PERFORMANCE 3-1 Airspeed Measurement Terminology Before beginning the study of specialized performance problems, it will be useful to review velocity parameters used in aerodynamic work. Vj; is the instrument indicated airspeed, uncorrected for position error, or equal to the pitot static airspeed indicator reading. Tt inciudes the sea level standard adiabatic compressible flow correction in the calibratioa of the airspeed instrument dizls. Vi isthe indicated airspeed corrected for instrument error only. Tt is abbreviated as IAS and is related to Vj by the following expression: wy = Ve. is calibrated airggd andl equal to the airspeed indicator reading corrected for position and instrument erro. The abbteviation is CAS. The equation relating Ve and Vris: y.aV,+Av, SRO 2 ‘Where AV» is the position error correction Ve is the(@quivalent airspeed)and is equal to the calibrated airspeed, corrected for adiabatic compressible flow for the particular altitude. The abbreviation is EAS, and the relationship between Ve and V¢ is: Ga be atind Og, ats 3 Where AV¢ is the con VB true Airspeed, Tis related to Y, by the following:PERFORMANCE Its permissible to manipulate the expression by multiplying the right hand member by Po/Po, thus: 1 2 TPg sv ‘When meesuring velocity in knots, the equation reduces 2 vo . 295.375 &) Substituting equation (4) into equation (5) results in: ‘Therefore, the dynamic pressure is a functioror equivalent airspeed, Pitot Static Systems © A brief discussion of the basic theory of the pitor tube in incompressible flow wes made in Section 1. The pitot tube is a direct application of the Bernoulli equation and actually measures the Gifference Detween total air pressure ard ambient, or static pressure, which is the indicated dynainic Pressure, g. Equation (6) says that for incompressible flow, assuming 0 errors in either total or ambient pressure measurement, the pitot tube will record a pressure differential which is proportional to the square of equivalent airspeed. By a suitably calibrased instrument, equivelent airspeed may be read directly. ‘The way in which actual airspeed instruments are calibrated is somewhst different, They aré celibrated to read truc airspeed at all Mach numbers under standard level conditions if no instrument or pressure source errors are assumed, Obtaining airspeed from a non-perfect zirspeed system and for non-standard conditions involves establishing the corrections for each potential error source and the relationship between non Standard and standard atmospheric conditions. Errors can exist in instruments, total pressure Fecovery, and static pressure. Instrument error can be determined in laboratory tests, Total pressure errors can result from the location of the pitot tube in a reduced energy region such asa boundary layer. For this reason pitot tubes arc always supported away from the skin on short struts, Another source of total pressure error is that due to large inclinations of the pitot heed relative to the stream direction, Assuming the above errors are known (in the case of instrument error) or can be made negligible (in the case of toral heed error) the only other error source is that due to the location of the static source ata point of non-ambient static pressure. In general, it is neither possible nor practical to locate the Static source ata single point which remains at ambient static pressure for all flight conditions. The Teason for this is that ambient pressure is altered near the airplane by the influence of the airplane. ‘The part of the airplane most responsible for this effect is the wing. Without the wing it would be relatively easy to select a location somewhere aft of the nose on the fuselage ata constant diameter section. ‘This would be similar to the static location on the pitor-static tube, discussed in Section 1. But with the wing, static pressure both ahead of and behind the wing affects the pressure on the fuselage. To see why the static pressures near the wing are different from remote static pressures, 6.1420 May 1989)PERFORMANCE refer to Section 1, When considering sirflow around an airfoil section, the streamlines will be affected not only at the wing but in the immediate vicinity of the wing as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1, Whenever the streamlines are disturbed, the static pressuzes are also disturbed. Thus, the wing influence on static pressure is extensive and difficult to escape. What must be done is to find a Static pressure location which not only reads close to ambient static pressure, but also minimizes the