tributions to Psychology in the Public [Dteres~ Senior and Nurture of Jo)' and Coll/enlment shows how it is [ha~ Lylcken.

ha~ Lylcken. D. T. (2000c1. Licensing parents: A reply to

Selected Bibliogrnphy critics. Journal oj Personalit)', 68. 639-649.
Career. although most psychological traits do have a generic basis.
Lylcken started using twins as research panicipants in human beings an: not prisoners of their biology but can
rise above (or sink below) their genetically determined set­ Bouchard, T. J.. Jr., Lykken. D. T., McGue. M., SegaL
! 969 on the grounds that twins are more numerous than Lykken. D. T.• Bouchard. T. 1.. Jr.. McGue. M.. &
N. L.. & Tellegell, A. (1990, October 12). The sources of
coilege soph~mores and considembly more valuable in al­ points to become happier and more productive people--and Tellegen, A. (1992). Emergenesis: Genetic traits that may
human psychological differences: The Minnesota Study of not run in families. American Psychologist, 47. 1565-l577.
most any psychoiogical investigation. In 1979. T. J. better parents.
Twins Reared Ap~ Science, 250, 223-228.
BOUChard. Jr.. asked him to collaborate in what has grown One of the surprising conclusions from the past 30 years

to be the most comprehensive study ever done of twins of behavior genetic research is thar being ~ together in Lykken, D. T.. Rose. R.. Luther. B.. & Maley. M. (1966).

separated in infancy and reored apart. Lykken's presidential the sanae home by the same parents does not tend to make Lykken, D. T. (1957). A srody of anxiety in the Correcting psychophysiological measurements for
address "Research With Twins: The Concept of Emergen­ children more alike psychologically when they reach adult­ sociopathic personality. Journal oj Abnamwi and Social individual differences in range. Psychological Bulletin. 66.
esis" (1982). given to the SPR. marked a uansition in his hood. This has been shown for unreiated foster siblines. Psychoiogy, 55, 6-lO. 481-484.
own work from a focus on psychophysiology to a primary and it can be seen also in the fact tha~ for many psy';ho­
interest in the mechanisms by which genetic differences loeical traits. DZ twins are less than half as similar as MZ Lykken. D. T. (1959). The GSR in the detection of guilt. Lykken. D. T., & Tellegen. A. (1993\. Is human mating
become expressed in differences in complex psychological twins. although shared home envircoment might be ex­ }oul71ai of Applied Psychology, 43, 385-388. adventitious or the result of lawful choice? A twin study of
traits. With colleal!Ues Bouchard. M. McGue. and A. Telle­ pected to make DZ similarity more than half of that found mate selection. Journal of Personalin, and Social
gen. Lylcken established the lorge binh-recnrd-hased Min­ for MZs. Lylcken. D. T. (1962. October 12). Preception in the rat: Psycholog)', 65, 56-68.
nesma Twin Registry, and, with W. Iacono and McGue. he An apparent exception to this principle-ihat parents are Autonomic response to shock as a function of length of the
began an intensive. multirnodsl study of 11- and 17-year­ funeible-is the trait of socialization. Children reared ta­ warning interval. Science, 137, 665-666. Lykken, D. T.. & Tellegen, A. (1996). Happiness is a
old twins and their families. 1.300 twin pairs in all. who gedier by irnmarure. incompeten~ or unsocialized parents stochastic phenomenon. Psye/wlogicoi Science, 7,
an: being followed at least into young adulthood and per­ tend to remnin unsocialized themselves. Children of mute Lylcken. D. T. (1968). Statistical significance in 186-l89.
haos until Iacono and McGue ore as old as Lylcken is now. parents residing in a community of spealters leam language psychological research. Psychological Bullerill. 70,

'A srody of resting electroencephalographic spectra in with the help of their peers and neighbors. and, similarly, 151-159. Lvkken. D. T., & Venables. P. (1971). Direct measurement

adult twins (Lylcken. 1982) revealed that monozygodc children of incompetent or unsocialized parents may ac­ of skin conductance: A proposal for standardization.
(MZ) twins' alpha rhythms are as similar to those of their quire the rudiments of socializarion through associntion Lykken. D. T. (1974). Psychology and the lie detector Psychophysiology, 8. 656-672.
cotwins as they are to the first twins' alphas measured on a with a socialized peer group. Unfortunately, many unso­ industry. American Psychologist, 29. 725-739.
second occasion. The spectra of dizygotic (DZl cotwins. cialized parents reside in an unsocialized subculture so that
bowever. are much less similar. suggesting a nonadditive
form of polygenic inheritance. Lykken later presented evi­
their children are doubly handicapped. If ps)'choparhs are
people whose innate temperornent make them especially
Lvkken. D. T. (1998). A tremor in the blood: Uses and
abuses of the lie derecror (2nd ed.). New York: Perseus. ;;{:~j;;
dence of other traits on which MZ twins. including twins
separated in infancy and reared np~ are very similar.
difficult to socialize. tben persons who remain unsocialized
largely because of parental malfeasance (or nonfeasance)
(First edition published 1981)
trr(
,.~
whereas DZ twins are little more a1ilte than unrelated per­ can be labeled sociopaths. Lykkell, D. T. (1982). Research with twins: The concept of
sons. He proposed the term emergenic for such traits.
which, although strongly genetic in origin. tend not to run
Studies conducted in both the United Kinedom and the
United States with panicipants recruited from the true un­
emergenesis. Psychophysiology, 19, 361-373.
i(~~:;
,)".1,1
in families because of their polygenic-configural mode of
inheritance. Further evidence was presented in Lylcken.
derclass of tbe inner city show a high incidence of sociopa­
thy associated with an equally high incidence of illegiti­
Lylcken. D. T. (1984, February 23). Polygraphic
interrogation. Nature, 307, 681-684. '!~~;
)~
Bouchard, McGue, and Tellegen (1992), together with an macy and fatherless rearing. This association can also be Most of the 1.400.000 men curreml)' locked up in
illusrration of how the occurrence of adaptive emergenic demonsrrated by statistics reported by the criminal justice Lykken. D. T. (1991). Conttoversy: The fight or !light
American prisons would have become tax-paying neighbors
traits might have been a mechanism for rapid SPUrls of svstem. In the United States. for eXOfDole. abOut 70% of response in Homo scientificus. In P. Suedfeld & P. Tetlock

