THE RENAISSANCE

After a series of tragedies such as the Great Famine and the Black Death, came a
period of explosive social and cultural development known as The Renaissance,
that began in Italy during the 14th century and later spread across Europe. It was a
period of great progress, that lasted for 300 years, touching all the different aspects
of the society such as science, philosophy, architecture, poetry, literature…, it was
believed that Florence was its epicenter. As the name implies, the term
Renaissance refers to a revival of the classical ideas, concepts, and knowledge.
Also known as The Elizabethan Age or Era that took place from 1558 to 1603,
when Queen Elizabeth I ruled bringing peace and prosperity. The Renaissance was
more than just the rebirth of antiquity, it was a time of new creations, men like
Michelangelo, used the techniques of the Greeks and Romans and developed them
further.

Before going into more details, there are significant events that caused the
beginning of the Renaissance.
Although there have several famine in history, the Great Famine was the first of a
series of large-scales crises that started in the early 14th century in Europe. It is
known that in the spring of 1315 it unusually rained a lot, so much so that it was
impossible for grain to grow and ripen which led to crop failures. In addition, there
was no grass for animal to eat on. Prices went up, there was nothing left to eat
causing extreme level of crimes, mass deaths and even cannibalism and infanticide.
The Black Death is one of the most important events in western history. It entered
Europe via commercial and trading centers in the port cities on the Italian
Peninsula and on the Mediterranean cost of France, ravaging human population
throughout Asia and Europe. The worst victims of this infectious disease was the
city of Florence. It mainly spread person-to-person as a pneumonic plague caused
by rodents that were affected by fleas. Furthermore, the Great Famine exacerbated
the effects of the Black Death. Although they tried to prevent and slow the spread
of the illness, he number of deaths continued to rise reaching almost 200 million
people. Many people believed it was God’s doing.
It is important for the Renaissance because it caused people to question and
challenge their own religious beliefs.

The Renaissance can be divided into three phases;

The Early Renaissance (1300-1495) was centered in Florence where art and
literature were supported by money, the cities grew bigger and powerful. We also
can observe the change of perspective in the richest population who sponsored
artists, such as Raphael, Titian, Leonardo Da Vinci, Michelangelo… These last
two artists were named « The Renaissance Man ».
Another interesting matter was the movement, known as Quattrocento, and it
encloses the artistic styles of the late Middle Ages, the Early Renaissance and the
beginning of the High Renaissance. It embraces cultural and artistic designs in
painting, sculpture, architecture during the 1400-1500. There are many pieces that
are highlighted, thus Tomasso Masaccio’s Expulsion from the Garden of Eden, La
Primavera or Birth of Venus by Sandro Botticelli, Virgin of the Rocks by Leonardo
Da Vinci …

The venerated Italian Renaissance’s artist Raphael (1483-1520) produced many

beautiful oeuvres that includes sculptures, buildings, paintings…In Rome, he
studied the principles of ancient art, that seem to be noticed in his work. He created
harmony, serenity, and natural images with a specific amount of proportion and
balance, which along with the work of Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci, came
to define the High Renaissance (1495-1530).
The School of Athens one of the many masterpieces of Raphael, symbolizes the
union of art, philosophy, and science, using groupings of figures, to give a complex
lesson on the history of philosophy and the different beliefs that were developed by
the Greek philosophers. The two main figures in the work are placed directly under
the archway, each man holds a copy of their books in their left hand – Timaeus for
Plato and Nicomachean Ethics for Aristotle.

As for Leonardo da Vinci, he studied the perspective and proportions which

allowed him to reproduce reality with a remarkable degree of accuracy. He wasn’t
only remembered as an artist, Leonardo provided perceptions in other fields, like
astronomy, mathematics, engineering… In 1497 he paints the Last Supper that
portrays the dramatic scene in which Jesus declares that one of the Apostles will
betray him.

Titian’s work was inspired by his dramatic yet lifelike style. Using expressive
brushstrokes, rich colors, and subtle contrast of light and shadow, he created some
of the era’s most striking masterpieces. Titian was always interested in
mythological themes, and in his work, he highlights beauty and eroticism. His
finest mythological paintings include Bacchanal (1518-1519) and Bacchus and
Ariadne (1522-1523).

Furthermore, Michelangelo painted one of the most significant paintings of the

Renaissance, the Genesis on the Sistine Chapel. He also was a sculptor as well and
his statues David and Pieta are some of the most recognisable sculptures of the
world.

