This is a pre-published version

Submitted to the Journal of Progress in Structural Engineering and Materials,

DESIGN CRITERIA FOR UNIFIED STRUT AND TIE MODELS

R.K.L.Su1* and A.M.Chandler2

1
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Hong Kong,
Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, PRC
2
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Hong Kong,
Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, PRC

* Corresponding Author :
Tel. +852 2859 2648
Fax. +852 2559 5337
E-mail: [email protected]

1
Summary

In the past two decades, the concept of strut and tie models is being used as one of the most

popular and rational approach for the design of non-flexural members of reinforced concrete

structures. Design guidelines mainly based on past decade technology were given in many

national codes such as Eurocode (ENV 1992-1-1:1992), the Canadian Standard (CSA Standard

A23.3-94), the Australian Standard (AS3600-1994) and New Zealand Standard

(NZS3101:Part2:1995) as well as the international standard Model Code (CEB-FIP: 1990). The

review of recent advancement in strut and tie modeling in this paper enable a new set of design

formulae and design tables for the strength of strut, node and bearing to be derived and

presented. The design formulae proposed for strut and node in this paper are in form of product

of two partial safety factors which taken into account (i) the orientation of strut-tie, (ii) the

brittle effects as the strength of concrete increases, (iii) the strain state of both concrete and steel

and (iv) the stress state of the boundary of node. The design values proposed for plain concrete

with bearing plate ensure that the node would not crack at service conditions and possesses

sufficient strength under ultimate load conditions. To enhance the worldwide use of such design

tables, both the concrete cylinder strength and the concrete cube strength were used to define the

strength of concrete.

Keywords

Strength, Struts, Ties, Nodes, Bearings, Design Code, Cube Strength, Cylinder Strength

2
Introduction

Nonflexural members are common in reinforced concrete structures and include such elements

as deep beams, corbels, pile caps, brackets, and connections. Compared to flexural elements

such as beams and slabs, relatively little guidance is given in codes of practice for the design of

nonflexural elements. Design codes having the strut-tie design criteria include Eurocode (ENV

1992-1-1:1992), the Canadian Standard (CSA Standard A23.3-94), the Australian Standard

(AS3600-1994) and New Zealand Standard (NZS3101:Part2:1995) and the Model Code (CEB-

FIP: 1990). However, since those design codes have their own system of partial safety factors

for materials and loads, designers from other countries would find difficulty in using those codes

directly. In this paper, the strength of struts, nodes and bearing specified in different codes and

proposed by different researchers are reviewed. The appropriate design formulae which take into

account of the types of stress fields, crack in strut and the brittle effects as the strength of

concrete increases are proposed. Design tables based on both cube and cylinder concrete

strength are worked out for use in design applications.

In the early development of practical design procedures for reinforced concrete at the end of the

19th century it was rapidly recognized that the simple theories of flexure were inadequate to

handle regions which were subjected to high shear. A rational design approach was developed,

primarily by Ritter (1899) and Mörsh (1902) based on an analogy with the way a steel truss

carries loads. The truss analogy promoted the subsequent use of transverse reinforcement as a

means for increasing the shear capacity of beams. Rausch(1929) extended the plane-truss

analogy to a space-truss and thereby proposed the torsion resisting mechanism of reinforced

concrete beams. Slater(1927) and Richart (1927), proposed more sophisticated truss models

where the inclined stirrups and the compressive struts were oriented at angles other than 45o.

The method was further refined and expanded by Rüsch(1964), Kupfer(1964) and

3
Leonhardt(1965). Only in the past two decades, after the works by Marti (1985), Collins and

Mitchell (1986), Rogowsky and Macgregor (1986), and Schlaich et al. (1987), has the design

procedure been systematically derived and been successfully applied to solve various reinforced

concrete problems. The work by Schlaich et al.(1987) extended the beam truss model to allow

application to nearly all parts of the structure in the form of strut-tie systems. Schlaich suggested

a load-path approach aided by the principal stress trajectories based on a linear elastic analysis

of the structure. The principal compressive stress trajectories can be used to select the

orientation of the strut members of the model. The strut-tie system is completed by placing the

tie members so as to furnish a stable load-carrying structure. Adebar et al. (1990) and Adebar

and Zhou (1996) designed pile caps by a strut-and-tie model. The models were found to describe

more accurately the behavior of deep pile caps than the ACI Building Code. Alshegeir and

Ramirez (1992), Siao(1993), Tan et al. (1997) used the strut-and-tie models to design deep

beams. Experimental studies by Tan et al. indicated that the strut-and-tie model is able to predict

the ultimate strengths of reinforced concrete deep beams, which may be subjected to top, bottom

or combined loading. In general, the strength predictions are conservative and consistent. The

approach is more rational than the other empirical or semi-empirical approaches from CIRIA

guide 2 (1977), and gives engineers an insight into the flow of internal forces in the structural

members. MacGregor(1997) recommended design strengths of nodes and struts which are

compatible with the load and resistance factors in the ACI code. Hwang et al. (2001) and (2000)

used the strut and tie model to predict the shear strength capacity of squat walls and the interface

shear capacity of reinforced concrete.

4
Strength of struts

The design of nonflexural members using strut-and-tie models incorporates lower-bound

plasticity theory, assuming the concrete and steel to be elastoplastic. Concrete, however, does

not behave as a perfectly plastic material and full internal stress redistribution does not occur.

The major factors affecting the compressive strength of a strut are (i) the cylinder concrete

compressive strength f’c (or cube concrete compressive strength fcu), (ii) the orientation of cracks

in the strut, (iii) the width and the extent of cracks, and (iv) the degree of lateral confinement. To

account for the above factors, the effective compressive strength may be written as

f cd′ = νf c′ (1)

where f c′ is the specified compressive strength of concrete and ν is the efficiency factor for the

strut (ν≦1.0). The design compressive strength is usually expressed as

f cd = φf cd′ (2)

where φ is the partial safety factor of the material.