effects of angle of attack changes, which will vary the static pressure field around the wing. In the past it was customary to locate the static source by means of extensive airspeed calibrations in flight, On the B-47 bomber, however, it was shown that considerable flight time could be saved by using wind tunnel tests to discover the best location for the static source. This practice was extended to subsequent Boeing manufactured airplanes. An explanation of the relationship between indicated airspeed, Mach number, and true airspeed is necessary to show the effect of 2 static source, or position error. Indicated airspeed can be considered a measurement of total pressure less siatic pressure. As mentioned previously, if no errors or compressibility existed, equivalent airspeed, Ve, would be measured. With position ear and compressibility effects considered, however, indicated airspeed, Vy is measured. Thus, a given value of Vj corresponds to a given valuc of pt- p. The altimeter is connected to the static source and its reading, hp; indicated pressure altitude, corresponds to the static pressure, p. Mach number is directly related to the ratio of total pressure to static pressure; therefore, a given Mach number corresponds to a single value of py/p. True airspeed is obtained from Mach number and air temperature, For airplanes with electronic airspeed indicators or speed tapes, electronic altimeters, and electronic Mach indicators, the position error values are accounted for in the air data computers resulting in the pilot reading computed, or calibrated airspeed. comected pressure altitude (or tape line altitude when Pressure corrected), and true Mach number. If the air data system is inoperative, the pilot can read indicated values of airspeed and altitude from the pneumatic standby instruments, The determination of the position errors will be analyzed following the analysis of the relationship between calibrated airspeed and true Mach number. D6-1420 ag3 May 1989PERFORMANCE ‘The expression relating the pressures to Mach number is given by equation (63) of Section 1, repeated here for convenience: * e(etgtw) ‘Subtracting 1 from each side of the equation does not change the equality; thus: P,P + a Substituting for ¥, the ratio of the specific heats for air, the value 1.4: 35 p -p=pl(is am’) - @) ‘The quantity (1 +.2 M2) is the expression for adiabatic temperature rise due to compressibility ‘Under standard sea level conditions the airspeed indicator is calibrated such that: V=\, ‘The relationship between Ve and p, - p for standard sea level conditions is: is wat 5 Py [2(%) | at ) Where pp is the standard sca level ambient pressure. By equating equations (8) and (9), Mach number may be solved as a function of altitude and calibrated airspeed. The resulting equation is: 1 [e{beateesf =f} - ‘This equation may be plotted as true Mach number versus calibrated airspeed for constant pressure: altitudes. If indicated airspeed, Vi, and indicated pressure altitude ratio, 61, are used in equation (10) instead of V_ and 87, then indicated Mach number will result. A plot of equation (10) is shown in Chart 1 in the Appendix. ao) 3.4 e120 May 1989PERFORMANCE High Speed Position Error - Mach Number ‘The procedure by which errors in the pitot static system are discovered is called airspeed calibration. Calibration of the pitot static system is required to determine the corrections to be applied to the indicated values. A reference static pressure source (with known errors, APs) is required. This is determined from a trailing cone system (one for high speed and one for low speed) for stabilized level flight unless 2 cive is required 10 reach placard speeds. The pressure measured by the trailing cone sysiem is generally used 2s the reference siatic pressure, Pig. Also, a test system static PFESSUTe; Piya {8 measured at the ainplane's static source location (usually the copiloss). Since the tailing cone position error (AP) is known from prior tests, the airspeed calibration procedure is 10 compare trailing cone and test system static pressures. The difference between test system and trailing cone static pressures is recorded using a differential pressure (AP) transducer. This is the AP method and is used unless pitot recovery error is suspected, as in stall testing, Since the reference indicated static pressure, Dig 1s known, indicated impact pressure, Geq,gp iS determined from the following equation: ' Ge, = P.