.~
had they been switched in the hospiral nursery und sent
evolutionary change. that is, for punctuared equilibrium. U;carceroted juvenile delinquents, 72%'of teenage run­ (Eds.), Psychology and social policy (pp. 309-326).
home wirh a mature, self-supporting, married couple. The
Adult MZ twins. whether reared together or ap~ corre­ aways. 70% of school dropouts, and 70% of unwed teen­ Washingron, DC; Hemisphere.
parenr wirh whom they did go home would in T1lOSt
late about .50 in concurreD! happiness. as measured by age mothers were reared without fathers. From such statis­ instances not have been fir to adopt someone else's baby. 1t
scores on the Well-Being scale of Tellegen's Multidimen­ tics, it can be estimated that children ~ by single Lylcken. D. T. (1995). TIlt anrisocial personaliries. is argued thar perhaps rhe only e./fecrive wa)' (0 reduce
sional Personality Questionnaire. Ye~ like most psycholog­ mothers are at ahout seven times greater risk for delin­ Mahwah. NJ: Erlbawn. crinre and the othel' pathologies of the growing .4nrerican
ical traits. hnppiness is not a constant; rother. it varies from quency and other social pathology than are children reared
day to day or year to year because of the slings and ar­
rows. When 480 adult twins were retested after 3 years. the
by both biological parents-and ar an equally elevated risk
to establish a breeding ground for crime and delinquency
Lykken. D. T. (1998). The genetics of genius. In A.
Steptoe (Eli), Genius and tIlt mind: Studies of crearivirv -MI
retest correlation was .58. However, for 144 pairs of MZ in ·the next generation. For these reasons. Lylcken has be­ and temperament in the historical record (pp. 15-37). Editor's Note ':;;1,;
twins. the cross-twin. oross-time correlation was .49. sug­ come a strong advocate for public debare on whether. in Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. David T. Lykken received the Award for Distinguished
gesting that the heritability of the stahle componen~ the the interests of the children and of society generally, pro­ Scielllific .4pplicatiolls of Psychology. Award winners ·~[t~,
happiness ser-point, is substantially higher than .50 (i.e.. creational rights should be limited to marore, self­ Lykken, D. T. (2oooa). The causes and costs of crime and are invited (0 deliver an award address at APA's annual
.49/.58 = .84). For 96 pairs of DZ twins, the cross-twin, supporting, married couples who are neither criminal nor a controversial cure. Journal of Personality, 68, 559-605. convention. Articles based on award addresses are
cross-time correlation was only .04. giving a disattenuated suffering from debilitating mental illness or defect (see. not peer reviewed, as they are the expression of (he
value of .08. Lylcken's 2000 book Happiness: TIre Narure e.g., Lykkell, 2000.. 2000c.) Lykken. D. T. (2ooob). Happiness: The IUlrure alld nllmlre winners' reflections on rhe occasion of receiving an ,:
ofjoy and contenmlent. New York: S~ Marrin's Griffin. award. ':?; ;.

884 NovemOer 200 1 • Americ:m Psychologist November 200 1 • Americ:m PsychoiogiSl 385
 "i,ii
'ill
·,:i.
I/I/derclass-aparr from buildin~ still more IJlisons-would phants wbo were orphaned by culling operations in Kruger murdered in Chicago. nlioois. in 1993.51 (83%!) were II.1;~
/,e 10 require from persons wishing to birth alia rear a Figure 2 National ParK (Lemornck. 1997). The adults of the matriar­
child of their own those samt minimaL criteria usually Violent Crime Since ! 960 Versus Percentoge of Young
Moles in Populotion chal herds were shot and lhe baby elephants transported to
living with unmarried teenage mothers (Johnson &
McMahon. 1994). ;·1··i . ·
I', ~.\I
expected in adoptive /JOrenrs. For evolutionary' reasons.
~
omer parks. where mey grew up without me nonnal yean; In Minneapolis. Minnesota. the county anorney recently IU,

'l
liuman beings are reLuctant to ;nrelfere wit" the 30 0'10 VlOtent en Alit. 4QJ aft of parental supervision-<U1d they grew up to be dangerous
<5""~"~~-"- -- --- ---- -- --J:J50""
I
surveyed 135 children who had been referred for felonious
procreatiollal rig/us oj any [Jerson. 110 martel' how outlaws. The salvation of the rhinos. it turned out. was to crimes ranging from an;on. vandalism. and theft to assnult,
":1>'
immamre. incompetent. or wtsocialized Itt or she might be.
tl1 consequellce, human iJtings tend ItOt to think about the
~
til
....
;
2.000:.+-----
I
-_._-- - -

lS()ll,r---- - - - - - - - -
I
--
~ _

---
.. -
J~O'I.
SOCR.
~
~
•
~
bring in a number of mature buil elephants. truiy "big dad.
dies." who could dominate and socialize these delinquent
burglary. and crirrunal sexual conducl-youngsten; aged
nine or younger. Once agam. 70% of these children were
right oj rhe child to a reosollable 0ppol1lllliry for life. young males and teach them how a bull elephant is sup· living in single-mother homes (Wiig, 1995). If the base
: OO'fl+- - - - . - - - - - ;;

::tt===:·=::-=.:=~=:::::~=:=:::·. ·.t::.:!
liberry. alld rhe pursuit oj happilless. posed to behave (Fager. 2000).