The last phase, The Late Renaissance and Reformation began with the sack of
Rome in 1527. With the creation of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg,
ideas were spread concerning religion, history, science, poetry, art, and daily life,
which led the population to interpret and acknowledge the Bible by themselves,
and that, affected the Church, so much that The Church began losing
control. Martin Luther was a German priest, theologian, author, who rejected
several practices of the Church. He was the leader of what we know as the
Reformation, a religious movement, which resulted on the creation of a branch of
the Christianity called Protestantism.

As a result of the Reformation that had emerged in Germany, the churches faced a
real problem in Italy. In response to this, the Catholic church initiated a process of
censoring artist and writers who were following the Protestant Reformation. She
set up the Inquisition and arrested every individual who dared challenge their
doctrines.
The tension between Christian faith and classical humanism led to Mannerism an
artistic style which key element was the use of figurative serpentinata in human
bodies. They were presented with extended limbs, elongated forms, and a fluid S-
shaped grace. Mythological and allegorical subjects with an erotic theme,
architecture, landscapes were common.

Not only The Renaissance was an amazing period of great progress, but new
horizons were discovered too. The Age of Exploration (also called the Age of
Discovery) began in the 1400s and continued through the 1600s. It was a period of
time when the European nations began exploring the world. A Spanish explorer,
Christopher Columbus thought that he could sail west to China crossing the
Atlantic Ocean, however he would have never guessed that the continent he
discovered was not China but America.

In the field of music, due to the lack of knowledge of the ancient styles on this
matter, Renaissance scholars did not focus on ancient musical theory, not until the
later fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Despite that, four characteristics stood out
the most, which were; music was based on modes, the texture was richer, with four
or more independent melodic parts performed simultaneously. This style was
called polyphony. Also, blending, rather than contrasting and harmony as a greater
concern on the smooth flow of the music. New types of instrumental music also
developed, often for the lute.

The idea of the Great Chain of Being was one of the most significant similarities to
the Classical era. Its main belief was that everything had its "place" in a divinely
ordained hierarchy.The proportional amounts of "spirit" and "matter" that a thing
contained determined its "place"; the lower it stood, the more "matter" it held.The
four elements, metals, stones, and other inanimate items could be seen at the
bottom (earth, water, air, fire). Trees and flowers, might be found higher up.Then
came animals, human and then angels. At the very top was God.
Among metals, gold was the noblest and stood highest. The distinguished species
of plants, animals, humans and angels were similarly organized from low to high
within their respective subdivisions. In the Renaissance, thinkers viewed a human
being as microcosm which means little world, that reflected the structure of the
world as a whole, the macrocosm. The human body was composed of four
substances called “humours”. When illness occurred, it was interpreted as an
imbalance or disorder among the humours.
For example, in Shakespeare’s King Lear, the simultaneous disorder in family
relationships and in the state is reflected in the disorder of Lear’s mind in the form
of the loss of reason.

Despite the fact that Renaissance writers often looked to favor order, the idea of
disorder was frequently present, indicating that people started feeling uneasy about
strict hierarchies.The chain of being’s theory holds that everything in the cosmos
has a certain place and purpose, and that leaving one’s rightful place constitutes a
betrayal of one’s nature. Humans were sometimes seen as being between the
angels and the monsters. So, allowing passion to dominate over reason, meant
going against human nature and approaching the level of the beasts. Meaning that
trying to exceed one’s place, as Eve did when she succumbed to Satan’s
temptation, was a recipe for failure.

However, the idea of transcending restrictions imposed by the chain of being

fascinated certain Renaissance writers.
The fear of "disorder" was not only a theoretical concern; it also had important
political implications. Of course, political rulers benefited from the prohibition on
attempting to advance beyond one's position because it allowed them to keep their
position.

Since feudalism, the medieval type of political structure, had mostly been
abolished by the Renaissance, it needed new and strong political rules. The
formation of an efficient authority in both the north and the south may have been
the greatest political achievement of the Renaissance. Monarchs began to emerge
in Northern Europe, particularly in England and France. The chain of being
concept not only gave these rulers a justification for their power, it also suggested
that there were specific actions that were appropriate for their position in the
natural order of things and that there was a proper behavior for their position in the
hierarchy.