Based on plasticity analysis of shallow beams, Nielsen et al.(1978) proposed an empirical

relationship for the efficiency factor

ν = 0.7 − f c′ / 200 ; f c′ ≤60MPa (3)

5
The proposed values of ν depend on the strength of concrete and range from 0.6 to 0.4 for f c′ of

20MPa to 60MPa, respectively, with a typical value of 0.5. A similar expression is adopted by

the current Australian Standard for determination of the strength of a strut. The equation implies

that the efficiency factor is simply a function of concrete strength and does not account for the

effect of cracks in the strut. Foster and Gilbert(1996) reviewed this relationship and found that

the observed compression failures of non-flexural members with normal strength concrete do

not correlate well equation(3). The level of agreement is even worse for high strength concrete.

They recommended not to employ this relationship for design of strut-and-tie models.

Ramirez and Breen (1983) studied the shear and torsional strength of beams and expressed the

maximum diagonal compression stress of beams and beam-type members to be

ν = 2.5/ f c′ . (4)

Typical efficiency factor predicted by the equation (4) for normal strength concrete range from

0.65 to 0.37. Ramirez and Breen (1991) checked the accuracy of the proposed formula against

load tests of reinforced concrete beams with f’c ranging from 15 to 45 MPa. The results

indicated that equation(4), on average, over-estimated the strength of the reinforced concrete

beams and prestressed concrete beams by 18% and 144%, respectively. All the beams had shear

span a to effective depth d ratio greater than 2.0, which indicates that all beams were relatively

slender. Furthermore, the angle of main diagonal compressive strut to tension reinforcement was

quite shallow and was approximately equal to 30o. As a result, skewed cracks formed in the

main struts with a severe crack width. These factors may explain the relatively conservative

prediction of the compressive stress of beams by the proposed efficiency factor.

6
Marti (1985) based on experimental results and proposed an average value of ν = 0.6 for general

use. The proposed value was in general higher than those predicted from equations (3) and (4).

Marti further stated that the value might be increased depending on the presence of distribution

bars or lateral confinement. Rogowsky and MacGregor (1986) took into account the fact that the

truss selected may differ significantly from the actual elastic compressive stress trajectories and

that; significant cracks may form in the strut, and they suggested an average value of ν=0.6 for

use. However, if the compressive strut could be selected within 15o of the slope of the elastic

compressive stress trajectories, a higher value of ν up to 0.85 was recommended.

Schlaich et al. (1987) and Alshegeir (1992a,b) independently proposed similar values of the

efficiency factors for struts under different orientation and width of cracks. The proposed values

along with the recommended values by other researchers are listed in Table 1. For the ease of

comparison, the angle θ=60o between the strut and the yielded tie is assumed, corresponding to

the case of a strut with parallel cracks and with normal crack width. Angle θ equal to 45o is

assumed to correspond to the case of a strut with skewed cracks and with a severe crack width.

Angle θ less than 30o is associated with the minimum strength of a strut. It is noted that strain

incompatibility is likely to occur when the angle between the compressive strut and tie is less

than 30o. It is therefore taken that angle θ should be assumed greater than 30o for typical strut-tie

systems. The typical values of ν shown in Table.1 vary between 0.85 for an uncracked strut with

uniaxial compressive stress, to 0.55 for a skewed cracked strut with severe crack width. The

minimum value of ν is around 0.35.

Based on extensive panel tests of normal strength concrete (f’c from 12MPa to 35MPa), Vecchio

and Collins (1986) showed that the maximum compressive strength might be considerably

reduced by the presence of transverse strains and cracks. A rational relationship for the

7
efficiency factor, which is a function of the orientation of strut as well as the strains of both

concrete and steel, was proposed as follows

ν = 1 / (0.8 + 170ε 1 ) ≤ 1.0 (5a)

and ε 1 = ε x + (ε x − ε 2 ) cot 2 θ , (5b)

where ε1 and ε2 are the major and minor principal strains of concrete respectively, and θ is the

angle of the strut to the horizontal tie.

Foster and Gilbert (1996) proposed that at the ultimate state, the yield strain of horizontal

reinforcing steel may be taken as εx=0.002 and the peak strains of concrete may be equal to –

0.002 and –0.003 for grade 20MPa and 100MPa concrete, respectively. The efficiency factor of

equation (5a) can then be rewritten as

1
ν= ≤ 0.85 (6)
1.14 + (0.64 + f c′ / 470 ) a ( d)2

As the relationship is not sensitive to f c′ , Foster and Gilbert further simplified this relationship

to derive the modified Collins and Mitchell relationship which is expressed as

1
ν= ≤ 0.85. (7)
1.14 + 0.75 a ( d) 2

By carrying out a series of nonlinear finite element analyses, Warwick and Foster (1993)

proposed the following efficiency factor for concrete strength up to 100MPa:

8
 2
f′ ⎛a⎞ ⎛a⎞
ν = 1.25 − c − 0.72⎜ ⎟ + 0.18⎜ ⎟ ≤ 0.85 for a/d<2 (8a)
500 ⎝d ⎠ ⎝d ⎠

f c′
ν = 0.53 − for a/d≥ 2 (8b)
500

The equations from the modified Collins and Mitchell relationship (7) and from Warwick and

Foster (8) give similar results for high strength concrete, but for lower strength concrete

Warwick and Foster’s equations give higher values of the efficiency factor. The equations were

reviewed by Foster and Gilbert (1996), and both equations (7) and (8) were found to give a fair

correlation against experimental data for non-flexural members where the failure mode is

governed by the strength of the concrete struts.

MacGregor (1997) introduced a new form of the efficiency factor in which the factor is given as

the product ν1ν2. The first partial efficiency factor ν1 accounts for the types of stress fields,

cracks in the strut and the presence of transverse reinforcement. The second partial efficiency

factor ν2 accounts for brittle effects as the strength of concrete increases. The partial safety

factor has been embedded in the product of partial efficiency factors. Therefore,

f cd = ν 1ν 2 f c′ (9a)

1.25
and ν 2 = 0.55 + (9b)
f c′

where ν1 is shown in Table 4 and ν2 as shown in equation (9b) is originally from Bergmeister et

al. (1991). Table 2 presents the normalized efficiency values for ease of comparison.

9
Table 3 compares the partial safety factor of dead and live loads amongst various design

standards including the British Standard BS8110: 1997 and the Chinese Standard GBJ 10-89.