There has been much in the press abom the receOl reduc­
t~ .5·O'1.t--·
~ --..- .------. _._-_.. .-~oo.",,~
I \ 0'10 ~
TIle human species ranks between the elephants and the
gJCat apes toward the low end and the ants and hymenop­
tera at the ltigh end of the continuum of socialization. Hu­
rate for fatherless rearing of today's teenagen; is 25%
(which is the best curtent estimate. although litiS rale is
growing alarmingly). [hen one can calculate that the risk
for social pathologies ranging from delinquency to death is
tion in the U.S. crime rate. The rate or violent crime has man beings are born with the capacity to develop a moni­ about seven times higher for youngsten; raised without fa­
:. .,0·O%t- ---..--..-.-----.-.-.-. ------. i
failen steadily each year since 1993. Politicians from may­
on; to presidents have laken credit for this encouraging
trend. Yet it is wise in lhinkinE about these imoonant is­
sues to look at the big picture.-wltich is shown' in Figure l.
:::::·--·-..------·-----~r:""
1~~~1~lml~'~1~1~a~
Ye.
toring conscience that works to inhibit rule breaking.
Humans can learn to feel emoathv for their feUow crea­
tures and to tnke satisfaction 'in acts of altruism. Mosl peo­
ple develop a sense of responsibility to their families and
then; than ior lhose reared by bOlh biological parents
(Lykken. 1997).' Calculations done separately, on reason­
able assumptions. for White and Black youngsten;. yieid
the same results ior both.
TI,ere one sees that a veritable eoidomic of violent cruoe Note. Because maies ag«i 15 10 25 yean C:Qmmit about haif of all violentcrirne, meir community. a desire to pull their own weight in the Correlatioo does not of course prove a direct causal
began in the United States in the early 1960s and lhat the the e1'llTy or rh. pC)SIwor boDy boomers into mi, ag. of risk mIght haY. initiOled lhe group effort for survival. Humans may be the only species conoection. Fatherless children may be at ltigher risk be­
rate in 1992 was nearlv five times what it was in 1962. epidemic fhol began in 1M early 1960•.
wim a saong. clearly differentiated self-eonceptthat moti­ cause single or divorced mothers tend to have to live io
Even alier lhe encouraging recent downturn. the rate of vates them to emulate people whom they admire so as to srraitened circulDStances. often in bad neighboriloods. The
violent crime is still three times what it was' 40 vean; ear­ feel good about theroselves. biological· parents of fatherless cltildren may pass on to
lier. Moreover. the latest reports suggest that tbe downturn 1960s and that. by the late 1970s. tltis relatively dangerous Unlike the hard-wired procliVities of the social insects. their offspring genetic disadvantages. lower IQ. or difficult
has ended. However. there are still two problems to ex­ subgroup had increased in size about 30%. Later. as the however. these prosocial inclinations do not emerge in peo­ temperaments. Women and girls who ood up as single
plam: What caused the crime epidemic in lhe iin;t place. baby boomers began co move out of the ltigh-lisk age ple (or in eiephants) as well-formed instincts but. like the motben; mayan average be less competent as parents. ei­
and what was responsible for the recent reductions'? group. i[ feU back to slightly below its former proportion inborn capacity for language. must be elicited. shaped. and ther because of their pen;onallimitations or because parent­
Nearly half of the violent crimes in this country are of the popuJation- but· the crime rate continued to go up. reinforced by illleractions with other. older humans during ing is simply too difficult and relentlessly demanding ior
;,."1. 1'
f:·;l~.
commined by young males aged 15 through 25 yean; Only a small proportion of all males aged 15 to 25 early developmelll. Society's poor success in rehabilitating moSt individuals to accomplish it successfuUy alone. ~ :~;.
(Lyllin. 1995. p. 30). Figure 2 shows that the baby yean; are at high risk for crime. ~specially violelll crime. pen;ons who have reached young adulthood still inade­
boomen; were JUSt moving into this age bracket in the early Rou~hlv 6% of any birth cohort commits about half of ail quately socialized suggests that. agam like the language
In an imporrnnt recent paper. Harper and MacLanahan
(1998) analyzed the data from the National Longirudinal ;\t;!'
crime (rracy. Wolfgang. & Figiio, 1985). Who constitutes capacity. there may be a critical period for socialization. Survev of Youth to determine whether the increased crime ;';J;~;';
that ltigh-risk proportion? Some of them are the people 1 Unless it is evoked. sculpted. and made habitual in child­ rare ~ong boys reared without fathen; can be anribuled to
Figure 1 call psychopaths. whose genetic temperament makes them hood, the human talent for socinlizauon may \vither and the facts that such children [Cnd more often to be poor, [0
Violent Crime Since 1960 -Role per
100,000 Populotion so difficult to socialize thaI unless they are very lucky in QCver develop. be Black. to live in central cities. or co have been born to ;,;[1:­
the quality of therr rearing experiences. they grow up to be , It turns out that there is a striking correlation. at least in teenage mothen;. Even after conaolling for ail of these fac­ ~:~~~
~!
predators of one kind or another (Lykken, 1995). My col­ the United Stares. between fatherless rearing and subse­ ton;. family strucrure remained the strongest predictor oi a
350'1.+-.. ------.---.-.. . . -.--..--.
leagues and 1 have found in [Win research that two of the quent social pathology (Lykken. 1997). Of the juveniles boy's being in jailor prison by age 30. It is interesting that

j~t~~: ~~~:~
more crime-relevant pen;onaJity traits. aggression and im­ incarcerared in the United Stares for serious crimes. about the presence of a steprather did nOl decrease the risk in­
pulsiveness. are ,uullgly genetic but also emergenic 70% were reared without the participation of their biologi­ volved with mother-<)nly rearing. whereas boys reared by
(Lykken. Bouchard. McGue. & Tellegen. 1992); the rele- cal fathen; (Beck. Kline. & Greenfeld. 1988; Sullivan. single fathen; were no more at risk for serious delinquency
vant polygenes appear to combine coniigurally rather than 1992). Of the antisocial boys studied at the Oregon Social than those brought up by both biological parents.
additively. so thar these traits ruo only weakly in families. Learning Center. fewer than 30% came from intact families Many people. including some psychologists. still sub­
Because psychopathy is genetic. possibly emergenic. it can­ (Forgau:h. Patten;on. & Rny. 1994). Of the more than scribe to Rousseau·s (17621191]) idea that the child is a
not have increased 400% in frequency over a few decades. 130.000 teenagen; who ran away from home in 1994. 72% kind of noble savage. narurally good until corrupted by .~_l

~ r' . . __
0'lI. ~ _~.
Most of the high-risk subgroup are the people I call so­
cioparhs. people whose learning experiences during cltild­
hood failed to elicit. share. and reinforce their inborn ca­
were leaving single-parem homes (Snyder & Sickmund.
1995). In St. Paul. Minnesota. a 1994 study of "baby tru­
ants"-elementary school pupils who had more than 22
social influences. Rousseau was able to maintam this in­
verted image of reality because he abandoned his own chil­
dren to the care of their mother. but it is difficult to under­
.50'6.

pacities for socialization: How do most children avoid unexcused absences in the year-round that 70% were be­
1~ l~ ,~ ,~ ~~ 1~ 1m 1~ ~
becoming social misiits? Probably in much the same way ing reared by single mothen; (Foster. 1994). Nationally.
Y. .,
as the \'ounE of other social mammals lem the rules of about 70% of teenage girls who have out-<)f-wedlock ba­ llf R,. is thl! Jt!/inqut!/'CY raft! for flu 7.59& of childrell raised with Jarlun
Note. In spH. of muctW.alded rllC'M1t dedine" !h. currenf rolll oi viol....t aim. prut!1It and R~ is ,ht mle for (ht 25l1J of children rais«i wi". no fathLr.
in me Unl~ Stores IS .liN more tnon Ih.... rim•• wnot II was In i 960. (Data from
their communities: through the monitoring and example of bies were raised without rathen; (Krista!. 1994). For
tlrtll(.2J RN ,.)I(.75 R~J - 7:J. rht! rona offallier/tIS dtlinqut!IItI to th·
FedllfOi BWflOV of 1~9Qrion. Uniform en'me ii.pam, 196O-2ooo.) tlleir olden;. In southern Africa. recently. wltite rhinos were grossly abused children. the odds are even ltigher that the li'lQutJlts rrarrd wi,II falhen. 17/u l~alU that thl! rano of the ova delin­
being murdered nOI by poachers but by young male ele- biological father was not on the scene-of the 61 children quenc)' rares. R~,.'R,.. l.!quals r7 x .75V(.3 x .:5) "'" i.