Therefore, it is not surprising that a significant section of Renaissance literature,

such as Machiavelli's Prince or Shakespeare's Henry V, deals with the principles of
kingship as well as the personality and conduct of rulers.
Even more crucial were other goals and principles that were depicted in the
literature. The philosophical movement known as humanism may have best
captured the ideals of the Renaissance and contributed to our own civilization over
time.

Whilst some considered that the Humanism wasn’t only a movement but also a
philosophy, others, thought that it was neither. They considered the Humanism as
an educational curriculum. Renaissance Humanism began in the later 13th century.
Humanists used knowledge, passion and love with the past to change their vision
and their thoughts about their era. The very first humanists were not educators but
rather private men of independent means or lawyers.
By the 15th century Humanism had spread across Europe. Humanists believed in
the importance of an education in classical literature and the promotion of realizing
a person’s full potential both for their own good and for the good of society in
which they live.It was thought that every person has respect and worth. Francesco
Petrarch is considered the father of the Italian Humanism. He saw in the classical
writings a moral guidance that could reform humanity. Petrarch brought religion
in, arguing that history can have a positive effect on the Christian soul. He was
famous for discovering several texts of Cicero and verifying that they were
actually his. Cicero stood for a number of principles, including the use of language
and composition, notably in Latin. For humanists, he represented the pinnacle of
eloquence, the skillful use of language.

Another concept that derived from the classical period was the literary doctrine of
“imitation” as a way to follow their predecessors. The writers translated the moral
vision of the past by adapting a Christian perspective. They captured the “spirit of
the originals”, learning from them, for their own purpose. The use of imitations
meant a revival of significant literary forms, thus the epic and satire and the
dramatic genres like comedy and tragedy.
The 13th century Italian literary revolution contributed setting the stage for the
Renaissance. Prior to it, the Italian language was not the literary language in Italy.
With the printing of books, the number of works increased and published in the
Italian language. Literature in the Renaissance appeared in the 14th century in Italy.
It’s based on the Humanist philosophy and the recovery of classical literature of
the Antiquity. Renaissance literature was also influenced by the development in
science and philosophy.
Dante, Petrarch and Machiavelli are well-known writers of that time. Petrarch
published several important works of poetry, notably the Punic War epic Africa.
He also had a collection of love sonnets dedicated to his unrequited love, Laura. As
for Dante, his Divine Comedy is considered the greatest literary work in Italian and
a masterpiece of world literature.

Aside from that, there was a wealthy family and an art-loving bankers, The Medici,
who helped fund the Renaissance. They have hosted lots of famous artist,
philosophers, and poets. Michelangelo himself as a teenager, lived with them and
was treated as an adopted son. Leonardo da Vinci played the lute at their parties,
whereas Botticelli studied the classical statues that were in the garden.

The Medici family were called the Godfathers of the Renaissance because they laid
the groundwork for cultural prosperity in Florence. The peak of their power lasted
from 1434 to 1737. Their major innovations in banking, art, and architecture
persist today.
In terms of politics, through their political strategy they created the High
Renaissance. The Medici’s bank also developed some of the financial tools that are
still used to this day.
Lorenzo de’ Medici (1449-1492), on top of being a powerful political figure, he
was one of the greatest Medici patrons. He funded several major artists, including
Botticelli and Michelangelo.

One of the most influential works during this expanding period was Niccolò
Machiavelli’s The Prince written between 1511-12 and published not until 1532
after his death.
It was about a meticulous analysis of the classical period, and it was meant to be
given to Di Medici family in order to influence them to free him from exile. He
was exiled because he did not support their oligarchy, he favored the republic of
Florence. Not long after that, Thomas Hobbes, an English philosopher, well known
for his theory of the social contract, goes on to expand this view at the beginning of
the 17th century during the English Renaissance.

In the history of art, throughout the Renaissance, Poggio Bracciolini an Italian

humanist spent all his career recovering lost and ancient manuscripts. During one
of his trips, he came across what remains the only surviving Lucretius, de Rerum
Natura, The Nature of Things, which gives the world, the most complete account it
possesses of the philosophy and worldview of the Greek philosopher Epicurus.

The Italian Renaissance influenced the rest of Europe, which, regarding France,
The Renaissance extends from the French Invasion of Italy in 1494 during the
reign of Charles VIII until the death of Henry IV in 1610. The apex of this period
was considered during the reign of Francis I of France and his son Henry II. One
of the greatest accomplishments of the French Renaissance was the construction of
the “Chateaux de La Loire”, which shows incredible architectural skills.
The old Louvre castle in Paris became the core of a brand-new Renaissance
château (castle). As a matter of fact, Catherine de’ Medici built for herself The
Tuileries Palace, to the west of the Louvre.