-P, i ap i) le * The walling cone system is calibrated by extending the cons behind the airplane ardl comparing the pressure Of the cone static section to the pressure of a known static source. The result is a trailing cone position error, AP,. ‘The reference and test impact and static pressures can be calculated using the following equations: -aP, 2) 3) aay P, =p, —4P a5) Mp is finally calculated from the Mach numbers calculated for the reference and test systems using equation (7) rearranged as shown: (16) 6.1420 3.5 May 1989PERFORMANCE and, ay) then, OM,=M-M. 8) z Tat Itis convenient in jet performance work to use the parameter of airplane weight, W, divided by the altimde pressure ratio, 8, From the lift equation: 1481351 CMS a9) For a given W/8 and Mach number, the airplane will be at a given Ci and thus at a given angle of attack. Since position error is basically associated with wing angle of attack, it is reasonable that the parameter W/8 should be used since it is indicative of angle of attack, From the observation in flight of indicated pressure altitude, « value of indicated 6 can be obtained from 2 standard altitude table. Knowing the airplane weight at the time will enable one to determine W/8, the indicated W/S. Now that AMy, My, and W/5; are known, the plot in Figure 2 can be made for a series of test ‘points. However, in many instances the spread in data is such that a single line for all W/8's may be drawn. Representative curve for narrow scatter band * (Use for all W/5's) AM, 0 ® * Several lines are required for \y pronounced effec: of W/S toon g Signs wy. eke 3.6 po.is09 May 1980PERFORMANCE High Speed Position Error - Airspeed (Flaps Up) ‘The airspeed indicator is connected to the static source of the pltot static system; therefore, it will also pick up any existing position error and will thus read incorrectly. Since the Mach number position error, AM,, has already been determined, the high speed position error can be evaluated from the following expression: dV, AV, = —ayp AMp i AMp 4, = Tae 20) av, where dM/AV, is the change in true Mach number divided by the comesponding change in calibrated airspeed at a constant altitude where total pressure is constant. By introducing the factor, dp/dp, the diffcrential term dM/dV, is the product of two other differential terms (ar), ~ (sr), (a), ay AM/dp is evaluated from equation (63) of Section 1 and the result (22) 3) Substituting equation (22) and (23) into equation (21), the expression for dM/dV, can now be obtained: (28) 6-420 BT May 1989PERFORMANCE A chart showing the solution of equation (24) for constant values of 8 or pressure altitude and for various values of V_ can now be made, see Chart 2 in theAppendix. ‘The airspeed calibration given above was the original method for determining the high speed airspeed position error, AVp, for flaps up. ‘The following is the latest method for determining the airspeed position error where the data reduction is essentially the same as for determining AMp, but the AMp value does not have to be known. ‘When the reference and test impact pressures are calculated using equations (12) and (14), the AVp is calculated from the airspeed values calculated for the reference and test systems using equation (9) rearranged as shown: (25) and V, =ffae oP, —* + (26) el nD) then, (27) Low Speed Position Error - Airspeed At low airspeeds, below about M = .4, where Mach number effects are small, it is convenient to modify the calculations in the following manner. The airspeed position error, AVp, is determined from equation (2), repeated below. V.=V,+ AV, As in the case of the Mach number position error, this error could be simply plotted as AV, versus. V,, However, at various airplane weights at a given V,, different comections would be obtained since the static pressure error is a function of angle of attack C,, as stated before. It will then be necessary 10 convert V; to some index of C,. Consider the lift equation, assuming here that Wi=Ve- 3.8 61420. May 1989PERFORMANCE and, 295.375 W (28) 2 Sv; Now, for the airplane to be at the same C, at another weight, We: 295.375 w _ 295375 Ws sv sv; 1 lw where Vj,, isthe indicated airspeed coresponding to the weight, Ws. Solving for Vi, @) ‘When using this equation, a value is arbitrarily assigned to Ws which, for Boeing commercial airplanes, is 100,000 pounds. Thus, equation (29) becomes: 0) Equation (30) now says that for an airplane weighing W pounds, and flying at V, knots, the 100,000 pound airplane at the same C,_ will be flying at Viyy knots. If the airplane were assumed to be at another weight and speed, a corresponding VIyy could be calculated which would be at the same C;, as the airplane