886 November :001 • American Psycbologist November 200 1 • American Psychologist 887
srand how anvone who has acmallv reared a lilrle hov
could sustain'such a notion. Nagin' and Tremblay (1999) Figure 3 Figure 5 Figure 7
Vioient Crime Since 1960 Plus Two Sources of Change U.S. Divorce Raie Predicting the Violent Crime Rate-Predictors:
followed 1.037 heys from lower-<:Iass. White. French­
speaking families in Montreal Quebec. Canada. who were 3O.~i =-= 'J.... IDn.r",.; ...... tJ ..,.. iil'aJ'II 25T'----------------, Percentage Age 15-25 Years, Percentage Fatherless
BOO, [
firsl rated for physical aggressiveness in kindergarten. with ~
:; '001-----
!:L~~-=~~---~~-~':-~
I
annual teacher and self-ratings for physical aggressiveness
from ages 10 through 17 years. More thon 809& of Ihese
~
N

~
0

! J
~
20 . .________
--_. ·_·. ·--.ri. ~I·
j .. I
Vlo .....' Crt
0

boys were physically aggressive to some degree at age 6. ~

..s
t
0

Aheue 60% of this groap were only moderately aggressive : ~ .

in kindergarten and then desisted almost entirely by age
15. Another ,35% showed considerable physical aggression
at a2e 6 bue then. bv 15. had desisted to the level at which
~
.
&
!u
..
1 5 - · - - - - - - -.. -1 ,~ no
__ ._,.::.::1 __ ------ -----~-~1
the moderately aggfessive group began. Yet about 4% of
I c
~ j '0"-':-"--"-' -..--- --..----..- . 1 ~
'~""" ---·---·==~-i
.! -----­
the group who were hitting. kicking. and biling other chil­ :. 200 - -- - _._­
dren in kinderganen did nOI desist at all and. by ages 15
through 17. were amcking. fighting. gang fighting. C:llTl'­ i > , _ - - - · - - - - - - -..
. ".,;
~980
ing a deadly weapon. thre:ltening others. and so on.
Presumably because of their genetic temperaments. a
1900 ;940 :950
v..,
1960 1970 1950
1970 :915 1:BJ
V.er 1$65 1$l() 1995 :c:~
NoN. Th. proportion of the 15-25 age group born out of weci$ock I~
subsrnntial propomon of toddlers are pushing or hitting or upwom in th. 1960. and is now five times what it was in 1960. Boys rllOrwc! NoM. Th. U.S. divorce ror. peaked right aft. World War II. lhen shot up again Nolo. Indueling lhe plt)pomon of tn. IS· to 2S-yeor.c1d mol.s J.ft lath.n.... by ~": ": "

biting at least now and then before the age of 2 (Tremblay w"hou, talt'\efs are some seven rime. ~ likely to remoin unlOdoJiud rhon 0('1' cbing ,h.
1970s. early divorce imprcwes th. prlldidion,
boy. reonta bv both bioioglc:c! parenB.
ot a1.. 1999), and the data seem 10 show Rousseau (as well
as Bandum. (973) was mistaken: The physically aggressive
are born. not made. However. the vast majority of the early abour 1980 in response 10 the epidemic of crime that and 1.4 million. respectively, by 1999. Because the typic:l1
aggressors do desist by their teen years. presumably in re­ proportion of young people in that state who were reared started 15 years earlier. That number had risen about 400% prison inmate committed some 12 serious crimes during
sponse to socialization experienced from their parenes and by single mothers. Figure 8 shows that scaner plot. and. when lile crime rate leveled off in the early 199Os. and the year prior to bis last arrest (Blumstein. Cohen. & Far­
lbeir peers. 111e person best equipped and most likely to coincidentally, the correlation is that magic number 0.70 there are now more than 1.4 million men behind bars ringron. 1988), taking more than a million such men off
provide those socializing inlluences is the aggressive once again. (more than 2 million if one includes county jails). as com­ the streetS and putting them into prison is bound to yield at
youngster's biological father-but only if that father is a What bas caused the significant fail in the crime rate pared with about 170.000 in 1970. During the peak crime least a temporary diminution in the crime rate.
resident member of the rearing family. over the past eight years? The proportion of fatherless year 1992. some 15.5 million index crimes. including 1.9 In Figure 10. I have put together :l11 four predictors of
Although lile proportion of young males in Ihe U.S. young males has continued to increase. yer crime has de­ millibn violent crimes. were reported 10 the Federal Bureau the rate of violent crime: the proportion of the population
population. the group at highesl risk bolil as perpetrators creased. Figure 9 shows thar the number of criminals se­ otInvestigatioo. Those figures had failen to 11.6 million who are males aged 15 to 25 years. the proportion of this
and as victims of violent crime. declined beginning in questered in state or federal prisons began to accelerate in
aDoUt 1980 as lile baby boomers gOI older. Figure 3 shows
lilat the proportion of that high-risk group who were born ,. Figure 6 Figure 8 .
OUI of wedlock increased aboUI 2509& from 1960 to 1992. Violent Crime Since 1960 Plus Three Sources Crime Rate Versus Fatherless Children­
when the crime rate peaked. Moreover. it has continued to of Change The 50 United Stotes
grow so that now the proportinn of young men aod women :xU". ! Vl6liill en",. H.te Ii I 100'1l 900,---------------,
reared without fathers is about five times whal it was in a5.0'1
Q
g eoJ ..- - - - - . - . - . -..- - - - - - - - - - ­
• ..

1970. Figure 4 shows that the rate of violent crime is only

N A:II 0.70 • • •
wenk!y adumbrnred by the two predictors shown in ~ .s 700 ------~--.._-.• .~.~_ _

Figure 3. g SOO
~.
••
-.--------; ~.-.:_:a----~-;- -.---­
Figure 5 shows the variation in divorce rate since 1920.
~o i SIX) -_ __ .__••- . _ _- _. _ _•._ •••_ ..- ­
with a big spike just after World War II and a subsequent
i
sharp rise beginning about 1970 and then leveling off after
1980. 11le additiontd proportion of the group aged IS to 25
years who were left partly or totally fatherless because of
"
<
. :
a:
E :m
400 . - - - -.•.....- -
"
- .. -;!-.-----------.-­
·----.r··.-·-.-Iil'··--·-~lr·---·---------··_-
~c .:-~.~-------
divorce increased in a somewhat different fashion after ,}-~-+--------- i
i 200
•
.._ - _ . _ - - . - - - ­
1960. as shown in Figure 6 (National Center for Health
Statistics. 1993). Figure 7 reveals that adding the propor­
tion of young males made fatherless by divorce improves
.
~
;; ,~
.
lOOt
=1 + 1­
1­
l'
'15.Ot.l"__ ~
~~ .
~ l 0 0 - { ! - _ - - - a - -....- - - - . - - - - - ­
oI . I
. '}.~,I
.;,. :<~~' ~i;

the prediction of violent crime.