On the other hand, the beginning of the Spanish Renaissance is linked to the
monarchy of the Catholic Monarchs. They were the first to move away from the
medieval conception of a feudal scheme with a weak monarch and a powerful
nobility. Slowly the new Renaissance style took hold in the rest of the court and
among the clergy. Almost two hundred years later, King Charles II was more
predisposed to the new art, his patronage of Almazan de Covarrubias, his
commissions for Titian proves this desire for renewal. Great quality painters such
as, Pedro Berruguete, Paolo de San Leocadio, of whom the delicate Virgin of the
caballero de Montesa is highlighted.
A social hierarchy system was in place and followed at the time. This system
divided the populace into four main classes or groups, each of which was accorded
its own duties, functions, and respect in society. The class of the nobles was the
most respected one and owned most of the land. The nobles lived on large estates
outside the city walls. The nobles served as military officers, royals advisers and as
politicians. They were condescending of the merchant class who became wealthier
improving the economy of the country. The merchants worked hard in the
industries such as wool processing, shipbuilding…
Next comes the middle class which wasn’t wealthy in comparison to the merchant
class. They were the people who work in shops, in banks and other similar
professions. Their wealth depended on how good they were doing their job.
Finally, the worker’s class. These people did any job that could give them a little
money which made them dependent of their employers. It is possible to consider a
fifth class among the workers known as the peasants. They lived in rural areas and
the poorest ones worked on lands owned by nobles. Peasants worked for long
hours and weren’t paid enough. Furthermore, when they died, half of their money
went to their masters.

As for women, their role in society did not change in comparison to the Middle
Ages, although when the political system changed, women in the upper classes
were different that the ones of the lower classes. If they were peasants, they
worked along with their husbands on the field, if they were married to merchants
they would work with them in the business but if they were wives of high class
men they would devote their lives to the household.

Women were supposed to be seen not heard. Women were able to speak and to
express themselves but their thoughts and ideas were not theirs. They were
controlled by their fathers from the day they were born to the day they were
married. Their role as well as we know where to behave like a housewife.
Although there were many women who fought for a change over the centuries, one
notable woman who devoted her life to the advancement of equality between the
sexes was Mary Wollstonecraft. She argued that the rights of men must be
extended to include the right of women. During the Renaissance, there was an
Italian-French woman who wrote some of the very first feminist pieces of literature
named Christine de Pizan.

Her father was astrologer to Charles V of France. Her first poems were ballades of
lost love written to the memory of her husband. Christine produced a large amount
of works in prose and verse in which she included political treatises, mirror for
princes, epistles, and poetry. She was supported and encouraged by important royal
French and English patrons, therefore she influenced 15th century English poetry.
By 1405, Christine had completed her most famous literary works, The Book of the
City of Ladies and The Treasure of the City of Ladies. She highlights the
persuasive effect of women’s speech and actions in everyday life.
Christine argued that women must recognize and promote their ability to make
peace between people.

Men were the only ones allowed to be outspoken and expressive. William
Shakespeare wrote a play where the main character Katherine was a shrew which
meant a very bad position in society because it was criticized and reproached for a
woman to express her feelings and say whatever she wanted but Katherine did it
anyways, despite the disapproval. If a woman did not conform to their husband she
would be known as a shrew.

The sociocultural influences brought changes in the field of science. The

Renaissance was the transitional stage in Europe between the medieval and modern
times. Inventions of this period proved to be the building blocks of scientific
development. The true geniuses of the time were often both artists and scientists.

Cornelius Van Drebbel was the one who successfully developed the submarine
back in 1624, but the earliest design was made by Leonardo da Vinci. Some of da
Vinci’s sketches and designs were not made into actual workable machines,
although these designs, were quite sophisticated and detailed for that era. He began
to study the flight of birds. He observed that people were much heavier and not
that strong to fly using wings simply attached to their arms.
He, therefore, sketched a device in which the aviator lies down on a plank and
works two large wings using hand levers, foot pedals and a system of pulleys.
Today’s helicopters for example, are machines which design was based on the
ornithopter by Da Vinci himself. The ornithopter was an aircraft that would
supposedly fly by flapping its wings.

The Mechanical Clock as well, was introduced in the 14th century. The first designs
contained mercury, then, measuring a day’s time in 24 hours became possible after
the invention of mechanical clocks.