flying at the new flight condition. Therefore, Vty, can be thought of as an index of C, since it effectively changes the actual airspeed into one which corresponds to an arbitrary fixed weight So far V, has been generalized into the form of Viy which is proportional to C,. Let us now discuss the airspeed position error, AV, Since the static pressure error, Ap, is basically a function of angle of attack, or C,,, it would be logical to plot Ap/q versus Cy, (Ap/q being non-dimensional) for constant values of W/3. But. since the static pressure error determines the airspeed position error, the airspeed position error must be generalized into the form of Ap/q so as to make a plot comparable to Ap/q versus CL. To develop the alternate form of Ap/q, consider that the pressure citer, dp, is caused by the local velocity at the static port, Vz deing different from the remote velocity, Vo, This difference is of course the position error, AV, and, De-1420 3. # May 1989PERFORMANCE, therefore, 1 a a Ap 3°0¥e Dor T 2 PVE 2 ap Yeo ae Substituting for Ve in the above equation from equation (2), results in: 2 2 vi+2v, AV,+AV3- Vi 2 2 Vit2V, 4V_+ AV, small, AV,” is very small and may be considered negligible, Thus: 2V, AV, +2V, AV, Sap _ ae os If AV, is small compared to V,, which it should be, then it can be said that Ap/q will vary approximately as AVp/V;, This reasoning justifies the use of the parameter, AVp/V,, for generalizing the low speed airspeed position error, A plot of AV,/Vj versus Viw is made, Figure 3, and is faired from results of flight tests aided by previous wind tunnel tests. Flight test data is Usually obtained from trailing cone instrumentation, a technique which permits the use of a known, static source, or, ‘When the flaps are lowered, the airplane will be at a different angle of attack ata given indicated airspeed. Thus, position error will be affected by flap extension, also shown in Figure 3. Figure 3 is valid for all gross weights when used with equation (30). igs nose Vout Dum _ e os.cee UD Flaps 15, Gear Uo ay, Flaps Up, Gear Up T T T T cutplpe Test posh Lens? 3.10 pé1a0 May 1989PERFORMANCE, Position error may be plotied as AV» versus V, at various airplane gross weights. Plotting this relationship yields the family of curves in Figure 4. In some instances the plot of Figure 4 can be simplified with only a small loss in accuracy by fairing a single line through the family of weight curves, 7) Flaps 40, Gear Up or Down Representative Curve used if effect of weight is not 250 pronounced ° L Si 8. 3 Flaps 25, Gear Up 150°""~ 200 250 7] Flaps 15, Gear Up Airspeed Position Correction, AY, - Knots 4 16 200-250-300 7) Flaps Up. Gear Up 150 200250300 Gross Weight - 1,000 T T T T T T T Indicated Airspeed, V, - Knots Figure 4, e120 4.44 May 1939PERFORMANCE Compressibility Correction ‘The airspeed indicator is, as was mentioned previously, incapable of perfect velocity measurement. While it may be made to read differential pressures existing across the orifices of the pitot and static sources, it would require a different airspeed scale graduation at every pressure altitude. Consider again the compressible flow relationship, equation (7), shown here for convenience, ‘Thus, equation (7) becomes: ( ~p=pll 1+ P-P= Pll Solving for VV‘ from the above expression gives: Vvo= (32) Expression (32) shows that airspeed measurement is a function of pressure, p, as well as a differential pressure, p, - p. Since a scale for cach altitude is impractical, a single scale Corresponding to standard sea level pressure altitude has been adopted: this scale is used to define calibrated airspeed , V¢, All airspeed indicators are calibrated to read true airspeed under sea level standard day conditions (no installation errors); therefore, for altitudes other than sea level an additional adiabatic compressible flow correction for altitude must be made.ln evaluating the Mach number position error, equation (9) was developed, and is shown here for convenience 3.12 Déa20 May 1989PERFORMANCE, BS [Ye P\-P=Py rea{Z2) =] This expression involves V_ which may be substituted into equation (32), however, it is moze convenient to equate expression (7) and (9): Level fa bl » From this, VW may be resolved and the expression reduced to: Vi eVVE=a, 3) The parameter VE is a measure of the kinctic energy of the air and is defined as equivalent airspeed, V,. Also VV appears in the force and moment coefficients as constants, except for Mach number effects. Equation (33) may be evaluated for various values of V,, and pressure altitude. ‘The difference between