1960 1~ 1~70 iWS ~= 1~ 1~ ,ggs lUJ". j' l~l~lmt~l~l~'~l~~
vo.
1.' 1611. ,6'11 i~ ~:;z'lt .1:.'11
P_oenta.a I".t........ Chi. .." in 1.10

~6'It

If 70% of violent delinquents and criminals were reared NoN. An DlMmef to predict ItMt vtoIent ailMl rate fn:wn the number or rnoIfl ~:.! NoN: No.ioub divatal 10Wl have added Jo "'- proportion of the 15-25 og. No,.. A sc:alt.r plot showing. for rhe 50 Unilecl SIO.... the ,.kltio''IIhip between ;: :,j:
without fathers. then there ought 10 be a correlation across 15-25 yllOr5 and tn. proportion of this group Ihat had been oom oul of wedlGcL t. ~ wna ~ rear.d wirh liltle atKile panidpalion Dy rhe;r biological faltlen. each stote's yiolenrcrim. raM in 2000 and Ihot 110.'1 iUeghimoey ra" in 1990.
the 50 states between a state's violent crime rate :lOd dIe ""} " l~:
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -November
- -2001-• American
- - PSychologist"
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888

-;t. t'·, • NOvember 2001 • American Psycholoiisl

- 889

)~
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.
,,~:
 had they been allowed to come to tenn. would have pro­ word in his boole contributed by Superior Court Judge thers are about seven times more iikelv to become
Figure 9 duced babies with poorer furore prospeclS than those of Charles Gill (1994). and I found one of Judge Gill's para­ adjudicated delinquenlS (or high school drOpOUlS. teenage
Violent Crime Since 1960 -Effect of Seprup/ing babies planned and welcomed by their parenlS. Yet it grdpllS especially telling: runaways. adolescent unmarried mothers. etc.'l, as David
Men in Prison
wouid appear that most of the illegitimate binhs. which Where do these monsters. preetllors. and "punks" come from? Rowe (1997) has pointed out this scary statistic does not

3-.-1,,,,,
400'II11300
explain whar proportion of fatherless children is doomed
3500>t------.---.-:'''-::~~~~·-
produce youngsters likely to grow up unsocialized and per­ Did they parachute from another country? Did they emerge
g haps criminal. involve women and girls (and men and from a spaceship from anomer planet'! We know Ihree rhiog, oat to reach thllt good starting poim memioned earlier but

~E~~~~~~~~~
bovs) who are themseives members of the underclass and aboul these hated citizens. One. mey were all born in Ameri­ only that this fraction of fallures wiU be seven times larger

who were unable or unwilling to make use of either absti­ can hospitals: two. mey were all educated in AmencM than the propomon of two-parent children who rail by the
nence. contraceotion. or abortion. schools. and Ihree. they were ail reared by AmencM adults. It wavside. If only a few percem or out-{)f-wedlocle binhs are
Thus. the principal reason why the crime rate has de­ is me rare predator who has had a successful childhood... fatally bandicapped by the circumstances of their rearing,
creased since 1993 is the increase in the number of persons The place 10 fight crime is in the craole. (pp, viii-i') then one might feei reluctll1lt to ralee any radicai steps to
sequestered in U.S. prisons. It is likely that the increase in All of these social misfits began life as innocent babes. protect them.
It rums out that one can find on the Web (Office of Ju­
--_.--._==}=
5O'~-f------ -
""', ,_. .......--'-_._._.. . -. ,_.-'_.-.. .-'-r"'"

i
Z
the numbers of abortions since 1973 has had a supplemen­
tary effect. No one would argue that either of these poli­
cies constitutes a good way of dealing with the crime prob­
most of whom could have become law-abiding, self­
supponing citizens if the circumstll1lces of their formative
veats had been somehow different: therefore. I believe it is
venile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. 2000) the num­
bers needed to make a reasonable estimate of the relevant
lem. but the sratisrics reviewed above strongly sugges[ that ;'asonable to think of them. like the objeclS of their malev­ ranos. About 2.5 million of the 25 million children aged
.sao. I I, reducing the numbers of unwan",d children being reared by olence. as vtcnms too. 10 to 17 years in the United States were arrested lasr year.
I~ : ~ , m ~ m l ~ l ~ ' ~ 1m ~~
Y. . .
single mothers-mothers who are immature. overburdened. Last year in Minneapolis. a i5-year-{)ld girl who had According to the latest census statistics. about 2.8 millioo
NoItt. The numDet or men in sIata anci fed.al priwns quoeiruoled belWMn or unsocialized themselves-would lIlJlke tbe world a better not known tllat she was pregnanr gave binh to a viable of the children in this age group were living with never­
1970 cnd 1992. when th. cnme rate slO!'p80 I~S aimb. lading up more place. More imponant by far.ir would prevent hundreds of infant in the bathroom of her home. She stuffed the baby married mothers, Thus. tbe besr estimates that can be marie
criminals for lonqw sentence. is one sure V<IOY of reouclng crime.
thousands of iunocent American infanlS being depriVed of and the placenlll into a plastic bag. which she deposited in are these: Children aged 10 to 17 who ore living with both
their binhrighlS of life. libeny, and the pUlSuir of a, neighbor's dumpsrer. Someone Ileard the baby's cry be­ biological parenlS had about a 6% chance of being arres",d
happiness. fore the night was over. and prompt hospital lre:ument last year. wbereas those living with never-married mothers
mUn who were reared famerless because of divorce. the Jack Wesanan. now an emeritus professor of child psy­ saved the infant's life. The baby was placed with fos",r had a 42% chance of spending pan of last year in a jall
prop;,rtion who were born our of wedlock. and. finally. the chiatry at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. pub­ parenlS. who grew attached to the child and recently asked somewhere.' ;: ~.~
In her imponant book The NlI11Ure .4ssumptiol1. Judith
>i:'~;:;
number of men sequestered in state and federal prisons. As lisbed in 1994 a fascinating and imponant book entided to adopt it The biological mother. however. who had her­
can be seeo. the predicted curve approximares me real Licensing Parenrs: Can We Prevenr Parenral Abuse and self been born out of wedlock. asked the family coun to Harris (1999\ made a strong case for the alarming proposi­
curve reasonably well. Neglecr? (Westman. 1994), which appeared about the time rerum custody to her. and the coun complied with her re­ tion that most parents are fungible. She has persuaded me ~) ;·:rr
10 a provocative artieie. Donohue and Levitr (2000\ ar­ I was coming to the same conclusion from a different di­ quest. It was the view of the coun that the righlS of the dJar most children-perbaps 80% to 90% of all American ",):il
...;.'! ~"~
gued that anomer reason for the recent dip in the American recnon. Westman was fononate in having a punchy fore- foster parents. the only caregivers thar this child had children-would have grown up JUSt as well socialized.