Many of the great scientific discoveries made during the Renaissance were in the
area of astronomy. Considerable scientists such as Copernicus, Galileo, and
Kepler, all made major contributions.
Nicolaus Copernicus put forward the theory of the Sun being the centre of the
universe and that Earth and other planets orbited around the Sun. Nowadays we
know that his theory was correct.
As for Galileo, he was considered one of the greatest scientists in history. He was
already interested in studying the planets when he heard about the concept of the
telescope. He improved it and constructed one that could be used to observe the
planets. Using it, he found out that the moon reflected light from the Sun, and he
made other discovering regarding the moons of Jupiter and the phases of Venus.
He was one of the few who believed in Copernicus’ theory, he wrote a famous
work that explained why he thought it was true, but The Catholic Church,
however, did not agree and put Galileo under arrest.
Kepler developed the three known laws of planetary motion and supported
Copernicus’ view of the planets orbiting the Sun.

Meanwhile the rest of the world was facing other important events. In 1337 France
and England faced each other in the Hundred Years’ War over the succession of
the France throne. This war was over in 1453. By the end of the second part of the
war, king Richard II of England, Charles VI of France and Scotland agreed on a
truce in 1389 known as the Truce of Leulinghem. Earlier on, during the 13th
century, Osman Ghazi established the Ottoman Empire in Anatolia.
Anatolia was divided into independent Turkish sectors known as the Anatolian
Beyliks.
On the other hand, the Aztecs, who had left their home of Aztlan under the
guidance of their god Huitzilopochtli, constructed Tenochtitlán, the capital of
Mexico, in 1325.
The Safavid dynasty, which ruled Iran from 1501 to 1524, was founded by Shah
Ismail I, who reigned during the height of the Renaissance in art in the year 1500.
One of the largest Iranian empires and one of the most powerful empires of its era,
this dynasty would govern for more than two centuries. He also made Islam the
official religion of Persia in 1502. One of the most significant period in Iranian
history was the reign of Ismail I.

Towards the end of The Renaissance, came much later, The Enlightenment. There
is no exact beginning date, but it is thought that it began in mid-17th century, and
peaked in the 18th century, centred in France. It was an intellectual movement
emphasising reason, individualism, and scepticism. It presented a challenge to
traditional religious views.
The scientific revolution of the 17th century is intimately linked with the
Enlightenment. Enlightenment thinkers were typically humanists who supported
equality and human dignity. They stood opposed to supernatural occurrences.
Superstition, intolerance, and bigotry. This movement wouldn’t have been possible
without the Renaissance and the Reformation because it helped set the stage for the
Enlightenment.

The decline of feudalism, the Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation all
served to enrich European society and to increase the power of European
monarchs. During the Middle Ages, the monarchs power was limited by the nobles
and the Catholic Church but between the 16th and 17th century this growth of
power led to a political system known as the absolute monarchy which meant that
the monarch had absolute and total control over his subjects.
Philip II of Spain also known as the most powerful ruler of his time for his creation
of a wealthy empire that runs from Africa to the New World. In Russia, Peter the
Great transformed Russia into a country with great development in the field of
science, commerce and industry, modernising the Russian alphabet and creating it
first newspaper. He created a strong navy, reorganised his army, secularised
schools…Whereas in England, the government created a constitutional monarchy
that is still used today.

We know for a fact that the Renaissance has left us a legacy. The beginnings of the
communication explosion in our century is linked to the to the Renaissance and the
Enlightenment. As mentioned before, the printing press had a huge impact on the
spreading and travelling of information. It made books affordable and increase
literacy. Later on, telephones and telegrams were invented too. In the field of
science, important discoveries were made in mathematics, medicine and
engineering like the creation of the first calculating machine in 1642, the discovery
of how the blood circulates in our body in the 17th century too. Also, some of the
vocabulary that was used during the Renaissance still remains nowadays. For
example the word utopian comes from Utopia which was first employed by
Thomas More and it referred to a imaginary island where life was almost perfect.
Though now it refers to something perfect that’s its impossible to reach.
Although the term human rights appeared in the 20th century, important documents
influenced people to fight for their rights and freedom. Slavery was abolished.
These documents were the Bill of Rights in England (1689), in France (1789) and
in the United States (1791).

