observer is moving at a speed = 5.00 x 10? m/s with respect to the first observer. Inserting this into Equation (1.44), 2 a \- 3B (iy? = Ga cose 3 | oa 00 x 107 )2 7 = (2.00m5)/1- Oe ee = 1.97 nis. (Por this calculation, the approximation ¥/1— (z/ct)? + 1— (2?/2.c?#?) is valid to three significant figures.) An equally valid method, and a good check, is to note that when the relative speed of the observers (5.00 x 10” m/s) has been determined, the time interval that the second observer measures should be that given by Equation (1.3) (but be careful of which time it t, which is to). Algebraically and numerically, the different methods give the same result. 1-52: In this situation, the time ¢ in Equation (1.48) may be taken to be 0, so that v = —c?¢’/z’, where the minus sign indicates that the second observer is moving away from the first observer relative to the direction in which 2’ is measured as positive. Also, because t = 0 in Equation (1.41), 2! = 2/: (which is the 2 » 50 that same as Equation (1.9)). This is solved for —v pa 22 h-(2y - 160 km (i) rr 2) ~ 2998x108 m/s 3) = 4.16 x 1074s = 0.416 ms. Note for Problems 1-51 and 1-52: In both Problems 1-51 and 1-52, the intermediate calculation of the relative speed v, either symbolically or numerically, can be avoided by use of Spacetime Intervals, introduced in Appendix II and Equation (1.52); specifically, 22 — (ct)? = 2? —(ct’)?. (1.52)22 Chapter 1 In Problems 1-61 and 1-52, three of the four terms z, 2’, t and t/ have been given, and the fourth is required. Also, in this form, the distinction between primed and unprimed frames is not crucial, so long as the frames are identified consistently. Signs are not explicit. In Problem 1-51, = 2.00 ms, z = 100 km, 2’ = 0 and ¢ is required; from the above, 3 t= rya-()° 7 200) 3 (G55 inane) eee In Problem 1-52, t = 0, z = 100 km, x’ = 160 km and ¢’ is required. Then, 3 fot 1- (2) : z as found previously. 1-53: (a) A convenient choice for the origins of both the unprimed and primed coordinate systems is the point, in both space and time, where the ship receives the signal. Then, in the unprimed frame (given here as the frame of the fixed stars, ‘one of which may be the source), the signal was sent at a time t = —r/c, where r is the distance from the source to the place where the ship receives the signal, and the minus sign merely indicates that the signal was sent before it was received. ‘Take the direction of the ship's motion (assumed parallel to its axis) to be the positive z-direction, so that in the frame of the fixed stars (the unprimed frame), the signal arrives at an angle 6 with respect to the positive z-direction. In the unprimed frame, x = rcos@ and y = rsin@. From Equation (1.41), ood (fe) a= / * a and y' =y=rsin@. Then, tong’ = 4% 26 __ ana # F (cos0+ (w/a) /f-% sing 1-4 @ =arctan wad Ce |Relativity 23 (b) From the form of the result of part (a), it can be seen that the ntimerator of the term in square brackets is less than sin@, and the denominator is greater than cos@, and so tan@’ < tan9 and 6’ < 6 when v # 0. Looking out of a porthole, the sources, including the stars, will appear to be in directions closer to the direction of the ship’s motion than they would for a ship with v= 0. As v—+c, &’ ~+ 0, and all stars appear to be almost on the ship’s axis (farther forward in the field of view). 1-54: For this situation, V! = 0.500 in Equation (1.49) for both fragments. For the one that moves backwards, v = ~0.600c, and so Ve <9 -_0:500= 0.600 = = 7 (—0.600)(0.500) For the fragment the moves forward, v = 0.500c and 0.500 + 0.500 T+ (0.500)(0.500) ~ 0800e- Note that for the forward-moving fragment, for which a classical calculation would give a speed of c, the result is less than c, as it must be. =—-0.143¢. Vz =e 1-55: (a) If the man on the moon sees A approaching with speed v = 0.800¢, ‘then the observer on A will see the man in the moon approaching with speed v = 0.800c. The relative velocities will have opposite directions, but the relative speeds will be the same. The speed with which B is seen to approach A, to an observer in A, is then 0.800 + 0.900 1+ (0.800)(0.900) (b) Similarly, the observer on B will see the man on the moon approaching with speed 0.900, and the apparent speed of A, to an observer on B, will be 0.900 + 0.800 Te (os00y asa) © = 09886: (Note that Equation (1.49) is unchanged if Vj and v are interchanged.) ce = 0.988¢. 1-56: To the observer at rest in the laboratory, the kinetic energy of the electron is, from Equation (1.21) and Equation (1.23), KE=E-m?=mc 3 ae = (0.511 Mev) | ——1____. - | = 0.341 Mev. 7 = (0.800)24 Chapter 1 ‘The moving observer will see the speed of the electron to be __-0.50040.800 _ e = 14 (—0.500)(0.800) ~ 500, 50 KE=E-m?=me 1-1 vis = (0.511 MeV) Lecter —1) =0.079 Mev. =Chapter 2 - Particle Properties of Waves 2-1: Planck's constant gives a measure of the energy at which quantum effects are observed. If Planck’s constant had a smaller value, while all other physical quantities, such as the speed of light, remained the same, quantum effects would be seen for phenomena that occur at higher frequncies or shorter wavelengths. That is, quantum phenomena would be less conspicuous than they are now. 2-2: In Equation (2.4), besides replacing the frequency v with v(X) = ¢/A, the frequency interval dv must be replaced with dv = dd. Because increasing frequency corresponds to decreasing wavelength, dv and dA have opposite signs, and it is both convenient and conventional to express the radiation formula as u(v) dv = u(v(d)) sl dd. With x =~ then, rh (ey u(r) dy = = (erty F =O gay =v(Q)a, 1 where w= Sh Ca (the prime on u’(A) is used to distinguish from u(v); they are different functions). A plot of u’(A) is shown on the next page. The plot has the same sort of shape as those in Figure 2.6, but with some important differences. First, while the plots in Figure 2.6 are approximately quadratic as v -+ 0 (corresponding to the Raleigh- Jeans formula), as A — 0 the radiation density per unit wavelength u/(A) does not approximate any polynomial. It can be shown that fvu'(A) + 0 for any n. In mathematical language, u'(A) is not analytic at A = 0. This flatness of the curve near \ = 0 is shown in the plot on the left below (next page). ‘The curves in Figure 2.6 behave as as ~ v*e~"”/#T for large values of v (that is, v > kT/h), whereas for A > he/kT,, u'(d) ~ A~4, as shown on the plot on the right below (next page). 2526 Chapter 2 ‘The upper figure is u'(A), in arbitrary units (the horizontal scale is the value of the dimensionless parameter AKT/he). The figure on the left below is an expansion of u’(A) near A = 0 (0 < ART /hc < 0.14), showing the flatness of the curve there. ‘The figure on the right below shows both u'(A) (lower curve) and 1/A* (upper curve) for larger values of A (2 < AKT/he < 4).Particle Properties of Waves 27 2-3: No; the relation is given in Equation (2.8) and Equation (2.9), KE mux =hv-9=h (V~%), 80 that while KEmax is a linear function of the frequency v of the incident light, KEmax is not proportional to the frequency. 2-4: Particles are localized in that they occupy singular coordinates in space, giving rise to the terminology “point particles.” Any massive particle has a single velocity vector at any time, and this vector is changed by the application of a force at the particle’s location. Particles may be considered collectively, but the behavior of any collection of particles must take into account the internal forces that the particles exert on each other, if such forces exist. ‘Waves are spread out in space, and the motion of a wave is determined by both the nature of the medium in which the wave is propagating and how the wave itself varies in both space and time. The medium through which the wave moves may be composed of particles (as in water or sound waves), and the forces that these fluids exert on each other can characterize the motion of the wave. However, waves (such as light or de Broglie matter waves) need not have a medium composed of other particles through which to travel. The superposition of two or more waves is a resultant wave. In the situations where waves may be characterized by a definite frequency and wavelength, as in the case of monochromatic light, interference and diffraction effects are commonly observed. These effects could be as complicated as a hologram or as subtle as the colors of a soap bubble, but they are readily observable and readily explained in terms of wave phenomena. The particle nature of light, which considers the behavior of individual photons, requires observation on a much smaller scale, as in the photoelectric effect or the Compton effect (discussed in Section 2.7). 