crime Ta'" was the legalization of abortion in the unired known. were outweighed by the parental righlS of this 16­ just as well adjusted. as in fact they did if they had been ~~~~~~I

Stares in 1973. Of tbe millions of abortions since thar date. Figure 10 L year-{)id. No one seems to have considered the righlS of randomly switched among bassinets in the hospital nursery.

I am willing to admit !hat 80% to 90% of parenlS do not

:W;1
women or girls who would not have been pencitted to Prooicting the Violent Crime ROle-Predictors: this fatherless (indeed. grandfatherless) infant. :~i;;;'~
.~ :
adopt someone else's baby obtained a disproportionate Percentage Fatheriess, Number in Prison Suppose that one had the godlike ability to perform the differ significandy in their impact on the adult adjustment ""~ ~I
fractioo. Births to teenage mothers decreased 17% from
1990 to 1996. wheo nearly 4 in 10 teenage pregnancies.
some 274.000 in all. were rerminared by abortion (Alan
~~ :Ir -------~--~
Violent en".. AabI
following experiment. Locate 200 fatherless teenagers who
have giveo birrh unexpectedly and then abandoned the in­
fant next door. Place these 200 babies with 200 foster­
and socialization of their children beyond those imponant
genetic contributions that they made at conception.
That large majoriry of parenlS do, of cOUlSe. inlluence
.~~.i~1
,:;~~
~ ~~
how their children behave ar home. and those parenlS range

1~
Gut!macher Institute. 1999). This change io social policy pareot couples who. a year later, want to adopt them. AI­
1
toward abortion may have sharply reduced the proportioo
of unwanted infanlS born to be reared bv immature. ild­ i:~ =z;;z ~ r
~'.
range for the coun to grant adoprion in a random half of
these cases and to return custody of the other lOO babies to
from good to bad. from skillful to clueless. in determining
whether the homes their children grow up in are bappy and

1=f--­
dicted. overburdened. or otherwise unfit'parenlS. This. in their young mothers. 'rben foUow these 200 children for peaceful or hosrile and complaining: even Harris would
acknowledge that mucb. She insislS. however. illId I believe
tum. would have sharply reduced the proportioo of Ameri­ i- twoI decades.
~=IAL-
can childreo who were subsequeody doomed to grow up predict that most of the adoptees would graduate from she is right. !hat most of the children of mosr parenlS de­ ··-,'flrl

uosociaiized. One problem with this argument is that dur­ high school with grades proportional to their ability and velop adult persona.lities and behavior panems thllt are :"; ~i~
ing the 1990s, there was a sharp increase io violent crime.
esP'lCially murder. committed by adolescent males who
were born after the 1973 Roe v. Wade decisioo. (One can
a
;; 'oot-#--- -t without the handicaps of criminal conviction. drug addic­
tion, or parenthood. I would contend that the country' s
meritocracy has evolved enough so that almost all Ameri­
largely determined by the interacnoo of their genes with
the e,trafamilial experiences they have with teachers. with
employers. and especially with peers,
. '1.:i

be confideot however, dJar at least 70% of these adoles­ '''?960~.,...~-'-::!l65::--'::.-::70:-''''07S=-'-::900=--'::.c:--,'900=-'''

.. ...::--,::I:tlOO , can. youngsrers wbo manage to reach this starting point :;....,

ceot murderers were reared without fathers.) The secood Y- f." regandless of ethnicity or gender. can expect to find a job ?
Note. The cllrve cieoicting the change, in the violent crime raie since 1960 can : Uti N{. lhe /lumber af c/rildren Jiving with !allJers. equal 22.5 mi!liOIl
serious problem with the Dooohue and Levin analysis is b. qui" do.Mly approxlmateei using me four pntdClor vancel.. (moles aged orfunDer training, as well as subsequent professional ad­ ami Nn/. the number of children lil·jlrC: wilh IJ1Ilwd motllel"$. equal 2.8
that in spite of the recent drop io births to teeoage mothers. 15-25 yean. farherifts because 01 divoree. bom out of w«iIoclt. incarcerated in vancement that is in keeping with their talenrs and energies. million. Let X. be ,he "umber offf arrested last year. and 2.5 milJiOIl "'" ·.f
SIOIe 0( iecieral pri$Onl snO'N'n in Figvres 6 and 9. Correlation, do not prow liltS X be the "UlMer oj 11ft arrested. Givell rhol Pili ~ 7 X Pf. ,here/nre.
the illegitimacy rate has cootinued io ilS accelerated climb. . Now. how about the 100 babies pia.ced with their imma­
CQusanOtl, but, in mis COS., the relafiondlip is p1ousibl•• and the iiI of the data
ture. undereducated. economically dependent single morh­
(2.5 - XVl.8 - lX/21.5. and X = 1.336 milliOlL mus, 1.336122.5 or .{
Doe cannot doubt that most of the feruses aboned eacb surefy issuggurive. 5.94% of children witll both parentS II'ere urruted. compared with 1.1641 ~:.j
year resulted from unplanned, uowanted pregnancies that . ers1. Although children reared without their biological fa­ 1.8 or 41.56% a/fatherless t:!liidull. '. ~l

!.
890 November 1001 • American Psychologist! November ::001 • Americ:lIl Psy~hoiogist 891