In light on these facts, The Renaissance, was an epoch of huge burgeoning, it

provided the world a humanist view of life but there were many factors that drove
The Renaissance to an end. After Christopher Columbus discovery of America,
new trades routes were established between the Atlantic and America which
resulted having a negative impact on the routes in the Mediterranean. Because of
this, Italy received less money spent on art. Also, the Spanish army sacked Rome,
Italy became a ground of war because France and Spain were fighting for the
occupation and control of Naples. The outcome of theses fights was that artists and
thinkers weren’t able anymore to express their own ideas and opinions freely.
Last but not least, the Reformation caused a crisis within the Catholic Church who
responded through the Counter-Reformation, establishing the Inquisition. Any
person who was believed to sympathise with the Reformation was send to the
Inquisition enduring all sorts of severe and violent punishments. Artists and
thinkers were afraid and repressed, which meant that the Italian Renaissance had
fallen and was coming to and end.
MEANING OF UNDERLINED WORDS
Apex: top, peak
Building-blocks: factors, causes
Bigotry: strong, unreasonable ideas about race or religion
Burgeoning: quick development
Pinnacle: highest, more successful point of something. Synonym of culmination.
Safavid dynasty: was the first Persian dynasty to rule Iran in 800 years.
New World: name used for the Western Hemisphere. It refers to the Americas.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

Author: Donald Weinstein Emeritus, Professor of History, University of Arizona,

Tucson. Author of Savonarola and Florence; Ambassador from Venice. Date:
October 18, 2022 Web site : Britannica
Link to the source:
https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/Renaissance-science-and-
technology

Author : Mia Forbes, BA in Classics. Mia is a contributing writer from London,

with a passion for literature and history. She holds a BA in Classics from the
University of Cambridge. Date: Aug, 15 2021. Web site: The Collector.
Link to the source: https://www.thecollector.com/16-famous-renaissance-artists/

Author : Unknown. Web site : artehistoria.com Link to the site :

https://www.artehistoria.com/en/style/spanish-renaissance

Author : Christopher Brooks. Portland Community College. Date : Aug 26,

2022.Web site : LibreTexts.
Link to the source :
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/History/World_History/Book%3A_West
ern_Civilization_-
_A_Concise_History_II_(Brooks)/05%3A_Politics_in_the_Renaissance_Era

Authors : Brooklyn College. Book : A Guide to the study of Literature : A

Companion text for Core Studies 6, Landmarks of Literature. Date : March 30,
2009.
http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/cs6/ren.html
Author : artincontext (group of writers). Date: October 6, 2021. Web site:
artincontext.
Link to the source:
https://artincontext.org/renaissance-facts/

Author : Mike Dowling. Date: Unknown. Link to the source:

https://www.mrdowling.com/renaissance-classes-nobles-merchants-tradesmen
Author : Nate Sullivan. Holds a M.A. in history and a M.Ed. He is an adjunct
history professor, middle school history teacher, and a freelance writer. Date: Oct
21, 2021.
Web site: study.com. Link to the source:
https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-roots-of-the-enlightenment.html

Author : Robert Wilde. He is a history expert, and has a M.A. and a B.A. in
Sheffield University. Date : Feb 7, 2020. Web site : thoughtco.com Link source :
https://www.thoughtco.com/renaissance-humanism-p2-1221781

Author : history.com Editors. Date : Apr 4,2018. Web site : History. Link source :
https://www.history.com/topics/renaissance/renaissance#debate-over-the-
renaissance

Author: Amanda Cloud. Date: Unknown.

Link source: http://www2.cedarcrest.edu/academic/eng/lfletcher/shrew/acloud.htm

Author: The editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Date: Sept 21, 2022. Link to the
source: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ismail-I-shah-of-Iran

Author: Victor Nieto Alcaide and Fernando Checa Cremades. Book Title: EL
RENACIMIENTO. Formación y crisis del models clásico. Colección fundamentos.
Page 89. ISBN: 84-7090-109-5 (Obra completa)/ ISBN: 84-7090-108-7 (El
Renacimiento).

Author: McDougal Litell. Book Title: WORLD LITTERATURE. Pages: 802 to

811. ISBN 13: 978-0-547-11648-8 / ISBN 10: 0-547-11648-9

Other links with unknown author:

http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/history-of-art/quattrocento.htm

https://www.theartstory.org/movement/mannerism/

https://www.ukessays.com/essays/history/a-history-of-the-renaissance-period-
history-essay.php Date: Aug 11, 2021

https://petrarch.petersadlon.com/submissions/Humanism.pdf