The equivalent design standard to ACI 318-1995 was derived by MacGregor (1997). Since for

typical structures, live load is usually in the order of 20% to 30% (with average of 25%) of the

dead load, the equivalent load factors that combine the live load with the dead load of different

codes are shown in Table 3. The load adjustment factors μ are determined by dividing 1.725

(which is the combined load factor of CEB-FIP: 1990) by each combination of the load factor.

The result indicates that the ACI code, with partial load factors for dead and live loads of 1.4

and 1.7 respectively, is the most conservative code in terms of loading amongst all the selected

codes. The Chinese code, on the other hand, with partial load factors for dead and live loads of

1.2 and 1.4 respectively, is the most lenient code. In general, the ultimate design load is higher

than the service load by 30-40%.

Table 4 presented the codified strength for struts. The design strength of a strut is modified by

the load adjustment factor μ, as shown in Table 3, to allow for the difference in the definitions

of partial safety factor of loads. When comparing the adjusted design strength of a strut, the

Canadian Standard, New Zealand Standard and the equivalent American Standard, all give

similar values except that the equivalent ACI standard allows relatively high efficiency values of

0.71f’c and 0.57 f’c for the uncracked strut and the cracked strut with transverse reinforcement,

respectively. Those codified values generally have a safety margin of approximately 1.5 times

when compared with the unfactored values shown in Table 1. The maximum experimental

strength of strut, 0.85f’c, is sufficiently higher than the typical maximum codified design

strength of 0.55 f’c, by 50%. The minimum residual strength of a strut allowed by the codes is

around 0.2 f’c. When compared with the typical minimum value of 0.35 f’c as suggested by most

of the researchers in Table 1, a sufficient factor of safety of 1.75 is indicated. The suggested

10
design strength of 0.48 f’c for an uncracked strut by the Model Code 90 and 0.40 f’c for uniaxial

loaded strut by Eurocode 92 is considered to be relatively conservative, as the factor of safety

against compressive failure is around 1.9. The design formulae by the Australian Code, similar

to equation (3), do not take into account the orientation and width of cracks in strut and are not

recommended for use due to the inherent inaccuracy for predicting the strength of a strut [Foster

and Gilbert(1996)].

Strength of nodes

The strength of concrete in the nodal zones depends on a number of factors such as (1) the

confinement of the zones by reactions, compression struts, anchorage plates for prestressing,

reinforcement from the adjoining members, and hoop reinforcement; (2) the effects of strain

discontinuities within the nodal zone when ties strained in tension are anchored in, or cross, a

compressed nodal zone; and (3) the splitting stresses and hook-bearing stresses resulting from

the anchorage of the reinforcing bars of a tension tie in or immediately behind a nodal zone. The

effective strength of a node may be expressed as

f cd′ = ηf c′ (10)

where f c′ is the specified compressive strength of concrete and η is the efficiency factor for a

node (η≦1.0). The expression of the design strength of a node is similar to equation (2).

By using the Mohr’s circle technique, Marti (1985) described a procedure to transform the

unequal stresses from struts or ties intersected at nodal zones to the equivalent equal intensity

stresses. The node joined with one compressive strut together with 2 tension ties required a

11
proper lateral confinement to provide sufficient lateral support to the compressive shell behind

the node being highlighted. Marti proposed that the average stress of nodal zones should be

0.6f’c for general use. The value may be increased when lateral confinement is provided.

Collins et al. (1986) introduced different design values for the efficiency factor η under various

boundary conditions of nodes such as CCC, CCT and CTT, where C and T denote the node met

with compressive strut and tension tie, respectively. By following the suggestion of Marti (1985)

that the node met with ties required additional lateral confinement to provide the same level of

strength for the node, lower efficiency factors were adopted for a node met with an increasing

number of ties. This concept had considerable impact on other researchers and national

standards as it has been adopted by MacGregor (1988), the Canadian Standard (A23.3-94)

Eurocode (ENV 1992, 1-1:1992) and the New Zealand Standard (NZS3101: Part2:1995). On the

other hand, Schlaich et al. (1987) and other standards such as the Model Code (CEB-FIP: 1990)

adopted other rules; these only distinguished between nodes joined with or without tension ties,

and associated different efficiency factors to the respective nodes.

The proposed efficiency factors given by Collins et al. (1986), Schlaich et al. (1987, 1991),

MacGregor (1988), Bergmeister et al. (1991) and Jirsa et al.(1991) are summarized in Table 5.

For ease of comparison, the normalized efficiency values for nodes are presented in Table 6. It

can be observed that only a small variation of η values exists for different types of nodes. The

typical η values of CCC, CCT and CTT nodes are 0.85, 0.68 and 0.6 respectively. Schlaich et

al. (1991) slightly increased η from 0.85 to 0.94 for CCC node under 2- or 3- dimensional state

of compressive stresses in nodal region. Experimental study of concrete nodes by Jirsa et al.

(1991) reported that the minimum strength of CCT and CTT nodes is 0.8f’c.

12
MacGregor (1997) introduced a similar product form (η1η2) of the efficiency factor for both

struts and nodes. The first partial efficiency factor η1 accounted for the type of node such as

CCC, CCT and CTT, as shown in Table 7. The second partial efficiency factor η2 accounted for

the brittle effects as the strength of concrete increases and was given in equation (9b). The

partial safety factor has been embedded in the product of partial efficiency factors.

Table 7 presents the codified strength for nodes. The design strength of a node is multiplied with

the load adjustment factor μ, as shown in Table 3, to give the adjusted design strength of the

node.

Comparing the adjusted design strength of nodes, it is found that the Canadian Standard, New

Zealand Standard and Eurocode, all give similar values. The nodes of types CCC, CCT, and

CTT are of typical strength 0.56 f’c, 0.48 f’c, and 0.40 f’c, respectively. When the factor of safety

of 1.5 is included in those codified values, very good agreement can be found when compared

with the unfactored values shown in Table 5. Eurocode suggests maximum strength of node of

0.67 f’c under triaxial stress state and a minimum strength of 0.5φ f’c under CTT stress state. The

suggested design strength of 0.48 f’c for CCC node and 0.34f’c for C&T node by the Model

Code 90 is considered to be relatively conservative when compared with the other standards

such as Eurocode. The design nodal strength, φ (0.8-f’c/200)f’c suggested by the Australian

Code, may be unconservative for CTT node and is not recommended for use. The equivalent

ACI nodal strength is found to be consistently higher than the values suggested by Eurocode or

the Canadian Code.