V, and V, is, of course, AV,, as expressed in equation (3). Results of the evaluation have been plotied and are shown in Chart 3. (See Appendix) Ground Effect Airspeed Position Error When an airplane is flown near the ground, or when it is on the ground, the ground will affect the airflow pattern around the airplane wings and fuselage. It does this by actually preventing the downwash from developing to the exteat that it would in free air. Consider Figure 5, waich shows two wings at the same angle of attack, one in free air, and the other on or near the ground. Note that the flow patterns around the wings are different. This is because the ground forces the airflow 10 conform to it. This results in a changed static pressure ficld around the wing which is felt by the static pressure pickup on the fusclage or on the pitot tubs. This causes an additional errur which must be accounted for. Ground effect airspeed position error is usually presented for takeoff flap configurations with the aicplane on the ground. Doas20 3.13 May 1989PERFORMANCE, Free Air a Ground = : cp A oH ae db * Fi a free GSO 1 ue Yee es Whplewac Vth Aide @ bs ots Sok pe ay A ptn bis oa A 314 D614 May 1989PERFORMANCE 3-2 Altitude and Temperature Measurement High Speed Position Error - Altimeter In Section 1 it was stated that the altimeter, which measures pressure, will indicate an altitude corresponding to the measured pressure. This altitude is known as pressure altitude. hp, provided the altimeter is set to the sea level standard day pressure of 20.92 inches or 1013 millibars of mercury reference. Since the altimeter is connecied to the static source of the pitot-static airspeed system, it will pick up any existing position error, defined as Ahp, and will therefore, read incorrectly. With position error, the altimeter now reads indicated pressure altitude, hp,, and the pressure altitude can be obtained from the following equatior (G4) ‘The altitude calibration for flaps up is based on the high speed Mach number calibration, The calibration curve as it is presented in the flight manual is this reference calibration curve with the Mach ber correction converted to an altitude correction. This involves the following relationshij oh ot) AM, GS) By introducing the multiplying factor, dp/dp, the differential term dhvGM is the product of two other differential terms as shown: th _ gh dp. aM dp &M G6) Since pressure, p, is @ function of altitude, h, dh/dp is obtained from equation (76) of Section 1: Bn 6.1420 3.15 May 1989PERFORMANCE ‘A chart showing the solution of equation (38) for standard day conditions can now be made, see ‘Chart 4 in the Appendix. The present method for determining the alsimeter position error is as follows. When the reference and test static pressures are calculated using equation (13) and (15) for altitudes below 36,089 fect, ‘hp is calculated from the pressure altitude values calculated for the reference and test systems using equation (78) from Section | rearranged as shown: or 9) and, (40) then, (41) For altitudes above 36,089.24 fect, equation (80) from Section | has to be used rearranged as shown: op, \285807 2 o 36,089.24 — RT In (@) (re! | on h, = 36,089.24 — 20,805.83 In [ 4. arn06( $2) | (a P Po. and, (Py hy, = 36089.24 — 20,805.83 In 447106 (43) st ‘ Equations (78) and (80) from Section 1 are valid for standard day temperatures only: therefore, for non-standard day temperatures a small ecror in the above values will result. The errors are within the tolerance allowed by the Federal Aviation Regulations. 3.16 D6-1420. May 1989PERFORMANCE, Low Speed Position Error - Altimeter ‘The altimeter position error at low speeds is obtained by utilizing the AVp that is measured from the trailing cone instrumentation. Rather than go through a procedure similar to that for velocity position error of generalizing the altimeter position error, Aliy/hy Versus Vivy (similar to Figure 3), it is convenient to recognize that: Ahy=ay- AY, (44) Having found AVp, from the previous theory i is necessary only to evaluate éh/dVe so that Ap may be resolved. The differential term dh/dV may be manipulated by introducing a multiplying factor, dpidp, thus: —th__ dh _dp av, dp dv, (45) By muliplying equation (26) by equation (16), the expression for dh/dV¢ can be obtained. s a (aR) = oes [:-2 (Zs) ] * a (46) (8) A plot showing the solution of equation (46) under standard day conditions for various values of V. can be made, see Chart 5 in the Appendix. The present method for determining the high speed altimeter position error values, given previously, can