2-5: From Equation (2.11), __ 1.240 x 10-§ eV-m B= 010m NTT eV- Or, in terms of joules, = (6.626 x 10-* J-s) (2.998 x 10® m/s) 7 -19 50010 me = 2.84 x 10719 J.28 Chapter 2 2-6: Solving Equation (2.11) for the wavelength A, ya RE. 1240 x 10-6 Vm eo 4 m = 12. SF = Sopra 24 x 107 m = 124 fn (1 fm = 1x 10-15 m= 1 femtometer). The frequency may be found from = 2.42 x 10” Hz, EB ___100x 10%ev h 4.136 x 10-5 eV. 2-7: The number of photons per unit time is the total energy per unit time (the power) divided by the energy per photon, or x 10° J/s Ts) (680 x 10° Hz) 1.72 x 10° photons/s. 2-8: ‘The number of photons will be the total energy detected, E = 10-8 J, * divided by the energy per photon, or E _EA (10-8 3) (600 x 10-® m) (hod = Tre ~ (6606 x 10-™ Je) (2.908 X 10" maja) ~ 2 PROEODE 2-9: (a) The number of photons per unit time per unit area will be the energy per unit time per unit area (the power per unit area, P/A), divided by the energy per photon, or (PIA) NA 10? W/m? ___ hy (6.626 x 10-* J-s) (5.0 x 10 Hz) = 4.2 x 10” photons/(s-m?). () With the reasonable assumption that the sun radiates uniformly in all directions, all points at the same distance from the sun should have the same flux of energy, even if there is no surface to absorb the energy. The total power is then (P/A) 4m R4_g = (1.4 x 10° W/m?) 4m (1.5 x 10" m)? = 4.0 x 10° W,Particle Properties of Waves 20 where Re-s is the mean Earth-Sun distance, commonly abbreviated as “1 AU,” for “astronomical unit.” The number of photons emitted per second is this power divided by the energy per photon, or 4.0 x 107° J/s See GH KIO Fa) (G0 X TOM Hay = 12 * 10" photons/s. (©) The photons are all moving at the same speed c, and in the same direction (spreading is not significant on the ecale of the earth), and so the number of photons per unit time per unit area is the product of the number per unit volume and the speed. Using the result from part (a), 4.2 x 10% photons/(s-m?) _ 2.908 x 10* m/s 4 x 10"? photons/m*. 2-10: ‘The number of photons will be the total energy delivered divided by the energy per photon, and the energy in each pulse is the product of the power and the duration of each pulse, or 0 Pe_ Pt _Ptr_ (0.50 W) (632 x 10-? m) =3.2x10" photons. "BE hhefx~ he ~ (6.626 x 10-5 J-s) (2.998 x 10° m/s) 2-11: Expressing Equation (2.9) in terms of \ = ¢/v and A» = ¢/vp, and performing the needed algebraic manipulations, he A= Gagne 7 * [+e (1.5 eV)(230 x 10-® m)]~* (2i0x10-FeVem) | = 160mm = 230 nm [i + Note that in the above calcuation, Ao was used twice, once expressed in terms of nanometers and once in terms of meters, as convenient. Of course, whether or not the extra algebra used to save one celculational step is an advantage is subjective. 2-12: From Equation (2.9), KEmax = h (v ~ v9) = (4.136 x 10715 eV-s) (0.4 x 10! Hz) = 1.65 eV, keeping extra significant figures.30 Chapter 2 2-13: The maximum wavelength would correspond to the least energy that would allow an electron to be emitted, so the incident energy wold be equal to the work function, and where the value of ¢ for sodium is taken from Table 2.1. From Equation (2.8), 1.240 x 10-8 eV-m 200 x 10-? m e KEmax = hv —9= AE ~2.3eV =3.9eV. 2-14: The light will eject electrons, giving the sphere a positive net charge. ‘When the net charge becomes high enough, the electrons emitted will not have enough kinetic energy to overcome the electrostatic attraction to the sphere. This occurs when KEmax = €Vo, where Vo is the sphere’s electrical potential. Then, 6 Vo= leo -2 (eee sev) =15V, where the work function for silver is from Table 2.1 Note that the value of the electron charge canceled the “e” from the units “eV”, giving a result in volts. 2-16: Because only 0.10% of the light creates photoelectrons, the available power is (1.0 x 10-) (1.5 x 10-* W) = 1.5 x 10-® W. The current will be the product of the number of photoelectrons per unit time and the electron charge, or P Pr '1.5 x 1078 J/s) (400 x 10-* m) BW hea he = af (240 ie Vm) ) 08 a. In this calculation, note that the units of the result are J/(V-s), and that because one volt is one joule per coulomb, the answer has units of coulombs per second, or amperes. I 2-16: (a) At the extinction voltage, the product eV will be the maximum Kinetic energy that photoelectrons attain, so 1 1 (1.240 x 10-6 eV-m V=sE-9)=5 (ee ~250ev) = 0.60 V (a significant figure is lost in the subtraction). (b) The electrons are nonrelativistic, so from mv? = KE, __ [2KE __ [2(0.60 eV) (1.60 x 10-1 J/eV) _ 5 PV (6.1095 x 10-37 egy 48% 10° m/s.Particle Properties of Waves 31 2-17: Denoting the two energies and frequencies with subscripts 1 and 2, KEmx1 =h—-¢, KEmax2 = hg - ¢. Subtracting to eliminate the work function ¢ and dividing by 11 — v2, — KEmux2 — KE moet 19.7 eV - 0.52 eV E a fo ONO —8 5x10 He SEI evs to the allowed two significant figures. Keeping an extra figure gives h=4.14 x 10715 eV-a = 6.64 x 107" J-s. ‘The work function ¢ may be obtained by substituting the above result into either of the above expressions relating the frequencies and the energies, yielding ¢ = 3.0 eV to the same two significant figures, or the equations may be solved by rewriting them as KEmaxil2 =hute—$i2, KEmax24i = hizo, subtracting to eliminate the product hy v2 and dividing by 1 ~ v2 to obtain KEmax,2¥1 — KEmax,1 ¥2 wy -% (19.7 €V)(8.5 x 10! Hz) ~ (0.52 eV) (12.0 x 10" Hz) _ (12.0 x 104 Hz — 8.5 x 101 Hz) Ti o= OeV. (This last calculation, while possibly more cumbersome than direct substitution, reflects the result of solving the system of equations using a symbolic- manipulation program; using such a program for this problem is, of course, a case of “swatting a fly with a sledgehammer”.) 2-18: Solving Equation (2.9) for A, and using v = ¢/2, 175 x 10-° m — =A 738 eV. 3.998 x 10° m/s (1.7 eV 45.4 eV) = 4.14 x 107 eV-s, a = 2 WB + 4) = keeping an extra significant figure; in terms of joules, this is 6.36 x 10-4 J-s, again keeping an extra significant figure.32 Chapter 2 2-19: Consider the proposed interaction in the frame of the electron initially at rest. The photon's initial momentum is pp = Eo/c, and if the electron were to attain all of the photon’s momentum and energy, the final momentum of the electron must be pe = po = p, the final electron kinetic energy must be KE = Eo = po, and 80 the final electron energy is Ee = pc-+ mec”. However, for any electron we must have E2 = (pc)? + (m.c2)*. Equating the two expressions for E2, E2 = (po)? + (meet)? = (pe-+ mec)? = (pe)? +2 (pe) (mec!) + (mec?)?, or 0=2 (pc) (mec?) This is only possible if p = 0, in which case the photon had no initial momentum and no initial energy, and hence could not have existed. To see the same result without using as much algebra, the electron’s final kinetic energy is VPotmid— mc pe for nonzero p. An easier alternative is to consider the interaction in the frame where the electron is at rest after absorbing the photon. In this frame, the final energy is the rest energy of the electron, m,c’, but before the interaction, the electron would have been moving (to conserve momentum), and hence would have had more energy than after the interaction, and the photon would have had positive energy, so energy could not be conserved. 2-20: ‘The x-rays with the minimum wavelength will have the largest possible energy, which is the product of the applied voltage and the electron charge e. The applied voltage is then 2-21: For the highest frequency, the electrons will acquire all of their kinetic energy from the accelerating voltage, and this energy will appear as the electro- magnetic radiation emitted when these electrons strike the screen. The frequency of this radiation will be a (1e)(10x30°V) 9 4 soit, G.136 x 10 eV-5) v= h which corresponds to x-rays.Particle Properties of Waves 33 2-22: From Equation (2.13), with n = 1 for the smallest angle, the distance between the atomic planes is x 0.30 nm 4= Fund ~ Tein (28.45) ~ 0920 2-23: Solving Equation (2.13) for @ with n = 1, asin (73) =o (soso) 2-24: The atomic spacing can be found by considering each atom to have the average mass of a sodium and a chlorine atom, so that the volume of each cube whose comers are adjacent lattice points is the average mass divided by the density, leading to d? = Maye/p. As an alternative, each cube in the lattice has eight comers, four occupied by sodium atoms and four by chlorine atoms. Each atom has one-eighth of its mass in a given lattice cube, so the total mass in each cube is half of a sodium atom and half of a chlorine atom, giving the same result. The atomic spacing is then al [io +Mc1) ay 7 [ss x 107% kg +2.16 x 10-2° kg) | us i ? > 2.16 x 10° kg/m? = 2.82 x 107? m = 0.282 nm. 9°. Extra Expressions for Compton Effect Problems Many of the problems from this section of the text involve the recoil direction of the electron in the Compton effect. A commonly-occurring relation is obtained from the two displayed equations preceding Equation (2.18); pe cosO = hy —hi/ cose pesind = hy sing. Dividing the second by the first yields tong sind sing sing v—v cosd (v/v’)—cosd (N/A) — cose Rewriting Y/A = (A+ AA) /A= 1+ (AA/A) gives sing (QX/A) + (= cos 8)" Further algebraic and trigonometric manipulations are possible, and will be demon- strated as appropriate for the specific situations. tan@ =34 Chapter 2 2-25: From Equation (2.15), 23 ke a 2 7 (2.998 x 10° m/s) (1.1 x 10-%* kg-m/s) = 50 x10! He, (6.626 x 10-4 J-8) 2-26: A proton with this kinetic energy is nonrelativistic, and its momentum is given by p? = 2mKE. The energy of a photon with this momentum is pe=cV2mKE = 2 (me) KE = y/2 (038.3 MeV) (10 MeV) = 140 MoV to two significant figures. 