13
Strength of ties and minimum reinforcement

The strength of ties specified in different codes is given in Table 8. The partial safety factor for

ties are generally equal to 0.87, except that the suggested value of 0.70 from the Australian Code

is substantially conservative.

Schlaich et al.(1987) observed that the shape of the compressive strut is bowed and, as a result,

transverse tensile forces exist within the strut. It is important that a minimum quantity of

reinforcement is provided to avoid cracking of the compressive strut due to the induced tensile

forces so as to maintain the efficiency level for the strut as shown in Tables 1 and 4. This

reinforcement contributes significantly to the ability of a deep beam to redistribute the internal

forces after cracking, as suggested by Marti(1985). Finite element experiments by Foster (1992)

have shown that deep beams exhibit almost linear elastic behavior before cracking. In order to

maintain wide compression struts developed beyond the cracking point, sufficient tension tie

steel should be provided to ensure that the beam does not fail prematurely by diagonal splitting.

Foster and Gilbert (1996) further pointed out that when sufficient distribution bars are added,

diagonal cracking would be distributed more evenly across the compressive strut. Moreover, the

provision of distribution bars reduces transverse strains and hence increases the efficiency of the

strut. Foster and Gilbert(1997) assessed the web splitting failure mode by a strut-tie system.

They found that for an increase in the concrete compressive strength, there is a corresponding

increase in the minimum distribution bars. This is because members with higher strength

concrete are generally stressed to higher levels in the compression struts and thus are subject to

greater bursting forces. By assuming cracked concrete maintains residual 30% of tensile

strength, the minimum recommended distribution bars varied from 0.2% to 0.4%, for concrete

grade f’c from 25MPa to 80MPa, respectively.

14
Strength of bearing

The bottle-shaped stress field with its bulging stress trajectories develops considerable

transverse stresses; comprising compression in the bottleneck and tension further away. The

transverse tension can cause longitudinal cracks and initiate an early failure of the member. It is

therefore necessary to consider the transverse tension or to reinforce the stress field in the

transverse direction, when determining the failure load of the strut.

Hawkins (1968), based on 230 load bearing tests on concrete with 22MPa<f’c<50MPa,

suggested the following expression for unfactored bearing strength of concrete fb

⎡ 4.15 ⎛ A ⎞⎤
f b ≤ ⎢1 + ⎜ − 1 ⎟⎥ f c′ ; in MPa (11)
⎢⎣ f c′ ⎜⎝ Ab ⎟
⎠⎥⎦

Where A and Ab represents the area of supporting surface and the area of bearing plate,

respectively.

Schlaich et al. (1987) suggested that the concrete compressive stresses within an entire disturbed

region can be considered safe if the maximum bearing stress in all nodal zones is limited to

0.6f’c, or in unusual cases 0.4 f’c, for design purposes.

Bergmeister et al. (1991) recommended that for an unconfined node with bearing plate, the

factored bearing strength can be determined by

15
 f b ≤ (0.5 + 1.25 / f '
c )( A / Ab ) 0.5 f '
c (12)

Adebar and Zhou (1993) suggested an equation and values of the bearing strength of concrete

compressive struts confined by plain concrete, based on the results of analytical and

experimental studies. The maximum bearing stress when designing deep members without

sufficient reinforcement and without internal cracks is limited to

f b ≤ 0.6(1 + 2αβ ) f c′ (13a)

where

(
α = 0.33 A / Ab − 1 ≤ 1.0 ) (13b)

β = 0.33(h / b − 1) ≤ 1.0 (13c)

The ratio h/b represents the aspect ratio (height/width) of the compressive strut. The parameter

α accounts for the amount of confinement, while the parameter β accounts for the geometry of

the compression stress field. The lower bearing stress limit of 0.6f’c was suggested if there is no

confinement, regardless of the height of the compression strut, as well as when the compression

strut is relatively short, regardless of the amount of confinement. The upper limit of 1.8 f’c was

suggested. If the concrete compressive strength is significantly greater than 34.5MPa, a limit for

the bearing stress was suggested of

16
 ⎛ 10αβ ⎞
f b ≤ 0.6⎜1 + ⎟ f ′ ; MPa. (14)
⎜ f c′ ⎟ c
⎝ ⎠

The ultimate bearing load is found to be 1.83 times that of the uncracked bearing load, as given

in equations(13) and (14). Table 9 summarized the bearing stress level determined from

equations (11) to (14). It is found that the expressions suggested by Adebar and Zhou (1993),

which preclude shear failure due to transverse splitting of a compression strut, are relatively

conservative. When comparing the ultimate bearing stress level of Adebar and Zhou (1993) with

Hawkins (1968), it is found that the bearing stress levels are similar to each other for the lower

strength concrete strength and are smaller then the equations of Adebar and Zhou for higher

strength concrete. Experimental tests of pile cap by Adebar et al.(1990), indicated that the

average values of the critical bearing stress at failure was 1.2 f’c.

Based on the experimental test results of two-dimensional plain concrete under biaxial stresses,

Kupfer and Hilsdorf(1969) determined the maximum effective stress level of concrete strut of

1.0f’c and 1.22f’c under uniaxial compression, and under biaxial compression respectively. Yun

and Ramirez (1996) used those stress levels to define the strength of concrete struts in their

numerical model and found good agreement with the experimental results. Bergmeister et

al.(1991) suggested a higher value of 2.5 when the node is subjected to the triaxial confinement

state. The strength of a node may be further increased up to 5-20% depending on the

confinement provided by reinforcement or any anchorage or bearing plate (Yun 1994).

17
Anchorage

Safe anchorage of ties in the node has to be assured: minimum radii of bent bars and anchorage

lengths of bars are selected following the code recommendations. The tension tie reinforcement

must be uniformly distributed over an effective area of concrete at least equal to the tie force

divided by the concrete stress limits for the node. The anchorage must be located within and

‘behind’ the nodes. The anchorage begins where the transverse compression stress trajectories

meet the bars and are deviated. The bar must extend to the other end of the node region. If this

length is less than required by the code, the bar may be extended beyond the node region. The

tensile forces introduce behind the node can resist the remaining forces developed within the

nodal regions.