L
. .; ~I

'i~~];
11­
';ili,
~~j
'./ 11"1/.;
~ Fager. J. (Executive Producer). (2000. August 22). The
il;;,
I~!
However. I would still comend that most of the 1.4 mil­ sure neither partner has been convicted of a violent crime, view of his violent past (discussed in Gegax. 1997). Their "1.;1',

delinquents. In 60 minutes II. New York: Columbia

lion American men currently languishing in prison would
have grown up to be tax-paying citizens and acceptable
then they can expect that the license will come in the mail.
A baby born to an unlicensed mother would be removed
procreative rights would indeed have been sacrificed by the
licensure requiremenL but tbe alternative, the one now in Broadcasting System. Retrieved October 17,2001. from ;1\
the CBS News Web site: hnp:l/www.cbsnews.comlnow/ ~[ ;~:-:
neighbors if they had been switcbed in the nursery and sent from her custody at birth and put up for permanent adop­ effect. is tbe sacrifice of the rights of their unborn children. ~ l~ i .
home with a mature, law-abiding married couple rather tion. That mother would be required to identify, if sbe can. Whose rigbts are more deserving of society's proteCtion7 I SlOry/O,1597.226894-412.00.shtrnl -:l
;

t!:

than with their biological parent or parents. The problem is the child's father, and be would be assessed all the costs of will close with the words of a philosopher who has pon­

that the resean:h studies on which Harris had to rely to the birth. If either parent were to participate in a second dered deeply these questions of rights and of liberty, John
Federal Bureau of Investigation. (1960-2000). Unifonn

make her case seldom included the kinds of parents that unlicensed binlt. he or she would be required to submit to Sluan Mill (1859, p. 124):
crime repons for the United States. Washington. DC: U.S.
most of those prison inmates actually went home with. long-lasting or permanent contraceptive treatment-lhat is. Depamnent of Justice.
Causing me existence of a human being is one of the' most
However. even if 42% of fatherless adolescent bovs did if the prehistoric song can be resisted. responsible :u:tions in <he range of human life. To undenake
get arrested last year. more than 50% of this StOup d'id not . Some people are troubled by the marriage requiremenL this responsibility-lo bestow a life. which may be either a Forgatch, M. S., Patterson. G. R.. & Ray, J...... (994).
get arrested. and many of these may avoid delinquency, but this is not included for religious or social reasons. curse or n blessing-unh:ss the being on whom it is to be Divott:e and boys' adjustment problems: Two paths with a
addiction. and unwed parenthood altogether. What son of rather as evidence of a sincere conunitment to ·this joint beslOwed will have at least the ordinary cbances of a desir­ single model. In E. M. Hetherington, D. Reiss, & R.
statistics would one need before feeling some obligation to responsibility. A couple who are phobic about weddings able existence-is a crime against that being. Plornin (Eds.). Stress, coping, and resiliency in children
favor intervention'? Several hundred thousand years of evo­ might substitute a legal contract agreeing to cohabitate for and the fnmily (pp. 96-110). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. )'1,

lution have conditioned human brains to consider procre­ at least 12 yeOlS and accepring financial and similar obliga­ Author's Note
ation to be their raison d'ette, and, therefore, parental '. •i ~ .,
tions. However. a civil marriage ceremony seems simpler Correspondence cOlICe,."in~ this address should be sent to Foster, E. (1994, April 7). Baby truants at record higb in
rights ore felt to be the most sacred rights of aU. For exam­ to me. David T. Lykken. Depamnent of PSycilOiogy, University of St. Paul. Minneapolis Star Tlibune, pp. l, 8. ; ~.:.~
ple. Scandinavian swdies (Bremer. 1959) have shown that Parental licensure would not take away the children of MinnesoUl, Minneapolis, MN 55409. Electronic mail may

surgical castration drasticaJIy reduces recidivism among sex mothers left without a parmer as a consequence of death or be sent to [email protected]. Furby, L., Weinron. M. R.. & Blacksbaw, L. (989). Sex

;:~ . offenders and lhat apan from incarceration beyond the age divorce. With respect to babies not yet bonc. single offender recidivism: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 105,

of risk. it is the only treaanent that does work (Furby, women. like Jodie Foster. who wish to raise a child with­
References 3-30.
Weioron. & Blacksbaw. (989). Modem DNA techniques out a partner would have to demonstrllte to a family court

aUow the identification of the guilty party in most sex judge that they have the resoutt:es necessary to provide the
Gegax, T. T. (1997, November 10). The AIDS predator.
Alan Guttmaeher Institute. (1999). Teenage pre~nanC)':
crimes with great cenainty. Yet nOI one of the 50 states child with good care and supervision. including some ade­ Newsweek. 128, 52-59.
Overall trends and stare-by-state information. New York:
has even considered requiring a repeat sex offender to be quate paternal surrogate. Gay or lesbian couples might also
genitally disarmed before he is released from prison. It has appeal to family coun for a license to produce and rear a Author.
Gill, C. D. (1994). Foreword. In J. Westman, LicellSing
been wisely suggested that "the genes sing a prehistoric child biologically parented by one of them. As in the case
Bandurn. A. (1973). Aggression: A social learning parents: Can we prevent parental abuse and neglect? (pp.
song that today should sometimes be resisted but which it of the so-called Murphy Browns. the burden would be on .

analysis. Englewood Cliffs. NJ: Prentice Hall. vii-x). New Yorlc: Plenum,
would be foolish to ignore" (Bouchard. Lylcken, McGue. the applicants to convince the court of their commianent to

Segal, & Tellegen. 1990, p. 228). Perhaps the loudest of eacb other and to the parental undenaking. Because I am
those prehistoric songs is the one that has made any inter­ writing this law. I will add a codicil saying that applicants Beclc. A.. Kline. S.. & Greenfeld, L. (1988). Surwry of Harper. C. C., & MacLanahan, S. S. (1998, August).
ference with procreational rights the ultimate taboo. who had divott:ed a former spouse while any child of that youth in custody, 1987. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Father nbsellCe aJld youth incarceration. Paper presented at
Therefore, I think it is helpful to consider the adoption marriage was less than 12 years old would have to con­ Statistics. the annual meeting of the American Sociological
situation first. Good statistics indicate that children raised vince a family court jiJdge that their new union was more
Association, San Francisco, CA.
by single mothers. by persons who have never been eco­ likelv to endure. Blumstein. A.. Cohen. J.• & Farrington, D. P. (1988).

nomically independent. by criminals, or by addicts have a Whose civil rigbts would be interfered with by such a Criminal career research: Its value for criminology. Harris. J. R. (1999). Tlte nurture assumption. New York:

substantial likelihood of ending up abused, in prison. on licensure requirement7 Youngsters of less than legal age Criminology, 26, 1-37. Free Press.

welfare, or as addicts themselves. I would be in favor of a would bave to wait a while. Couples who are impover­

StaOtte that prevented such people from adopting other peo­ isbed, unemployed. or living on welfare would have to Bouchard. T. 1.. Jr" Lykken, D. T.. McGue. M., Segal. Johnson. S.. & McMahon. C. (1994. January 2). Killing

ple's infants on the grounds that these babies have their wait until they get a job or win the lottery before they can N. L.. & Tellegen. A. (1990, October 12). Soutt:es of
our children. ClJicago Tribune. pp. l, 6, 7.
whole lives ahead of them: that they have rights too. im­ buy a car nr have a baby. Couples in which one or both
human psycbological differences: The Minnesota Study of
ponanl rights: and that this society has the responsibility to members are incapacitated by pbysical or menml disorder Twins Reared Apart. Science. 250, 223-228. Kristol, I. (1994. November 3). Children need their fathers.
protect those rights. If one can agree with me on this. then (including substance abuse) or have been convicted of a Tlte New York Times. p. A15.