2-27: Following the steps that led to Equation (2.22), but with a sodium atom instead of an electron, : h (6.626 x 10-4 J.5 = 7 17 Miwa ~ (998% 10° ia/a) (G82 x 10- ig) = OSX 1m, Ac,Na = or 5.8 x 10-° nm, which is much less than 0.1 nm. (Here, the rest mass Mya = 3.82 x 10-76 kg was taken from Problem 2-24.) 2-28: From Equation (2.23), X =A-+Ac(1 — cosg) = 55.8 pm + (2.426 pm)(1 — cos 46°) = 56.5 pm. 2-29: Solving Equation (2.23) for A, the wavelength of the x-rays in the direct beam, =X —Ag(1 — cosg) = 2.2 pm — (2.426 pm)(1— cos 45°) = 1.5 pm to the given two significant figures. 2-30: The energy imparted to the electron must be the energy lost by the photon, and because the energy of the photon is proportional to its frequency, the energy lost is AE = hAv = (6.626 x 10-* J-s) (0.3 x 10° Hz) = 2 x 107° J to the one signigicant figure available from Av. Using h = 4.136 x 10-15 eV-s gives AE = 1.2 eV (keeping an extra significant figure).Particle Properties of Waves 35 2-31: Rewriting Equation (2.23) in terms of frequencies, with A = ¢/v and N =c/v, and with cos 90° = 0, c_e vrptre and solving for v/ gives 1, dc] i 2.426 x 10-9? m]~* _ 19 va [}+% - xan t Peres ee The above method avoids the intermediate calculation of wavelengths. 2-32: ‘The most direct way to find the initial photon energy is to use Equa- tion (2.20); with KE = hy —hv/ and $= 180° for the maximum electron energy, mo KE = 2(hv)(hv/) = 2(hv)(hv — KE). ‘This is a quadratic equation in hv, and may be solved by either completing the square or by use of the quadratic formula. Using the latter method, (hv)? = (KE) (hv) - KEme?/2 = 0, which is solved for hu= 3 [KE4 VEE? T2KEma| VEE +2KEme] = +r WB fig fi 2Be], where the positive sign for the square root has been chosen to give a positive value for hv. Then, hy = (25 keV) [rye 2D = M1 kev. Any attempt to use Equation (2.23) directly must lead to the same result, but the algebra is more cumbersome because that formula describing the Compton: effect involves the wavelengths, and hence the reciprocals of the energies. However, the fact that ¢ = 180° for the maximum energy transfer can be used to obtain W = 2c, and so xB = 5 8=m (1s Fa) wn (ezrin) =i (2). Multiplying both sides by h (c+ 2 Ac)/Ac gives (¥ +2hv) KE=2(hy?, and when (hi¢/Ac) = me? is used, the previously derived quadratic equation is obtained.“36 ; Chapter 2 2-33: Solving Equation (2.23) for cos ¢, : yy (meme) 1, (MeV _ sie cos = +e- x Ee TOOkeV ~ 90keV from which ¢ = 64° to two significant figures. war) = 0.432, 2-34: (a) A direct application of Equation (2.23) gives AX =X — A= Ac (1 — cong) = (2.426 pm)(1 — cos 120°) = 3.639 pm, or 3.64 pm to three significant figures. (b) See the note preceding the solution to Problem 2-25: sing sin 120° = (BIA) + (1 cos) — (8.639/80) + (1 — cos 120°) tan@ from which 0 = 29.3°, or 29° to two significant figures. (c) The electron’s recoil energy will be the change in the photon’s energy, 1 = re(3-% = (1.240 x 10-6 = 674 eV. vem) (t-te oN) \ 80% 10-17 m ~ 83.630 x 10-1 m. 2-35: For the electron to have the maximum recoil energy, the scattering angle must be 180°, and Equation (2.20) becomes mc? KEmax = 2(hv)(hv/), where KEmax = (hv — hv’) has been used, To simplify the algebra somewhat, conisder a oe =" = TEAM) I+ (@dc/A) 1+ 2Ag/e? where AA = 2Ao for $ = 180°. With this expression, 2 (hv) (hw) _ 2(hv)?/(me?) KE mx = a T4(QvAo/e)" Using Ao = h/(me) (which is Equation (2.22) gives the desired result.Particle Properties of Waves 37 2-36: Solving Equation (2.23) for cos ¢, AA Os, cos f= 1— To = 1 — 55g = 0.7939, from which ¢ = 37.45°, keeping extra significant figures. Using the expression for the tangent of the recoil angle, as shown preceding the solution to Problem 2-25, sing sin (37.45°) ‘an0= (aay + C= ead) ~ (O00) + 0 — O75 77% from which 0 = 67.16°, or 67.2° to three significant figures. ‘Then, from pe sind = hv’ sing, 4.16 x 10-25 kg-m/s. 2-37: As presented in the text, the energy of the scattered photon is known in terms of the scattered angle, not the recoil angle of the scattering electron. Consider the expression for the recoil angle as given preceding the solution to Problem 2-25: sing _ sing (AXA) + = co8g) ~ D/A) (= 0086) + (1 — 0084) sing 7 1442) a- ome) For the given problem, with B = mc, A = he/E = h/(me) = Ac, s0 the above expression reduces to tan? = sing = Fos 4)" At this point, there are many ways to proceed; a numerical solution with 9 = 40° gives ¢ = 61.6° to three significant figures. For an analytic solution which avoids the intermediate calculation of the scattering angle ¢, one method is to square both sides of the above relation and use the trigonometric identity sin? ¢ = 1 —cos? ¢ = (1+ cos$)(1 — cos¢) to obtain 1+cos¢ T= cod . (the factor 1— cos may be divided, as cos = 1, ¢ = 0, represents an undeflected photon, and hence no interaction). This may be re-expressed as tan@ 4 tan?@ = (1 — cos 4) (4 tan? @) = 1+c0s6=2-(1-cos¢), oF38 Chapter 2 3+4tan26 2 1a cosb= Tra tete 27 88O= Ty tanto ‘Then, with 1’ = 1+ A¢(1 — cos $) = Ae(2 — cos g), _ pda pitsten?e _ 1+4tan? (40°) _ B= BT atante = Ol keV) grant (age) = S85 eV- ‘An equivalent but slightly more cumbersome method is to use the trigonometric identities sing =2sin$ cos $, 1 cos = 2 sin? in the expression for tan@ to obtain 1 ¢ 1 tand = 5 cot 5, o=2ercten (545) yielding the result ¢ = 61.6° more readily. ‘The above expression for ¢ in terms of 8 is that obtained from MAPLE, using the single command >solve(tan(theta)=sin(phi)/2/(1-cos(phi)) ,phi); It’s worth noting that the above analytic method may be extended to any value of the ratio Ag/A, with 4 corresponding increase in the complexity of the expressions. 2-88: Denote the corresponding Compton wavelength of the scattering (recoiling) particle as rps Be *e ‘The recoiling particle will have the maximum kinetic energy when the scattering angle is 180°, and so X’ = A+2g, and the maximum kinetic energy will be wate * (mae) ~# [ze 2-39: The energy of each photon will be the sun of one particle’s rest and kinetic energies, 1.511 MeV (keeping an extra significant figure). The wavelength of each photon will be he _ 1.240x10-¢ EB” 15itx 10% eV 821 x 107! m = 0.821 pm.Particle Properties of Waves 39 2-40: Denote the photons by subscripts 1 and 2, with the subscript “1” for the photon that moves in the original direction of the positron. From conservation of energy, KEy = 2me? = E; +E, and from conservation of momentum poc = E, — Ez, where po is the magnitude of the positron’s momentum before the annihilation. Recall from Chapter 1 that the postitron’s momentum in terms of its kinetic energy is given by = je ~ (ma)? = 1 (KE + me2)? — (mo2)? = (KE)? + 2KEm ot = V(2.000 MeV)? + 2 (2.000 MeV) (0.511 MeV) = 2.458 MeV. Then, By + By = 3.022 MeV = KEy + 2m By — Ey = 2.458 MeV. ‘Adding these expressions and dividing by 2 gives Ey = 2.740 MeV, and subtracting and dividing by 2 gives E = 0.282 MeV. 2-41: Following the hint, where Emin = 2mc? is the minimum photon energy needed for pair production. ‘The scattered wavelength (a mazimum) corresponding to this minimum energy is Xnax = (h/ Emin); 80 Ac = 2 Naas: At this point, it is possible to say that for the most energetic incoming photons, A~0, and 80 1—cos ¢ = } for 1’ = Ac/2, from which cos¢ = } and ¢ = 60°. As an alternative, the angle at which the scattered photons will have wavelength Ning. Can be found as a function of the incoming photon energy E; solving Equation (2.23) with Y= Max This expression shows that for E> mc*, cos = } and so ¢ = 60°, but it also shows that, because cos must always be less than 1, for pair production at any angle, E must be greater than 2m.c?, which we know to be the case.40 Chapter 2 2-42: (g) If the incident photon has the minimum energy, the three particles (aucleus, electron, positron) after the collision will move together, with no relative motion. This allows the three particles to be treated as a single particle with mass M-+2m. Denoting the incident photon’s momentum as p and hence its energy as po, conservation of energy gives pot Me = /(pe)? + (M+ 2m), where the total momentum of the three final particles has been set equal to the momentum of the photon. Squaring and subtracting (pc)? from both sides, (pe-+ Mc?)