Suggested design formula for strut-tie models

From the above study, we find that the Canadian Code recommended the design formula of strut

[equation (5)] which is a function of the orientation of the strut as well as the strains of both

concrete and steel. This is considered to be the most rational approach. However, this formula

did not take into account the brittle effects as the strength of concrete increases. In this paper, we

adopt the approach from MacGregor(1997) assuming the efficiency factor of struts as a product

of two partial safety factors, as shown below

f cd = φν 1ν 2 f c′ (15a)

where φ=0.67 (15b)

18
 1
ν1 = (15c)
1.14 + 0.75 cot 2 θ

and ν 2 = 1.15(1 − f c′ / 250) (15d)

The first partial safety factor ν1 originates from the modified Collins and Mitchell relationship,

taking into account the orientation and the extent of cracks. The second partial safety factor ν2

from the Model Code 90, incorporates the brittle effects as the strength of concrete increases.

The comparison of the proposed equations with the Canadian Code as well as equation (8) of

Warwick and Foster (1993) is shown in Figure 1. The proposed strength of strut is in general

conservative compared with that from Warwick and Foster (1993). For lower strength concrete,

f’c<40MPa, the proposed strength of strut is slightly higher than that from the Canadian Code.

However for higher strength concrete, f’c>40MPa, the proposed strength of strut predicts lower

values, as the brittle effects of high strength concrete have been considered.

To relate the concrete cube strength with concrete cylinder strength, we may use the relationship

by L’Hermite (1955), namely

⎛ f cu ⎞
f c′ = ⎜ 0.76 + 0.2 log 10 ⎟ f cu (16)
⎝ 19.582 ⎠

The design strength of strut, assuming the partial safety factor φ to be 0.67, has been evaluated

in Table 10.

By adopting the similar approach (product form) of efficiency factor for the strength of node,

the strength of node may be determined by the following formula

19
 f cd = φη1η 2 f c′ (17)

where, φ=0.67, η 2 = 1.15(1 − f c′ / 250) and η1 = 1.0, 0.85, 0.75, 0.65 and 0.5 for nodes with

triaxial stress state, CCC, CCT, CTT stress states and most adverse stress state, respectively.

The proposed partial safety factor η1 is generally in line with the values shown in Table 5

according to various researchers and in Table 7 for Eurocode, the Canadian Code and the New

Zealand Code. The design strength of a node expressed in concrete cylinder strength and the

cube strength is shown in Table 11a and Table 11b, respectively.

The bearing strength of unconfined concrete suggested by Adebar and Zhou(1993) in

equations(13) and (14), which precludes shear failure due to transverse splitting of a

compression strut, is considered to be appropriate for the service load condition. As the ultimate

loads are usually higher than the service loads by roughly 30%, whereas the experimental result

from Adebar and Zhou indicated that the ultimate bearing stress is higher than the uncracked

bearing stress by 80%, the design ultimate strength could be determined conservatively by

multiply equations (13) and (14) by 0.87(=1.3×0.67), where 0.67 is the partial safety factor for

concrete. The design bearing strength expressed in concrete cylinder strength and cube strength

are shown in Table 12a and Table 12b, respectively. Design values shown in Table 12a and 12b

ensure that the un-reinforced concrete node supported by a steel bearing plate would not crack

under service conditions.

20
Conclusions

The strength of struts, ties and nodes of a strut-tie system has been reviewed in this paper. The

design formula proposed for strut has been taken into account explicitly the orientation of strut-

tie, the brittle effects as the strength of concrete increases, as well as implicitly the strains of

both concrete and steel. The design formula proposed for a node adopted the efficiency factor of

nodes as a product of two partial safety factors. Due consideration has been given to the brittle

effects as the strength of concrete increases, and to the stress state of the boundary of node. The

design values proposed for plain concrete with bearing plate ensure that the node would not

crack at service conditions and possesses sufficient strength under ultimate load conditions. To

enhance the worldwide use of such design tables, both the concrete cylinder strength and the

concrete cube strength were used to define the strength of concrete.

References

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and Commentary (ACI 318R-95), American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1995.

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caps: experimental study, ACI Structural Journal: 87(1): January-February, 1990, 81-

92.

3. Adebar, P. and Zhou, L., Bearing strength of compressive struts confined by plain

concrete, ACI Structural Journal: 90(5): September-October 1993, 534-541.

4. Adebar, P. and Zhou, L., Design of deep pile caps by strut-and-tie models, ACI

Structural Journal: 93(4): July-August, 1996, 437-448.

21
5. Alshegeir, A. and Ramirez, J.A. Strut-tie approach in pretensioned deep beams, ACI

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6. Alshegeir, A. Analysis and design of disturbed regions with strut-tie methods, PhD

thesis, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Ind., 1992.

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Association of Australia, 1994.

8. Bergmeister, K., Breen, J.E., and Jirsa, J.O., Dimensioning of the nodes and

development of reinforcement. Report IABSE Colloquium Structural Concrete, Stuttgart,

Germany, 1991, 551-556.

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A23.3M94), Structural Design, Rexdale, 1994.

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Model Code 1990, Thomas Telford, 1993.

12. Collins,M.P. and Mitchell, D., Rational approach to shear design – the 1984 Canadian

Code Provisions, ACI Journal: 83(6): November-December 1986, 925-933.

13. British Standards Institution, Eurocode 2, Design of Concrete Structures, Part 1:

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European Communities, 1992.

14. Foster, S.J., Structural behavior of reinforced concrete deep beams, PhD dissertation,

School of Civil Engineering, University of New South Wales, August 1992.

15. Foster, S.J. and Gilbert, R.I., The design of nonflexural members with normal and high-

strength concretes, ACI Structural Journal: 93(1): January-February 1996, 3-10.

22
16. National Standard of the People’s Republic of China, Code for design of concrete

structures (GBJ 10-89), New World Press, 1994.

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Concrete Research (London): 20(62): March 1968, 31-40.