also be used for determining the low speed altimeter position error values. De.1420 3.17 May 1989PERFORMANCE Temperature Correction ‘The primary variables which must be most accurately known or determined during flight to obtain the optimum performance for a jet aircraft are: Q) Mach number 2) Gross weight G) Altitude Parase Arete) @) Free air temperature ‘Therefore, the instruments which are considered to be of prime importance are the Machmeter, fucl Quantity indicators, altimeter, free air temperature indicator and engine pressure ratio indicator (or tachometer). Of those instruments itemized above, the Machmeter and altimeter errors have been Giscussed. Fuel quantity and engine pressure ratio indicators operate satisfactocily and deviation from the true reading can usually be corrected in installation alterations. The free air temperature indicator is very important since the indicated temperature has nwo specific uses associated with performance: the determination of true airspeed and fuel flow and the Getermination of engine pressure ratio (or RPM) for the required thrust settings. Free air temperature gages are usually operated by an electrical resistance thermometer probe located flush with the body skin. Because of the adiabatic temperature rise, due to compressibility, the thermometer probe picks up a temperature reading higher than the static temperature of the air. Toial temperature is related to the static by an expression developed in Section 1 This may now be modified by substituting the value of y= 1.4 for air, thus: pe rue BE (47) Equation (47) must be modifiéd further to include a , due to the inability of the instrument system to recover the full temperature rise due to adiabatic|compressible flow of air as picked up by the thermometer probe. Equation (47) now becomes: Xe » : Tap +269) 5 fe (a8) ‘The value of K will be known for an installation and is usually of the magnitude of 0,8 to 1.0. The calculation of te OAT is easily made keeping in rind that the temperatures Ty, and amb a7 absolute temperature values, 3.18 Dé1en0 Mey 1919PERFORMA! NCE Temperature Indication Calibration The calibration of a temperature indication system is very difficult unless one has a reference instrument system to be flown with the one to be calibrated. Bench calibration or wind tunnel comparison are not satisfactory because of the large wind tunnel effects and the influence of installation and environment. Therefore, a method of calibrating the first instrument system must be developed. Then the second and succeeding systems may be calibrated by second method or by comparison to the first when flown with or in parallel 10 it. Total Temperature (Reference) System Calibration) Consider equation (48) in the form (49) Ifa calibration run is made at constant altitude in a relatively stable air mass. Tamb may be considered to be constant, and T,, can be plotted against M in the form of Figure 6. Figure 6. Equation (49) shows that the slope of this family is -K/5 and the recovery factor is determined. Note the value of K and its determination are independent of Tamb $0 long as it is cons run, This is the method used to calibrate the reference system for Boeing airplanes. This instrument system can then be used to determine Tam at any time through Ty; and M only De-1420 May 1989 219PERFORMANCE Total Air Temperature (TAT) Indicator System Calibration of the total temperature indicator system consists of determining a calibration factor, C, which takes care of instrument installation cffects and the recovery factor, K, in the equation: tar=T, [+ O+2KM") 0) Solving this equation for K yields TAT (51) Therefore, when the flight data is plotted as in Figure 7, the slope of the linear array gives K and the intercept defines C. The valucs of Tamp are obtained from the reference instrument system flown with this one, Slope = K S Figure 7, The above was the method of temperature calibration, used until cenification of the 757/767 airplanes. For the 757/767 and subsequent airplanes, the probe manufacturer determines a recovery factor value for the toral temperature system. This is verified by comparing values with the flight test probe TAT for a range of conditions. If the correlation plot shows a minimal scatter of approximately 1/2° C, this is acceptable and programmed into the Air Data Computer. 