? — (pe)? = (2pe + Mc?) (Mc?) = (M + 2m)? ct squaring the binomial on the right above and dividing by Mc? gives 2pe+ Me? = (M+4m+4m?/M) ce, which is solved for E=pe=2me(1+m/M). (b) Using the result of part (a), E = 2me? (1+ m/M) = 2 (0.511 MeV) (1 + (0.511/939.3)) = 1.023 MeV. 2-43: (a) The most direct way to get this result is to use Equation (2.26) with Io/I = 2, so that (b) Similarly, with Jo/I = 10, 209 Zo = =. 2-44: (a) The radiation absorbed would be Ip- 1 = Ip— Ine"#? = fy (1-e#*). When jsz < 1, the exponential is approximated by e~#* as 1 — (4), and so Ig —I Ig pz.Particle Properties of Waves 41 An alternative and equally valid approximation is to express Equation (2.26) as ron (f)=-m(f)=-m( C=) which is the same result. (b) Approximating (1 — e~4*) by sz will be an overestimate; the percentage mrs (ua) = (1=eF4) _(0:100)— (1219) 2) —(1—e7#*) 1.100) — (1-e Tere) ear = BIG. An estimate of the error can also be found by expanding the exponential to second order, e~#* = 1 — (uz) + (u2)?/2, so that (uz) — (1 —e~#*) = (uz)?/2, and the error is approximately (uz)-(1-e"#*) (ie (uzP/2 _ ux = 0.050 = 5.0%. (#2) 2-45: From either Equation (2.26) or Problem 2-43 above, In(2) "0.693 - yas TS = gy pgrt 89% 10% m = 8.9 mm, 2-46: Direct use of Equation (2.25) with px = (5.0 x 10-8 m=1)(0.50 m) = 2.5 x 10-8 and px = (5.0 x 10-5 m~)(5.0 m) = 2.5 x 10-? gives (I/Jo) = 0.9975, a reduction of 0.25%, and 0.975, a reduction of 2.5%. In this situation both of the products yz are less than the value of 0.100 used in Problem 2-44 above, and it is seen that the reduction is well approximated by a factor of x. 2-47: Rather than calculating the actual intensity ratios, Equation (2.26) indicates that the ratios will be the same when the distances in water and lead are related by (vxt,0) (tH,0) = (HPL) (Pe), oF (52 m7") @m) = 0.106 m, Pb -3 = app HPP = (10x 1079 mi Fino = BPS ¢ ) or 11cm to two significant figures.42 Chapter 2 2-48: From Equation (2.25), z ween (4.7 x 108 m™) (1.0 x 10 m) _ 6-47 291 x 10-3, 2-49: Either a direct application of Equation (2.26) or use of the result of Problem 2-43 gives = — (2) > F710 mt which is 0.015 mm to two significant figures. =147x 10° m, 2-50: As in Problem 2-47, the distances in the materials that would give the same protection (that is, the same intensity ratio) are related by (ur. (re) = (upp) (ape), and so ea, HPO (5.8 x 104 m=?) ape = apy SEP = (10m) Giger) = SSem. 2-51: In Equation (2.29), the ratio 11 Nem? om = (6:67 x 10-1 Nem? kg?) (2.0 x 10°? ke) _ 9 19 ag-6 (2.998 x 108 m/s)? (7.0 x 108 m) (keeping an extra significant figure) is so small that for an “approximate” red shift, the ratio AA/A will be the same as Av/v, and AA=2 a = (500 x 10-® m) (2.12 x 10-*) = 1.06 x 107? m= 1.06 pm. 2-52: See Problem 2-51; GM _ (6.67 x 10-1 N-m?/kg?) (2.0 x 10°° kg) GM _ = 2.32 x 10-4, OR (2.998 x 10° m/s)" (6.4 x 10° mm) —_ which is so small that A)/A will be the same as Av/v, and GM DA=A’aR = (500 nm) (2.32 x 1074) = 0.12 nm.Particle Properties of Waves 43 2-53: (a) The most convenient way to do this problem, for computational purposes, is to realize that the nucleus will be moving nonrelativistically after the emission of the photon, and that the energy of the photon will be very close to Exo = 14.4 keV, the energy that the photon would have if the nucleus had been infinitely massive. So, ifthe photon has an energy E the recoil momentum of the nucleus is E/c, and its kinetic energy is >> = 557-5, where M is the rest mass of the nucleus. Then, conservation of energy implies EP qua + B= Boo This is a quadratic in E, and solution might be attempted by standard methods, but to find the change in energy due to the finite mass of the nucleus, and recognizing that E will be very close to Hao, the above relation may be expressed as 2 x 10-16 Jk/eV) kg) (2.998 x 10° m/s) = 1.9 x 1076 keV = 1.9 x 10-3 eV. If the approximation E ~ E,, is not made, the resulting quadratic is EP 42M? E-2M¢e Exo = rn | However, the dimensionless quantity E,,/ (Mc?) is so small that standard calculators are not able to determine the difference between E and Hoo. The square root must be expanded, using (1 +2)!/? ~ 1+ (2/2) — (22/8), and two terms must be kept to find the difference between E and Ego. This approximation gives the previous result. It so happens that a relativistic treatment of the recoiling nucleus gives the same numerical result, but without intermediate approximations or solution of a quadratic equation, The relativistic form expressing conservation of energy is, with pe = E and before, YE? +(M2)?+B=Mc+Eoo, oF 83 + (Me)? = Me + By ~ EB. which is solved for44 , Chapter 2 Squaring both sides, canceling H and (Mc), and then solving for EB, pa ER t+2ME Bn 1+ (Eoo/(2Me*)) ~ *\ 1+ (Boo/(Me)) )* 2 (Me + Bos) From this form, E.-E= 6) ans SI 2M} 1+ (Exo/(Me))’ giving the same result. (b) For this situation, the above result applies, but the nonrelativistic apprax- imation is by far the easiest for calculation; E2,__ (14.4x 10° eV)? (1.602 x 10-1? J/eV) _ 25 Boo B= oa = =18 x 10-7 ev. 2 (1.0 x 10-3 kg) (2.998 x 10 m/s): (c) The original frequency is va Be = MAXI _ _ 3. 48.x 10! He. h 4.136 x 10-15 eV-s From Equation (2.28), the change in frequency is i” = (9) , - 08m/s*) (20m) on avav—v= (4) (2.008 x 108 maj? O48 * 101° He) = 7.6 He. 2-54: From Equation (2.30), the Schwarzschild radius of the earth is 2G Meath _ 2 (6.67 x 10-1! N-m?/kg?) (5.98 x 10% kg) 2M (2.998 x 108 m/s) Ser ny Reeacth = about the size of a marble. 2-55: (a) To leave the body of mass M permanently, the body of mass m must have enough kinetic energy so that there is no radius at which its energy is positive. That is, its total energy must be non-negative. The escape velocity ve is the speed (for a given radius, and assuming M > m) that the body of mass m would have for a total energy of zero; Linge Mm og gp y= POM gm - B= = - (b) Solving the above expression for Fin terms of ve, and if ve = c, Equation (2.30) is obtained.Chapter 3 - Wave Properties of Particles 3-1: From Equation (3.1), any particle’s wavelength is determined by its momentum, and hence particles with the same wavelength have the same momenta. With a common momentum p, the photon’s energy is pc, and the particle’s energy is x (pc)? + (mc2)?, which is necessarily greater than pe for a massive particle. The particle’s kinetic energy is KE = B- me? = (pe)? + (me2)? — me. For low values of p (p < me for a nonrelativistic massive particle), the kinetic energy is KE «1 2, which is necessarily les than pe. For a realtivistic massive particle, KE ® pe~ me’, and KE is less than the photon energy. ‘The kinetic energy of a massive particle will always be less than pc, as can be seen by using B= KE+me?, squaring, and subtracting from E? = (pc)? + (mc?)” to obtain (pe)? — KE? = 2KEme*. 2-2: (a) At this speed, v/c = 1/3, the relativistic expression for the momen- ° tum must be used in Equation (3.2), and (6.626 x 10-* J-s) /1 — (1/3)? a1 (005 x 10-1 kg) (1.0 x 10° m/ay ~ 85x 10° m or 6.9 x 10~!? m = 6.9 pm to two significant figures. (b) With v = 2.0 x 10% m/s, v/c = 2/3, the same calculation gives \ = 2.71 x 10-1? m = 2.7 pm to two significant figures. Note that even though the speed is double that of part (a), the wavelength has decreased by a factor of more than 2, due to the dependence of the momentum on the relativistic factor -y. 3-3: For this nonrelativistic case, (6.626 x 10-4 J-s) a A= Te = Ox 10- kg) Gms) 83% quantum effects certainly would not be noticed for such an object. 4546 Chapter 3 Sed: At this energy, the electron must be treated relativistically to get two- significant figure precision; the momentum is p= i (KB + met)? = (mer)? = 2 V0 + 0511) = (O5ii)? Mev = 0.206 MeV/c = 1.101 x 1077? kg-m/s, keeping an extra significant figure in the intermediate calculation, which gives A= h/p =6.02 x 10-1? m. A nonrelativistic calculation, using p= V2mKE, gives A = 6.11 x 10!” m, slightly larger, as the nonrelativistic momentum is smaller in magnitude than the correct (to two significant figures) relativistic form. (See Problem 3-5, below.) 