18. Hwang, S.J., Yu, H.W. and Lee, H.J., Theory of interface shear capacity of reinforced

concrete, Journal of Structural Engineering-ASCE: 126(6): June 2000, 700-707.

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strength of squat walls, Journal of Structural Engineering-ASCE: 127(1): January 2001,

43-50.

20. Jirsa, J.O., Breen, J.E., Bergmeister, K., Barton,D., Anderson, R., and Bouadi, H/

Experimental studies of nodes in strut-and-tie models, Report IABSE Colloquium

Structure Concrete, Stuttgart, Germany, 1991, 525-532.

21. Kupfer, H. Erweiterung der Möhrsch’schen Fachwerkanalogie mit Hilfe des Prinzips

vom Minimum der Formänderungsarbeit (Expansion of Mörsch’s truss analogy by

application of the principle of minimum strain energy), CEB Bulletin: 40: Paris, 1964.

22. Kupfer, H. and Hilsdorf, H.K., Behavior of Concrete Under Biaxial Stresses, ACI

Journal: 66(8): August 1969, 656-666.

23. L’Hermite, R. Idées acturlles sur la technologie du béton. Documentation Technique du

Bâtiment et des Travaux Publics (1955)

24. Leonhardt, F. Reducting the shear reinforcement in reinforced concrete beams and slabs,

Magazine Concrete Research: 17(53): December 1965, p187.

25. MacGregor, J. G., Reinforced Concrete Mechanics and Design, Prentice Hall, 1988.

26. MacGregor, J. G., Reinforced Concrete Mechanics and Design, Prentice Hall (Third

Edition), 1997.

23
27. Marti, P., Basic tools of reinforced concrete design, ACI Journal: 82(1): January-

February 1985, 46-56.

28. Mörsch, E, Der Eisenbetonbau-seine Theorie und Anwendung,(Reinforced Concrete

Construction-Theory and Application) 5th Edition, Wittwer, Stuttgart, Vol.1, Part I 1902,

Part 2, 1922.

29. Nielsen, M.P., Braestrup, M.W., Jensen, B.C. and Bach, F., Concrete plasticity, beam

shear in joints – Punching shear, Special Publication of the Danish Society of Structural

Science and Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Copenhagen, 1978.

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1995), New Zealand Standard, 1995.

31. Ove Arup & Partners: The design of deep beams in reinforced concrete (CIRIA Guide 2),

London, Construction Industry Research & Information Association, January, 1977.

32. Ramirez, J.A., and Breen, J.E., Proposed design procedure for shear and torsion in

reinforced and prestressed concrete, Research Report 248-4F, Center For Transportation

Research, University of Texas at Austin, 1983.

33. Ramirez, J.A. and Breen, J.E., Evaluation of a modified truss-model approach for beams

in shear, ACI Structural Journal: 88(5): September-October 1991, 562-571.

34. Rausch, E, Berechnung des Eisenbetons gegen Verdrehung und Abscheren (Design of

reinforced concrete for torsion and shear), Julius Springer Verlag, Berlin, 1929.

35. Richart and Larsen, An investigation of web stresses in reinforced concrete beams,

University of Illinois Engineering Experimental Station Bulletin: 166, 1927.

36. Ritter, W, Die Bauweise Hennebique, (The Hennebique Method of Construction)

Schweizerische Bauzeitung, (Zürich): 33(7): Feb. 1899, 59-61.

37. Rogowsky, D.M. and Macgregor, J.G., Design of reinforced concrete deep beams,

Concrete International: Design & Construction: 8(8): August 1986, 49-58.

24
38. Rüsch, H, Über die Grenzen der Anwendbarkeit der Fachwerkanalogie bei der

Berechnung der Schubfestigkeit von Stahlbetonbalken (On the limitations of

applicability of the truss analogy for the shear design of RC beams), Festschrift F.

Campus ‘Amici et Alumni’, Université de Liège, 1964.

39. Schlaich, J., Schäfer, K. and Jennewein, M, ” Toward a Consistent Design of Structural

Concrete”, PCI Journal: 32(3): May-June, 1987, 74-150.

40. Schlaich, J. and Schäfer, K., Design and detailing of structural concrete using strut-and-

tie models, The Structural Engineer: 69(6): 1991, 113-125.

41. Siao, W.B., Strut-and-tie model for shear behavior in deep beams and pile caps falling in

diagonal splitting, ACI Structural Journal: 90(4): July-August 1993, 356-363.

42. Slater, Lord and Zipprodt, Shear tests of reinforced concrete beams, Technical papers,

US bureau of Standard: 314, 1927.

43. Tan, K.H. and Weng, L.W. and Teng, S., A strut-and-tie model for deep beams subjected

to combined top-and-bottom loading, The Structural Engineer: 75(13): 1997, 215-225.

44. Vecchio, F.J. and Collins, M.P., Modified compression field theory for reinforced

concrete elements subjected to shear, ACI Journal Proceedings: 83(22): March-April,

1986, 219-231.

45. Warwick, W., and Foster, S.J., Investigation into the efficiency factor used in

nonflexural member design, UNICIV Report No. R-320, School of Civil Engineering,

University of New South Wales, Kensingto, July 1993.

46. Yun, Y.M., Design and analysis of 2-D structural concrete with strut-tie model, PhD

thesis, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Ind. 1994.

47. Yun, Y.M. and Ramirez, J.A. Strength of Struts and Nodes in Strut-Tie Model, Journal

of Structural Engineering-ASCE: 122(1): January 1996, 20-29.