I thinl:: one ought to be Deady to consider establishing mini­ crime of violence would require special dispensation (after
Bremer, J. (1959). Asexualization: .4 follow-up srudy of 244
ma! requirements for biological parenthood. rigorous examination, one hopes) by the family court to be Lemonick. M. D. (1997, October 13). Young, single, and
cases. New York: Macmillan.
What would licensing parents involve? In the vast ma­ licensed. out of conuol. Ti=, 150, 68. ~:~I
jority of cases. parental licensure would not be decided by On the other hand. Rosa Lee Cunningham (discussed in
a conunittee or a coun but rather by the same cleric from Dash, 1996). prostitute and drug dealer, could not bave Dash, L. (1996). Rosa Lee: A generational tale of poverty
and survival in urban America. New York: Basic Books. Lylcken, D. T. (1995). 77.. antisocial personalities.
:t
whom one might obtain a driving license. Candidates obtained a license for any of her eight illegitimate children.
Mahwah. NJ: Erlbaum. .... .,~
would have to bring along a marriage license. evidence Or consider Nusbawn Williams, the young man said to ~ .~
that they are both of legal age, and a form signed by their bave infected more than 100 women with AIDS-his un­ Donohue. J. 1.. & Levit~ S. D. (2000). Tbe impact of 't:
legalized obanion on crime. Quarterly loumal of Lykken. D. T. (1997). Factory of crime. Psychological
employetis) or their banker proving that they are self­ married grandmother could not have obtained a license, nor
":
supporting. If they can wait a week for the clerk to make could his mother. nor his sister. nor Nushawn himself, in Economics. 116. 379-420. 1nquiry, 8, 261-270.
;"
November 2001 • American Psychologist 893 ,.,
892 November 200 I • American Psychologist
:, :;.
,tr~i.~
!~
 Ii

"",lllii -_. _.
=-:"...,. _"'·~*·"'l-~';:"1"",-"'~-',·c~::·~_-·--:,:·. ,.:.' :~~~.=-,,":.~- ''j7;''Ii

Lykken. D. T.. Bouchard. T. J.. Jr.. McGue. M.. & Snyder. H. N.. & Sickmund. M. ([995). luvenile oifenses
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National Cemer for Health Statistics. ([993). Vitai statistics Justice and Delinquency Prevention. ~'''!.'
.:_.: "il ~ :: , . d.greefoT"norectJran:nin.,y..,,,~For,pzup,,.ies.. ot:'his,,t:·!rl
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(DHHS Publicarion No. PHS 93-1103). WashingtOn. DC: Tremblay, R.. Japel. C.. Perusse. D., McDuff. P.. Boivin. ,. ··[eamiiJg.<uuLb.Mvior;.comptUTmil.;;dB.eLOprrunta/i:l..IzIt1f;.i[ !
U.S. Governmem Printing Office. M.. Zoccolillo. M.. & MomplllJsir. J. i 1999). The search cognilionlhluruudearnulg;,p.yclwI!aliJology;;'bellavioraJ:; ! ~ ;
";",; '~
ior the age oi "onset" uf physical aggression: Rousseau .:".'.. ~ and:·co~iJive:MurosciencB'~P_~.I!P'fon/m·l!tor.1'erj~TT1f!l1Icej_· ~ ~
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htmilqa.250.html Westman. J. ([9941. Llcensillg parems: Can we pret'ent
'. indiVidliJJ1dijJerences; applied"esearc1f;:and'sociilLEacfi;,., f'j
parenral abuse and Ileglect? New York: Plenum.
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.. ... 'Committee,.a",ScieniijJ£oAwartU.,: >.. ,. , .' ..... J::

Rousseau. J.-J. (19111. Emile. London: J. M. Dent experiences of police ;urisdlctiolls. Minneapolis. MN:
(Original work published 1762) Hennepin County Attorney's Office.

Rowe. D. C. ([9971. Are parenLS to blame? Psychological

[Ilquiry, 8. 2.51-260. --,e-­ 1914-NoDlwn\1I1i:< (physiological).•

Iolm·Nenie'(psychopalhology)
·MicbOel Tiirvey (hum:m'le:ttniogicogoilioo)"

1915' No.wards given,

1916 'SllIU!raBem «(Ieaonalily)

'•..

.'

Rochcl GcImilo(<levclol'lllOnlal) .

ManiJiE P. Scliginan (aniinallcaminglbd.:ivior).,.;

19ITRandolphBlake(seosatioolperccption)' "

Iw1ilh' Rlldin.(social)

. I:Artlwr Woodward (m_logical)

1978'· Jolin Robert'Andorsoo (bumanlcaminglcognition)·

Philip. Grov.. (physiological), .

Guy ESchwlItZ:(psycbopaIhology)

DISTINGUISHED SCIENTIRC
1919 D.vid Ciew,(anirrulllcamin8/behavior)

Iolm' KihlJtrom (personality)

CONTRIBlfllONS
Mich""l Momtsos (devclopmenmJ)

1980 Lyon Cooper (sellSllionJpen:eplioa)

The 1001 recipients oHheAPAScienliJlc Conlribulloos'

Baruch F'lSCbhoif (methodological)

Awards were'~ by the 2000 Board ScienliJlc

0'
AJrain and sdected by th~ 2000' Committee on

Shelley T.ylor (soci:lI)O

CiUllille Wortm:ut (sociill)O

Scientific Awards.. Members of the-committee were 1981 Lyo Y. Abramson (psycbopalhoiogy)

Rlcbard E.. Petty,. PhD (Chnir): ThomasH. Carr, PbD;

llarvey Grill (physiological)

Gregory A. Miller, PhD; Paul R.S.cl<etl, PbD:

RDbert Sternberg (nUllWllelllOingicognitiOO)

Susan C. SomerviUe,PhD; and Robert H. Wunz, PbD..

\982 Riclwd Astin (deve!oomenlall

David S.. Kr,lI11Z (penOnality)

Mlll1h:l McClinlOCk (anirrullicaming/beitavior)

1983 Russell H. Fazio (social)

Caml L Krumh:utsl (sensationJpem:ptioni

(No award given in metbodological)

• These l1wards were s~d: they were not awards for collabomtion.

894 November 2001 • Americ~ Psychoiogist