3-5: Becasue the de Broglie wavelength depends only on the electron’s momentum, the percentage error in the wavelength will be the same as the percentage error in the reciprocal of the momentum, with the nonrelativistic calculation giving the higher wavelength due to a lower calculated momentum. The nonrelativistic momentum is Par = V2mKE = /2 (9.1095 x 10-5" keg) (100 x 107 eV) (1.602 x 10-1” eV) = 1.708 x 107? kg-m/s, and the nonrelativistic momentum is pe = 4d f(KE + met)? — (met)? = (0100+ O11) = (0.511)? MeV/e e = 1.790 x 10-7? kg-m/s, keeping extra figures in the intermediate calculations. The percentage error in the computed de Broglie wavelength is then (hfpos) — (Afr) _ Pe Por _ 1.700 — 1.708 _ 4 p07 (h/p.) Por 1.708 3-6: The proton’s kinetic energy is only about 0.1% of its rest energy, so a nonrelativistic calculation will suffice. The a is =o VimkE ~ Vie RE 12 7 ° 1200-7 em, =2.86 x 10-* m, ~~ 4/2(939.3 MeV) (1.00 MeV) Note the conversion of units in the product fc in the above calculation.Wave Properties of Particles a7 3:7: A nonrelativistic calculation gives xp 2 = ela)? _ (he | Ben = 2met ~ T may (1.240 x 10-8 eV-m)? 2 (939.6 x 10° eV) (0.282 x 10-* m)’ (Note that in the above caculation, multiplication of numerator and denominator by @ and use of the product he in terms of electronvolts avoided further unit conversion.) This energy is much less than the neutron’s rest energy, and so the nonrelativistic calculation is completely valid. = 0.00103 eV. 3-8: Because the wavelengths are the same, the product pc is the eame for both the electron and the x-ray, and so the kinetic energy of the electron is KE = E- me? = yf (pe)? + (m2)? — me? = [ (100) + (11) -su] keV = 9.69 keV. (A nonrelativistic calculation gives 9.77 keV.) 3-9: A nonrelativistic calculation gives FL (hola) _ _ (he)? KE on ame ~ (me) x - 2 7 (1.240 x 10-® eV-m) = 50x 10- ev, 2 (611 x 10° eV) (550 x 10-* my" s0 the electron would have to be accelerated through a potential difference of 5.0 x 10-6 V = 5.0 pV. Note that the kinetic energy is very small compared to the electron rest energy, so the nonrelativistic calculation is valid. (In the above caculation, multiplication of numerator and denominator by c? and use of the product Ac in terms of electronvolts avoided further unit conversion.) 3-10: Ofthe many ways to find the momentum in terms of a particle’s kinetic energy and mass, consider (pe)? = B? — (mc?)? = (KE +m)? — (me)? = (KE + me? ~ me’) (KE + me? + mc") = KE (KE + 2m’). ‘Then, aw bahe P pe ives the desired expression. (See also the answer to Problem 3-1 above.)48 Chapter 8 BL: If B® = (pc)? + (me)? > (me)’, then pe > me? and E © pe. For a photon with the same energy, B = pe, so the momentum of such a particle would be nearly the same as a photon with the same energy, and so the de Broglie wavelengths would be the same. 3-12: (a) The kinetic energy of a particle with charge of magnitude q accelerated through a potential difference V will be qV, and the result of Problem 3-10 may be used to find 7 he *“Vav) qv tame) (b) In this case (taking q = e), the square root in the above expression reduces to VeV 2m), a factor of c in both numerator and denominator cancels, and 3-18: For massive particles of the same speed, relativistic or nonrelativistic, the momentum will be proportional to the mass, and so the de Broglie wavelength will be inversely proportional to the mass; the electron will have the longer wavelength by a factor of (mp/m,) = 1838. From Equation (3.3) the particles have the same phase velocity and from Equation (3.16) they have the same group velocity. 3-14: Using the results of Problem 3-10, the ratio of the de Broglie wavelengths is ale where m, and mp are the rest masses. Note that a factor of the common kinetic energy KE has canceled. In the above form it is seen that because me < mp, the electron will always have the longer de Broglie wavelength. If the kinetic energy is large compared to either rest energy, the de Broglie wavelengths are nearly the same, as expected, because at very high kinetic energy they would have the same momentum (see Problem 3-13 above). If the kinetic energy is low compared to either rest energy, the above ratio reduces to (Ae/Ap) * «/mp/m., which is the nonrelativistic expression for the ratio, obtained from p = V2mKE.Wave Properties of Particles 49 The de Broglie group velocity v in terms of the kinetic energy KE is found by 1 KE = me? (7-1) = me* i “a ep-(8) ]" (see the solution to Problem 1-31). An alternate form is KE wa me (met?) (S¥) The first form shows that for a given kinetic energy, the more massive particle has the slower speed, as expected. In the second form, it’s seen that if the ratio KE/ (me?) is much greater than 1, » ~ c, as expected. If KE/(mc*) is much less than 1, as for a nonrelativistic particle, v ~ /2KE/m, the nonrelativistic expression. From Equation (3.3), the phase velocities have a different dependence on the particle’s kinetic energy; for a given kinetic energy, the particle with the larger rest mass will have the larger phase velocity. For relativistic particles, the phase velocity will be approximaterly the speed of light. For nonrelativistic particles, the phase velocity is up ~ c?/,/2KE/m, which is larger than c, and has no physical meaning. solving for v. The result is 3-15: Suppose that the phase velocity is independent of wavelength, and hence independent of the wave number k; then, from Equation (3.3), the phase velocity vp = (w/k) =u, a constant. It follows that because w = uk, Wy = Tua 3-16: In term of the wave number k = 2x/A, the phase velocity is oe or S92, ge uta SR. pk r e50 Chapter 3 Differentiating the expression for w(k) with respect to k, dy _ [5 (34am) 3 [FS _34_3,, ~ dk e\2 “3p 2k 2% Using implicit differentiation in the formula for w*(), aut = Quy = — 5 @)- Bupk, k oO the same result. For those more comfortable with calculus, the dispersion relation may be expressed as 80 that - 3% from which 2H = w 3-17: The phase velocity may be expressed in terms of the wave number k=2n/A0s =f or w=Vgk or wagk. Finding the group velocity by differentiating w(k) with respect to k, un Ge soe ii-33 “ok 2 Using implicit differentiation in the formula for ?(k), ue aut = Quy =9, So that we fa a4 = the same result, For those more comfortable with calculus, the dispersion relation may be expressed as 2 In(w) = In(k) +1n(9), lw 1 dk from which 29% = %, and vy = 32 = 5p.Wave Properties of Particles 51 3-18: The group velocity, from Equation (3.16), is vy = v = 0.900c. The phase velocity, from Equation (3.3), is t = A/v = Lille. 3-19: For a kinetic energy of 500 keV, 1. KE+me? _ 500+511 => ~ BIL = 1.978. = "3 =eyi-i= 1 (gig) =0a08 77 7 Tore) = 085% and from Equation (3.16), vg = v = 0.863c. The phase velocity is then Up = 2/vy = L16c. Solving for v, 8-20: ‘The wave number k and wavelength are related by (1/A) = k/(2m), the frequency and angular frequency are related by w = 2xv, and using the chain rule twice, “0= ik d dapy) dk ‘The first and third terms in the product on the right in the above expression are de aya) © wo” dk On? = nog UA) 1 9 ae Oe = AAP” so that: 3-21: (a) Two equivalent methods will be presented here. Both will assume the validity of Equation (3.16), in that vy = v. First: Express the wavelength ) in terms of vp, Multiplying by m_v,, squaring and solving for v2 gives ia mc)” “parce”? [+ Ce) ‘Taking the square root and using Equation (3.3), Up = c?/vg, gives the desired result. -152 Chapter 3 Second: Conisder the particle energy in terms of vp = c?/ug; BP = (pe)? + (me)? 1 (meyt = EN = (8) + (mc 1-5 B Dividing by (me?) lends to 2 1 1-a-Tapmyoen het 1 (med _ 1 2 7 a 1 Tym] (mel? (med 41 14 (medP which is an equivalent statement of the desired result. It should be noted that in the first method presented above could be used to find A in terms of vp directly, and in the second method the energy could be found in terms of vy. The final result is, or course, the same. (b) Using the result of part (a), 1 4. ( (9-2095 x 10-51 keg) (2.998 x 10° m/s) (1,00 x 10-12 7 ( (6.626x 10-453) and uy = c?/vg = 0.99915¢. For a calculational shortcut, write the result of part (a) as ‘me? d\? ops oy (2) 1+ ( In both of the above answers, the statement that the de Broglie wavelength is “exactly” 10-13 m means that the answers can be given to any desired precision. (611 x 108 eV) (1.00 x 1Wave Properties of Particles 53 3-22: The expression for the group velocity presented in Equation (3.13) suggests expression of the energy and momentum in terms of w and k, specifically soda pote (These expressions are, of course, just & = hw and p=hk.) Then, with repeated use of the chain rule for differentiation, _dy _ dw dE dp_2dE h _ dE "0 = dk ~ dE dp dk From Equation (1.24), E? = (pc)? + (mc2)”, implicit differentiation gives aE —=— 2EG R20), 0 = Ee immediately. As an alternative, solving Equation (1.24) for E as an explicit function of p and differentiating, ta po = EV ee) + (me)? = ——P$ = BE, ee Voor + (may * as found by implicit differentiation. Use of Equations (1.17) and (1.23) give vy =v directly. It’s interesting to note that Equation (1.25) for a massless particle is consistent with this result. 