25
 Table 1. Effective stress level for concrete strut
Sources Efficiency Factor ν for Strut
Uncracked strut with uniaxial state of compressive stress
Nielsen et al.(1978) 0.50 (0.7-f’c/200); f’c<60MPa
Rogowsky and 0.85
MacGregor(1986)
Schlaich et al. (1987) 0.85
Alshegeir (1992a,b) 0.80-0.95
Warwick and Foster (1993) 0.85
Foster and Gilbert(1996) 0.85
Cracks parallel to the strut with normal crack width. (assuming θ=60o)
Schlaich et al. (1987) 0.68
Alshegeir(1992a,b) 0.75
Warwick and Foster (1993) 0.81 f′
1.25 − c − 0.72 cot θ + 0.18 cot 2 θ
500
Foster and Gilbert(1996) 0.72 {
1 / 1.14 + 0.75 cot 2 θ }
Cracks skewed to the strut with severe crack width. (assuming θ=45o)
Schlaich et al. (1987) 0.51
Alshegeir(1992a,b) 0.50
Warwick and Foster (1993) 0.63 f′
1.25 − c − 0.72 cot θ + 0.18 cot 2 θ
500
Foster and Gilbert(1996) 0.53 {
1 / 1.14 + 0.75 cot 2 θ }
Minimum strength of strut (assuming θ≦30o)
Schlaich et al. (1987) 0.34
Alshegeir(1992a,b) 0.2-0.25
Warwick and Foster (1993) 0.45 0.53 − f c′ / 500
Foster and Gilbert(1996) ≅0.25 {
1 / 1.14 + 0.75 cot 2 θ }
Note: f’c assumed to be 40MPa
Ratio of a/d = cotθ, whereθ represents the angle between the strut and tie

Table 2. Normalized efficiency factors of strut against the extent and the orientation of cracks
Sources Normalized Efficiency Factors of Struts
Uncracked Cracks paralled Cracks skewed Minimum
strut to the strut to the strut strength of
strut
Schlaich et al. (1987) 1.0 0.80 0.60 0.40
Alshegeir(1992a,b) 1.0 0.88 0.59 0.26
Warwick and Foster (1993) 1.0 0.94 0.72 0.50
Foster and Gilbert(1996) 1.0 0.84 0.63 0.30
MacGregor(1997) 1.0 0.80 0.55 0.28
The efficiency factors in the table are normalized by the factor of 0.85

26
 Table 3. Partial Safety Factors for Loads
Design standards Load factors Combined Load Adjustment
D+L Load factors* Factor μ
CEB-FIP: 1990 1.35D+1.5L 1.725 1.000
ENV 1992-1-1:1992 1.35D+1.5L 1.725 1.000
CSA Standard A23.3-94 1.25D+1.5L 1.625 1.062
NZS3101:Part2:1995 1.20D+1.6L 1.600 1.081
AS3600-1994 1.25D+1.5L 1.625 1.062
ACI 318-1995 1.40D+1.7L 1.825 0.945
BS8110-1997 1.40D+1.6L 1.800 0.958
GBJ 10-89 1.20D+1.4L 1.550 1.113
* Assuming live load to dead load ratio is 0.25

Table 4. Codified Stress level in Concrete Strut

Design Partial Codified Strength of Strut Design Adjusted
Standards Safety Strength+ Design
Factor fcd Strength&
CEB-FIP: φ=0.67 φ 0.85(1-f’c/250)f’c uncracked strut 0.48 f’c 0.48 f’c
1990 f’c≤80MPa φ 0.60(1-f’c/250)f’c cracked strut 0.34 f’c 0.34 f’c
ENV φ=0.67 φ f’c triaxial load 0.67 f’c 0.67 f’c
1992-1- f’c≤50MPa 0.6φ f’c uniaxial load 0.40 f’c 0.40 f’c
1:1992
CSA φ=0.6 φ f’c/(0.8+170ε1) 0.51 f’c, θ=90o # 0.54 f’c
Standard f’c≤80MPa <0.85φ f’c 0.44 f’c, θ=60o 0.47 f’c
A23.3-94 ε1=εs+(εs +0.002)cot2θ 0.33 f’c, θ=45o 0.35 f’c
0.19 f’c, θ=30o 0.20 f’c
NZS3101: φ=0.8 0.65φf’c ; CCC 0.52 f’c 0.56 f’c
Part2:1995 f’c≤70MPa 0.55φf’c ; CCT 0.44 f’c 0.46 f’c
0.45φf’c ; CTT 0.36f’c 0.38f’c
AS3600- φ=0.7 φ (0.8-f’c/200)f’c 0.42 f’c 0.45 f’c
1994 f’c≤50MPa
Equivalent f’c≤55MPa ν2 f’c uncracked strut 0.75 f’c 0.71 f’c
to ACI- 0.80ν2 f’c cracked strut with
318-1995* transverse rebars 0.60 f’c 0.57 f’c
0.65ν2 f’c cracked strut without
transverse rebars 0.49 f’c 0.46 f’c
0.55ν2 f’c severely cracked slender
beam, θ=45o 0.41 f’c 0.39 f’c
0.30ν2 f’c severely cracked slender
0.22 f’c 0.21 f’c
beam, θ=30o
ν2=(0.55+1.25/ f c′ )
Note: +
f’c assumed to be 40MPa
*
Referred to MacGregor (1997)
#
30o<θs<90 o; 0<εs <0.002
&
Adjusted design strength = μfcd

27
 Table 5. Effective Stress Level for Concrete Node
Sources Efficiency Factor η for Node
CCC node
Collins et al. (1986) 0.85
Schlaich et al. (1987) 0.85
MacGregor (1988) 0.85
Schlaich et al. (1991) 0.94
Bergmeister et al. (1991) 2.50 Triaxially confined nodes
0.76 Unconfined nodes
0.8, f’c≦27.6MPa
(0.9-0.25 f’c/69), 27.6≦f’c≦69MPa
0.65, f’c≧69MPa
CCT node
Collins et al. (1986) 0.75
Schlaich et al. (1987) 0.68
MacGregor (1988) 0.65
Schlaich et al. (1991) 0.68
Jirsa et al. (1991) 0.80
CTT node
Collins et al. (1986) 0.60
Schlaich et al. (1987) 0.68
MacGregor (1988) 0.50
Schlaich et al. (1991) 0.68
Jirsa et al. (1991) 0.80
Note: f’c assumed to be 40MPa

Table 6. Normalized efficiency factors of nodes under different boundary conditions

Sources Normalized Efficiency Factors of Nodes

CCC CCT CTT

Collins et al. (1986) 1.0 0.88 0.70
Schlaich et al. (1987) 1.0 0.80 0.80
MacGregor (1988) 1.0 0.76 0.59
Schlaich et al. (1991) 1.1 0.80 0.80
Jirsa et al. (1991) -- 0.94 0.94
The efficiency factors in the table are normalized by the factor of 0.85