3-23: Increasing the electron energy increases the electron’s momentum, and hence decreases the electron’s de Broglie wavelength. From Equation (2.13), a smaller de Broglie wavelength results in a smaller scattering angle. 3-24: From Equation (2.13), the neutrons will be scattered at angles @n, where ta =rcin (24 a 2a)" The neutrons are nonrelativistic, and so he et land p V2mKE /2 (mc) KE a 1,240 x 10-6 eV-m 3a ~ 2(020 x 10-* m)/7 (039.87 10° ev) (BEV) = ‘The scattering angles are then arcsin(0.320) = 18.7°, arcsin(0.640) = 39.8° and arcsin(0.960) = 73.6°. (For these results, more significant figures were kept in the intermediate calculations.)54 Chapter 3 3-25: (a) For the given energies, a nonrelativistic calculation is sufficient; KE [2(54 eV) (1.602 x 10-1 J/eV) _ ve ¥ Sa Tei TO igh Ams outside the crystal, and (from a similar calculation, with KE = 80 eV), v = 5.30 x 10° m/s inside the crystal (keeping an extra significant figure in both calculations). (b) With the speeds found in part (a), the de Broglie wavelengths are found (6.626 x 10-* Js) 7 10 W005 % 0-5 kg) (438 x 10 may ~ VOT IT or 0.167 nm outside the crystal, with a similar calculation giving 0.137 nm inside the crystal. 226: As in the example presented in the text in Section 3.5, a beam deflec- tion of 50° corresponds to a scattering angle of } (180° — 50°) = 65°. The formula obtained from Problem 3-10 gives he KE (KE+ 2me?) 1.240 x 1076 eV-m ¥50 eV (50 + 2 (G11 x 10°)) x 10° eV keeping extra significant figures. The spacing of the planes in the crystal is then, ‘using Equation (2.13), A= = 5.356 x 107!? m, ga A ~ 8.856 x 1077 m Se 722 mm = Tand 2 sin (65%) 2.95 x 10~*? m = 2.95 pm. To the two significant figures given in the problem, the spacing is 3.0 pm. 3-27: From Equation (3.18), _ pp i 2 (6.626 x 10-4 J-s)” 8mL? 8 (1.675 x 10-27 kg) (1.00 x 10-14 m)? = n?3.28 x 10715 J = n? 20.5 MeV. ‘The minimum energy, corresponding to n = 1, is 20.5 MeV.Wave Properties of Particles 55 3-28: (a) The lowest energy corresponds to n = 1 in Equation (3.18); for n=2 and n=3, the energies are 4.00 eV and 9.00 eV, repsectively. (b) Solving Equation (3.18) with n = 1 for L, the width of the box, Ro (6.626 x 10-% J.s)? SmE, — \ 3 (0.1095 x 10-5 kg) (1.00 eV) (1.602 x 10-19 J/ev) = 6.13 x 107 m= 0.613 nm. 3-29: The first excited state corresponds ton = 2 in Equation (3.18). Solving for the width L, Te my (6.626 x 10-34 J.s)? ="V 8m \ 8 (L673 x 10-*7 kg) (400 x 10° eV) (1.002 x 10-7" J/eV) = 4.53 x 107" m = 45.3 fm. 3-30: For a “trapped” particle, the uncertainty in position cannot be larger than the size of the box, and so the uncertainty in the particle's momentum must be finite, and the particle cannot have zero kinetic energy. If Az = L, the uncertainty principle as given in Equation (3.21) states that Ap > h/(4aL). The magnitude of the momentum of the particle in the lowest energy state for a particle in a box of width L is, from Equation (3.18), p. = Y2mEj = h/(2L). Thus, p, is greater than the minimum value of Ap. 3-31: Each atom in a solid is limited to certain definite region of space — otherwise the assembly of atoms would not be a solid. The uncertainty in position of each atom is therefore finite, and its momentum and hence enrgy cannot be zero. ‘The position of an ideal-gas molecule is not restricted, so the uncertainty in its position is effectively infinite and its momentum and hence enrgy can be zero. 3-32: For both particles, Av = oe > _— For the electron, m” 4nm (6.626 x 10-*4 —__(6.628 x 10° Js) 7 > Fae (GA005 x 10-7 kg) (1.00 x 10-P my ~ 079% 10" m/s. Av For the proton, the uncertainty is smaller by a ratio of me/mp, and Av > 31.5 m/s.56 Chapter 3 3-33: The percentage — in the electron’s ld will be at least he oe SVE 7 aa (1.240 x 10-* eV-m) © ma) /2 (BLT x 10° eV) (1.00 x 1 =3.1x 10-7 =3.1%. Note that in the above calculation, conversion of the mass of the electron into its energy equivalent in electronvolts is purely optional; converting the kinetic energy into joules and using h = 6.626 x 10 J-s will of course give the same percentage uncertainty. 3-84: (a) The uncertainty in the electron’s energy is AH = 1.00 x 10- B= 10-* (mv?/2), and so the miniraum time needed to measure the energy is h (6.626 x 10-™ J-s) 4n QE ~ 4x (10-5) (9.1095 x 10-3! kg) (10 m/s)" /2 or 1.2 ms to two significant figures. In this time, the electron would move a distance vAt= 12cm. at> = 1.16 x 1075 5, 8-35: The proton will need to move a minimum distance vaizuaig. where v can be taken to be (E/E he vata fe aE= = aE oe Vn) RE 1.240 x 10-° eV-m. * 2ary/2 (938.28 x 10® MeV) (1.00 x 10° eV) = 144x 10-4 m= 0.144 pm. (See note to the solution to Problem 3-33 above). Ther fr he pron vt may heron VA Hap this is not inconsistent with Equation (3.21), Az Ap > 2. In the current tien AE was taken to be the (maximum) kinetic energy of the proton. In such a situation, ap= 4) 22? ap=2vap, ™ m which is consistent with the previous result.Wave Properties of Particles 87 3-36: (a) From Equation (3.18), fen _ nh pa = V2mEn = ry = Tr This, of course, is *, with Ay as given in Equation (3.17); indeed, this relation was used to derive Equation (3.18). (b) If n changes by +1 in the above expression for p, in terms of L, iat 21’ [dp] = and where Az = L has been used. 3-37: (a) The length of each group is cAt = (2.998 x 10° m/s) (8.00 x 10-* s) = 24m. The number of waves in each group is the pulse duration divided by the wave period, which is the pulse duration multiplied by the frequency, (8.00 x 10-® 8) (4900 x 10° Hz) = 752 waves. (b) The bandwidth is the reciprocal of the pulse duration, (8.00 x 10-8 s)* ( 3-38: The finite lifetime is an indication of the uncertainty in the particle’s rest energy, and the uncertainty in its rest mass is then Am=-SE___*____ (4.186 x 107 eV-s) _ m2 InP Mt 4a (7.00% 10-5) F where Equation (3.26) has been used. The above result, in units of eV/c, allows ready determination of the ratio —™ = 8.56 x 10-7.58 Chapter 3 3-39: To use the uncertainty principle, make the identification of p with Ap and z with Az, so thet p=h/(4nz), and E=E(z)= (sas) 2 7 (3) 7 Differentiating with respect to = and setting de =0, sd 1 ~ (aim) Stee, which is solved for 2 h Qa Vin Substution of this value into E(z) gives Bae (sera) (=) +(3) (eiae) eV 3-40: (a) To use the uncertainty principle, it must be noted that the momentum p is the component of momentum in the direction of z; that is, p and a are conjugate variables. In this problem, p and v are taken to be the momentum and speed of a particle moving in a circle of radius r, and so x must be taken to be the direction tangential to that circle. Then, ApAz = (mAv) (Az) = (mAvr) (2) = ALAS, where oe is the uncertainty in the polar angle, 6, in radians. Thus ALA0=ApAr> £. (b) If Ad is greater than 2m, the angular position of the particle will be completely indeterminate. From part (a), this corresponds to an approximate uncer tainty in angular momentum AL © h/4n.Chapter 4 - Atomic Structure 4-1: The fact that most particles pass through undeflected means that there is not much to deflect these particles; most of the volume of an atom is empty space, and gases and metals are overall electrically neutral. 4-2: An electron, being negatively charged, would be attracted toward the center of the atom, with a radial force component E,= r=-kr. ee 4m eg RE ‘The frequency of the simple harmonic motion is given by w? = k/m, and so 7 yz =f . [2 OO Vin VingRim Vine Bm For a hydrogen atom, with Q =e and R= a, the Bohr radius, (8.988 x 10° N-m?/C?) (1,602 x 10-9 C)? = 4.13 x 10 rad/s, (6.292 x 10-11 m)* (9.1095 x 10-5! kg) at and so f = w/(2n) = 6.6 x 10"* Hz, which is comparable to the highest frequencies in the hydrogen spectrum (see Example 4.5 in Section 4.6), The above frequency is also the frequency of a classical (point) particle with the electron charge in circular motion in a Coulombic field at the Bobr radius; see Problem 4-4 below. 