28
 Table 7. Codified Stress Level for Concrete Node
Design Partial Codified Strength of Nodes Design Adjusted
Standards Safety Strength+ Design
Factor fcd Strength&
CEB-FIP: φ=0.67 φ 0.85(1-f’c/250)f’c CCC 0.48 f’c 0.48 f’c
1990 f’c≤80MPa φ 0.60(1-f’c/250)f’c C&T 0.34 f’c 0.34 f’c

ENV 1992- φ=0.67 φη f’c

1-1:1992 f’c≤50MPa η=1.0 triaxial 0.67 f’c 0.67 f’c
η=0.85 CCC 0.56 f’c 0.56 f’c
η=0.7 CCT 0.46 f’c 0.46 f’c
η= (0.7-f’c/200) >0.5 CTT 0.34 f’c 0.34 f’c
CSA φ=0.6 0.85φf’c CCC 0.51 f’c 0.54 f’c
Standard f’c≤80MPa 0.75φf’c CCT 0.45 f’c 0.48 f’c
A23.3-94 0.65φf’c CTT 0.39 f’c 0.41 f’c
NZS3101: φ=0.8 0.65φf’c CCC 0.52 f’c 0.56 f’c
Part2:1995 f’c≤70MPa 0.55φf’c CCT 0.44 f’c 0.48 f’c
0.45φf’c CTT 0.36 f’c 0.39 f’c
AS3600- φ=0.7 φ (0.8-f’c/200)f’c 0.42 f’c 0.45 f’c
1994 f’c≤50MPa
Equivalent f’c≤55MPa 1.00η2 f’c, CCC 0.75 f’c 0.71 f’c
to ACI-318- 0.85η2 f’c, CCT 0.63 f’c 0.60 f’c
1995* 0.75η2 f’c, CTT 0.56 f’c 0.53 f’c
η2=(0.55+1.25/ f c′ )
Note: +
f’c assumed to be 40MPa
*
Referred to MacGregor (1997)
&
Adjusted design strength = μfcd

Table 8. Codified Stress Level for Concrete Node

Design Standards Partial safety factor Codified Strength of Strut
CEB-FIP: 1990 φ=0.87 0.87fy
ENV 1992-1-1:1992 φ=0.87 0.87fy
CSA Standard A23.3-94 φ=0.85 0.85fy
NZS3101:Part2:1995 φ=0.87 0.87fy
AS3600-1994 φ=0.70 0.70fy

29
 Table 9. Effective Stress Level for Bearing Strength of Concrete Node
Effective Stress Level of Bearing Stress
A/Ab
Hawkins (1968)# Bergmeister et al.(1991)* Adebar and Zhou (1993) +
f’c=30MPa
9.0 2.52 2.18 1.12 (2.05)
4.0 1.76 1.46 0.86 (1.58)
2.5 1.44 1.15 0.79 (1.38)
1.0 1.00 0.73 0.60 (1.10)
f’c=40MPa
9.0 2.31 2.09 1.01 (1.85)
4.0 1.66 1.40 0.81 (1.48)
2.5 1.38 1.10 0.72 (1.32)
1.0 1.00 0.70 0.60 (1.10)
f’c=60MPa
9.0 2.07 1.98 0.94 (1.72)
4.0 1.54 1.32 0.77 (1.41)
2.5 1.31 1.05 0.70 (1.28)
1.0 1.00 0.66 0.60 (1.10)
#
unfactored stress level
*
factored stress level
+
unfactored stress level and h/b assumed to be 3.0, values in the parenthesis represent the ultimate effective bearing
stress (1.83 × uncracked effective bearing stress)

Table 10. Design Strength of Strut in Cube Strength

Angle Cube Strength of Concrete fcu (MPa)
θ 30 35 40 45 60 80
o
90.0 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.43
75.0o 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.44 0.41
60.0o 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.39 0.38 0.35
52.5o 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.33 0.31
45.0o 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.28 0.26
37.5o 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.22 0.20
30.0o 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.14
(1) Maximum strength of 0.45fcu is assumed
(2) Partial safety factor of 0.67 is allowed

Table 11a. Design Strength of Node in Cylinder Strength

Conditions Cylinder Strength of Concrete f’c (MPa)
of Node 30 40 60 80
Triaxial CCC 0.68 0.65 0.59 0.52
Uniaxial CCC 0.58 0.55 0.50 0.45
CCT 0.51 0.49 0.44 0.39
CTT 0.44 0.42 0.38 0.34
Minimum 0.34 0.32 0.29 0.26
Partial safety factor of 0.67 is allowed

30
 Table 11b. Design Strength of Node in Cube Strength
Conditions Cube Strength of Concrete fcu (MPa)
of Node 30 35 40 45 60 80
Triaxial CCC 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.52 0.49
Uniaxial CCC 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.46 0.45 0.41
CCT 0.42 0.42 0.41 0.41 0.39 0.37
CTT 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.35 0.34 0.32
Minimum 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.27 0.26 0.24
Partial safety factor of 0.67 is allowed

Table 12a. Design Strength of Plain Concrete Node with Bearing Plate
Expressed in Cylinder Strength
Cylinder Strength of Concrete f’c (MPa)
A/Ab 30 40 60 80
9.0 0.98 0.88 0.82 0.78
4.0 0.75 0.70 0.67 0.65
2.5 0.65 0.63 0.61 0.60
1.0 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.52
Partial safety factor of 0.67 is allowed

Table 12b. Design Strength of Plain Concrete Node with Bearing Plate
Expressed in Cube Strength
Cube Strength of Concrete fcu (MPa)
A/Ab 30 35 40 45 60 80
9.0 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.74 0.72 0.70
4.0 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.58 0.58
2.5 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.51 0.50
1.0 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45
Partial safety factor of 0.67 was allowed

0.8
0.7 f’c=30MPa
40MPa
0.6 60MPa
Efficiency Factor

f’c=30MPa
0.5 80MPa 40MPa
0.4 60MPa
80MPa
0.3
Proposed factor
0.2
Canadian Code
0.1
Warwick and Foster (1993)
0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00
a /d

Figure 1. Proposed efficiency factor of strut

31