4-3: For a “closest approach”, the incident proton must be directed “head- on” to the nucleus, with no angular momentum with respect to the nucleus (an “impact parameter” of zero; see the Appendix to Chapter 4). In this case, at the point of closest approach the proton will have no kinetic energy, and so the potential energy at closest approach will be the initial kinetic energy, taking the potential energy to be zero in the limit of very large separation. Equating these energies, a xO 4m oT min KE initial = (1 Ze oar.aynay (79) (1.602 x 10-1 Cc)? = (ae FB 7 (6.988 * 10? Nem’/C) as IOI) =114x 10-3 m. 5960 Chapter 4 4-4: For a classical particle attracted by the inverse-square Coulomb field, e aregrem With r = ao, the Bohr radius, this is the same expression as that found in Problem 4-2 above, and the numerical result is the same; 2 mu?r = ow 4negr?" 13x10! rad/s, f= = = 6.6 x 10" Hz. w= A photon with this frequency would be in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum (see, for instance, the rear endpapers of the text). 4-5: The wavelengths in the Brackett series are given in Equation (4.9); the shortest wavelength (highest energy) corresponds to the largest value of n. For noo, 16 16 er z = [porcdotmat = 146 * 10% m = 1.46 ym. 4-6: The wavelengths in the Paschen series are given in Equation (4.8); the shortest wavelength (highest energy) corresponds to the largest value of n. For n+, na Se 28.20. 1077 m= 0.820 wm. R~ 1097 107 m=? 4-7; While the kinetic energy of any particle is positive, the potential energy of any pair of particles that are mutually attracted is negative. For the system to be bound, the total energy, the sum of the positive kinetic energy and the total negative potential energy, must be negative. For a classical particle subject to an inverse-square attractive force (such as two oppositely charged particles or two uniform spheres subject to gravitational attraction) in a circular orbit, the potential energy is twice the negative of the kinetic energy. 4-8: For an angular momentum of nf, the electron’s speed v and orbit rea- dius r are related by a m2 L=mur=nh, or Substitution into Equation (4.3) and solving for rn gives which is Equation (4.13) in terms of A.Atomic Structure 61 4-9: (a) The velocity v: is given by Equation (4.4), with r= 11 = a9. Com- bining to find v3, (b) From the above, (1.602 x 10-9 G)? = (6.854 x 10- C2/ (N-m?)) (6.626 x 10-* J-8) (2.998 x 10° m/s) = 7.296 x 107, so that, 2 = 137.1 to four significant figures. ‘A close check of the units is worthwhile; treating the units as algebraic quantities, the units as given in the above calculation are qe a fal yoy ‘Thus, a is a dimensionless quantity, and will have the same numerical value in any system of units. ‘The most accurate (November, 2001) value of 1/a is 7 = 137.03599976, a accurate to better than 4 parts per billion. For the most accurately known values of this or other physical constants, see, for instance, the Particle Data Group tables of Constants, Units, Atomic and Nuclear Properties, available at http://pdg.Ibl.gov/2001/contents.sports.html (©) Using the above expression for a and Equation (4.13) with n= 1 for ao, =f Mo 1h ~ Qehe mme? a4 nme 2x? where the Compton wavelength Ac is given by Equation (2.22).62 Chapter 4 4-10: (a) The kinetic energy of the electron, treated classically, will be the negative of the electric potential energy, so the momentum is 2 p= VamKE = em Lt and the de Broglie wavelength is ahh [ime here = vi (b) Using r = a9 in the above expression, _ 6.626 x 10-4 J-s_ [2 (8.854 x 10-12 C?/ (N-m?)) (5.292 x 10-1! m) * [602 x 10-* G = 2.35 x 107? m. Comparison of the result of part (a) with Equation (4.13) shows that 47 = Qn? (agr), and if r = ao, X= 2749, as may be checked numerically. The wavelength of an electron in the first Bohr orbit is 27 a9, and so the wavelength found above is smaller than the Bohr radius by a factor of v2. (c) The system began with zero total energy, and the energy of the system after the electron hes been captured and is in its ground state is the negative of the ionization energy, 13.6 eV. ‘An equivalent algebraic way to obtain this result is to use the result of part (b), that the de Broglie wavelength is smaller by a factor of /2 than the wavelength of an electron in the first Bohr orbit. This means that the momentum is higher by a factor of V2, and hence the kinetic energy is higher by a factor of 2. In order to be captured in the first Bohr orbit, the system must lose this energy. From part (a), half of the kinetic energy is == — 7 Gg? Which is the negative of By as given in Equation (4.15). ian 4-11: With the mass, orbital speed and orbital radius of the earth known, the earth’s orbital angular momentum is known, and the quantum number that would characterize the earth’s orbit about the sun would be this angular momentum divided by fi; « 1 es nuk (6.0 x 10% kg) (3.0 x 104 m/s) (1.5x10" m) 95 ore (1.055 x 10-* J-s) (The eel of significant figures not of concern.)Atomic Structure 63 4-12: The details of the derivation of the energy levels and orbital radii would be the same as in the case of the Coulombic interaction, with the exception of the strength of the attraction. Instead of a force of magnitude e?/ (4m eor2), the gravitational force would have a magnitude of (Gmp me) /r?, and so in Equations (4.13) and (4.15), the factors e2 /eg need to be replaced by Gm ym, x 4m, giving atm, me ra nm In Equations (4.13) and (4.15), the factors of m are the electron masses, or, more accurately, the reduced mass of the electron-proton system, here approximated as = meme TMreduced = tm Mey if, in the above expressions, the factor mp m? is replaced by mp me m reduced and the factor mm? by m2m? mredyced) the symmetry between the particles is restored. However, such details are of minor consequence in such a hypothetical situation. Numerically, with meduced —> ™e, the above expressions are _ (6.626 x 10-* J.2)? so "RR (6.67 x 10-11 N-m?/kg?) (1.6726 x 10-27 kg) (9.1095 x 10-31 kg)? =n?12x 10 m, which can be compared to * 1.5 x 10% m, which is the product of the speed of light and the estimated age of the universe. ‘The energy levels are 2n? (6.67 x 10-12 N-m?/kg?)? x __1 \ (1.6726 x 10727 keg)? (9.1095 x 10-*! keg)? nF (6.626 x 10-* J.5) In this last calculation, care must be taken if using a standard calculator with a limited range for exponents; in SI units, the exponent of the numerator is less than —100. ‘The ionization energy is —E, = 2.6 x 10-78 eV. Another way to get the numerical results is to consider ratio of the magnitudes of the gravitational and electric forces between an electron and a proton, given by the dimensionless ratio En= —442 x 10-7 J. w Ameo ope Te = 4.4 x 10-*;64 Chapter 4 ue details uf the uumerical calculation will not be presented here, but it might be noted that any concern regarding the reduced mass is eliminated. Then, the values for r; and By are i oo 7 -40)2 n= Gp =~ 44x 10")? (13.6 ev). 4-18: The uncertainty in position of an electron confined to such a region is, from Equation (3.22), Ap > =", while the magnitude of the linear momentum of an electron in the first Bohr orbit is the value of Ap found from Equation (3.13) is half of this momentum. 4-14: Because all of the atoms are in the ground state (a highly unlikely situation, as will be seen in Chapter 9), the only absorption lines will be those corresponding to an initial state of n = 1; the lines in the absorption spectrum would be the Lyman series, as given in Equation (4.7). 4-15: The Doppler effect shifts the frequencies of the emitted light to both higher and lower frequencies to produce wider lines than atoms at rest would give tise to. 4-16: In terms of the ionization energy —E, = 13.6 eV, Ey-B= z (13.6 cV)=12.8eV, and By~ B= FE (13.6 ev) = 13:16V5 thus, electrons may be excited to the n = 4 level but no higher. (Atoms that had electrons that were originally in higher orbits would be ionized.) The spectral series would be those with final states corresponding to ny < 4; the Lyman, Balmer and Paschen series. 4-17: It must assumed that the initial electrostatic potential energy is negli- gible, so that the final energy of the hydrogen atom is H, = —13.6 eV. The energy of the photon emitted is then ~H}, and the wavelength is 1.240 x 10-6 eV-m Bev in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum (see, for instance, the back endpapers of the text). = 9.12 x 107° m= 91.2nm,Atomic Structure 65 4-18: The final states could have ny = 4, 3, 2 or 1, a total of four different possible wavelengths. 4-19: From either Equation (4.7) with n = 10 or Equation (4.18) with ny = 1 and n; = 10, _ 1001 _ 100 1 7 “8m = = 99 RW 0 L007 x TOT met O71 10 m= 92d om, which is in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum (see, for instance, the back endpapers of the text). 4-20: From either Equation (4.8) with n = 6 or Equation (4.18) with ny = 3 and nm = 6, ya 26x91 8A 85 004 10-8 m = 1.004 pm, 36-9 R27 1.097 x 10? m=? which is in the infrared part of the spectrum (see, for instance, the back endpapers of the text). 4-21: The electrons’ energy must be at least the difference between the n = 1 and n=3 levels, AE = E3-Ey=-Ex (: - 5) = (13.6 3 =121eV (this assumes that few or none of the hydrogen atoms had electrons in the n = 2 level). A potential difference of 12.1 eV is necessary to accelerate the electrons to this energy. 4-22: The n = 2 energy is E,/4 = —(13.6 eV)/4 = —3.40 eV, so an energy of 3,40 eV is needed. 4-23: The energy needed to ionize hydrogen will be the energy needed to raise the energy from the ground state to the first excited state plus the energy needed to ionize an atom in the second excited state; these are the energies that correspond to the longest wavelength (least energetic photon) in the Lyman series and the shortest wavelength (most energetic photon) in the Balmer series. The energies are proportional to the reciprocals of the wavelengths, and so the wavelength of the photon needed to ionize hydrogen is 1 1 \7 1 yt 21 ipa) = (siemm iem) = 91-13 om. As a check, note that this wavelength is R-}.66 Chapter 4 4-24: The longest wavelength (least energetic photon) corresponds to n = 2 in Equation (4.7), which is solved for -E,= (3) he _ 41.240 x 10-6 eV-m 3) X 3 1215x109 m consistent with Equation (4.15). = 136 eV, 4-25: (8) From Equation (4.7) with n =n, which is solved for (b) Either of the above forms gives n very close (four places) to 3; specifically, with the product AR = (102.55 x 10-° m) (1.097 x 107 m=1) = 1.125 rounded to four places as 5, n = 3 exactly. 4-26: Denote the original energy (apart from kinetic) of the excited atom as By and its final energy as Ez, and the initial and final speeds of the atom as v and v'. The energies are related by E,-E,=hy, where v is the frequency of the emitted photon in the rest frame of the atom (see Problem 4-27 for the effects of the recoil of an atom initially at rest). Energy conservation gives 7 Ey + 5m =E_tgmu? thy, where 1/ is the frequency found in the frame in which the atom had initial speed v. Using the difference Ey ~ Ey = hv to eliminate Ey and Ep, mv) +h, and dv=v -v=(F) (v? =o) = &) (v—v) (v0). In order to conserve momentum, where v’ = v and v’ ~ v have been used. If the above factorization is not made, v’ could be found in terms of v and v by eliminating v’, but the resulting quadratic is somewhat unwieldy; see Problem 2-53.Atomic Structure 67 4-27: (a) A relativistic calculation would necessarily involve the change in mass of the atom due to the change in energy of the system. The fact that this mass change is too small to measure (that is, the change is measured indirectly by measuring the energies of the emitted photons) means that a nonrelativistic calculation should suffice. In this situation, the kinetic energy of the recoiling atom is xen #8 ol? 2M~ 2M" where v is the frequency of the emitted photon and p = h/\ = hv/cis the magnitude of the momentum of both the photon and the recoiling atom. Equation (4.16) ia then B®, ame 2Ma ‘This result is equivalent to that of Problem 2-53, where hv = E.. and the term p?/(2.M) corresponds to E..—E in that problem. As in Problem 2-53, a relativistic calculation is managable; the result would be 1(,,Mée\* by-B=he (144 (1442) , a form not often useful; see part (b). (b) As indicated above and in the problem statement, a nonrelativistic calculation is sufficient. As in part (a), 2 shv+KE= hv + OY shv(i+ hy ). _ B _ (OB/cP KE= 39>" am 34 KE AE _ 19eV__ ox 10-9, KE ~ IMA ~ F(939x 108 eV) or 1.0x10-° to two significant figures. In the above, the rest energy of the hydrogen atom is from the front endpapers. 4-28: The dependence of any of these quantities on n may be determined by considering that the Bohr model is equivalent to a description of classical motion in a Coulomb field with discrete allowed radii; specifically, 2 e and En = 2 mu TEs = 49? m f2ry = ys Ta trot ‘The expression for Ep is a form of the classical virial theorem; the kinetic energy of aclassical particle at the radius r, is —E, and the potential energy is 2 Ey. Larger68 Chapter 4 values of n correspond to electrons further away from the nucleus, and hence larger values of rn. The quantities in question are then seen to vary with n as follows: © Frequency: From the above expression, fn ~ rn°/, 0 frequency of revolution decreases with increasing n. (The relation between f, and r, might be recognized as a variation of Kepler's Third Law.) Electron speed: From the above expression relating vp, and rp, (compare to Equa- tion (4.4)), un ~ ra’/? and so electron speed decreases with increasing n. © Electron wavelength: The wavelength is inversely proportional to the momentum, and hence inversely proportional to the speed; because speed decreases with increasing n, as shown above, the electron wavelength increases with increasing n. To see this another way, there are n wavelengths in the circumference of an orbit, and the circumference is proportional to n?, so that the wavelength is proportional ton. © Angular momentum: L, = nh may certainly be used directly, or the kinetic energy may be expressed as =k =-mR=—, Imre Brean KE, from which Ly ~r4/? ~n, © Potential energy: As shown above, potential energy is a negative quantity that becomes less negative with increasing n, so potential energy increases with increasing n. « Kinetic energy: As shown above, kinetic energy is a positive quantity that becomes less positive with increasing n, so kinetic energy decreases with increasing n. ¢ Total energy: As shown above, the total energy is one-half of the potential energy, and so increases with increasing n. 4-29: There are many equivalent algebraic methods that may be used to derive Equation (4.19), and that result will be cited here; ‘The frequency v of the photon emitted in going from the level n+1 to the level nis obtained from Equation (4.17) with ny =n-+1 and ny =n; yo AEf_ 4 4] 2 f_ mtd ~The (nti n? h [n?(n+1)?]°Atomic Structure 69 ‘This can be seen to be equivalent to the expression for v in terms of n and p that was found in the derivation of Equation (4.20), but with n replaced by n +1 and p=1. Note that in this form, v is positive because E; is negative. From this expression, ee tin nttin Poet "(nt int imailacly, 2 fost [eeeer4] > Inti as the term in brackets is less than 1. 2B [ (n+3) (w+ nt “hati? as the term in brackets is greater than 1. 4-30: The reduced mass of the proton-antiproton system is mp/2, and so the separation of the particles in the ground-state orbit is 292 x 19711 Te, 00 5202x107 _ 5.76 x 10-™ m= 57.6 fn. At this distance, the particles would interact through short-range nuclear forces and would annihilate, producing two gamma rays. 4-31: For a muonic atom, the Rydberg constant is multiplied by the ratio of the reduced masses of the muonine atom and the hydrogen atom, R’ = R (m'/m.) = 186R, as in Example 4.7; from Equation (4.7), 43. 4/3 = "10 oy = A= Se > Tee Cer x oF mea ~ 088% 107 m= 0.653 am, in the x-ray range. 4-32: See Example 4.6; =A _ BOY cape,70 Chapter 4 4-33: The Hg lines, corresponding to n = 3 in Equation (4.6), have wavelengths of A = (36/5)(1/R). For a tritium atom, the wavelength would be Ap = (36/5) (1/Rr), where Rr is the Rydberg constant evaluated with the reduced mass of the tritium atom replacing the reduced mass of the hydrogen atom. The difference between the wavelengths would then be 7 eah-22]eafi-2 Ad=A-Ar=d pb nt] =a 1 |. ‘The values of R and Rr are proportional to the respective reduced masses, and their ratio i ralloS BR __memu/ (me+mu) _ mu (ng + mr) Rp memz/(m+mr) mp (mem) Using this in the above expression for AA, BAH=d Me (mn = ws 4 Be ‘Me (me + mH) 3mu’ where the approximations me + my * my and mr * 3my have been used. Inserting numerical values, Ad = SO Be = 2,38 x 107 m = 0.238 nm. 4-34: The reduced mass for doubly ionized hydrogen will be slightly lower than that for hydrogen. Neglecting this effect, the radii of all of the orbits will decrease by a factor of 3, as the magnitude of the attractive Coulomb force for a given radius has tripled. The radius of the ground-state orbit is ao/3 = (5.292 x 10-1 m) /3 = 1.764 x 10-!! m. The speed of an electron in this orbit may be found in a number of ways; from Equation (4.4) with V3e replacing e in the numerator, . V3e 3e 0" Yareomr ircomag’ which is three times the speed found in Example 4.1. Numerically, keeping an extra significant figure, v = 6.56 x 10° m/s. 4-35: (a) The steps leading to Equation (4.15) are repeated, with Ze? instead of e? and Ze! instead of ef, giving m! Ze 1 Bn = — Seed at

현대물리 솔루션

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

현대물리 솔루션

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

현대물리 솔루션

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like