3.20 16-1420 May 1989)PERFORMANCE Airplane production models which have the Rosemount total temperature probe have the following values of recovery factor with the probe heater switch in the ON position Q TOUT2ANZT's 1.00 Q) Ta7's 0.985 3) 7571767's 0.98) Static Air Temperature Indicator Static air temperature indication is referenced directly 10 the Tam OF tamb Calculated from the reference indicator reeding: (82) where t) is the static air temperature indicator reading. Calibrations are run at a series of altitudes (lamb) and plotted as in Figure & Figure 8, e142 3.21 May 1989v PERFORMANCE Intentionally Left Blank Dé-1429 May 1989PERFORMANCE, 3-3 Airplane and Engine Grid Thrust Required Previously, in Section 1, a short discussion of thrust required for level flight was made, and the eb aiss following equations were developed: pit = 4st.3sic, M’s 3 L es ‘an y OQ _ weet 7 5 Fang = MELAS, MS sy wo tal fe Der behsd% pte To calculate the T/Samp required for an airplane, a table similar to that shown in Figure 9 may be used to facilitate the calculations, IF the various Boeing commercial airplanes with their respestve wing areas are now considered, equations (53) and (S4) can be arranged as follows: -« Gos) Cc, =A10 (55) B ee (56) where, Airplane 707 Inter 707 127 2.311 737 L452 747 81477 757 2.8902 ter 4.51827 be1e20 3.23 May 1989PERFORMANCE a Calculated Calculated Calculated from Equation (55) Repeat for Other W/8's Figure 9. Obtain from“ Gyuh oneal Drag Polar Calculate from Equation (56) When filled out for desired valiues of W/Samp, this tabulation will enable one to plot T/Bamy versus M, as in Figure 10. Sufficient Mach number points must be calculated to obtain a well defined 3.24 De1a0 May 1989SPEED SCHEDULE FOR MINIMUMDRAG Figure 10. ‘Thrust Available As was explained in Section 1, the logical parameter for expressing available engine thrust is T/Samb, With constant temperature above the tropopause, thrust under any specific condition of engine rating and airplane speed will vary directly with the ambient atmospheric pressure; therefore,the ratio T/Samp will theoretically remain constant. However, engine tests above 36,000 feet have indicated a decrease in corrected thrust available with increase in altitude above 36,000 feet. This is attributed to Reynolds number effects and additional bleed requirements causing a reduced airflow within the engine. A family of available thrust values at maximum continuous thrust (MCT) is illustrated in Figure 11. The reduction in T/Synp in the troposphere with altitude decrease is due to atmospheric pressure and temperature increases. Similar characteristic curves may be developed for other engine ratings; eg, maximum climb (MC,T) and maximum cruise (MCgT) thnast levels. Thrust characteristics at s rating are defined by the engine manufacturer In Section 1 it was shown how Figure 10 and 11 may be superimposed to form a single plot for all altitudes, as shown in Figure 12. Data to construct the thrust available lines are furnished by the ‘engine manufacturer in the form of thrust versus velocity for various altitudes. ‘This information is then calibrated for installation effects and replotted introducing 8 and changing true airspeed to Mach number. / Z 5 ‘Do-1420 3:25 May 1989PERFORMANCE WB Maxienra Continuous Figure 11, Engine Fuel Flow Grid ‘The complete engine data as presented by the engine manufacturer consist of a series of plots from sea level to the altitude limits of the airplane in increments of usually 5,000 feet as shown roughly for one altitude in Figure 13. This plot shows the complete picture of thrust and fuel flow variation with speed at a given altide, However, it is not in the form which is useful in performance calculations. In the first place, thrust and tue airspeed must be converted into terms of T/Byn5 and Mach number as was done for the thrust available curves. The fuel flow data, however, must be given special treatment to put it into usable form, ‘The units of fuel flow are pounds per hour (Ib/hr) and willbe unchanged ifthe mimerator and denominator are multiplied by the units of nautica! air Thus: 3.26 62420 May 1989oe? Figure 12, This equation can be rearranged in the form: w.=(2)(2 67) Fuel mileage, namlb, is simply related to velocity and fuel flow by this equation, Equation (57) is siill not in generalized form, however, and must be manipulated further to make it useful for performance work. The specific fuel consumption, Ib of fuel per hr perlb thrust, i of Mach number and T/Samp regardless of altitudes. Thus: sentially constant ata given value W. (TSO) T, (38) where TSFC is thrust specific fuel consumpzion, Ib-fuel/he/lb-thrust, and T is the total thrust in Ib for all engines. However, since it is desired to use the parameter T/Samb, equation (58) may be written: s-1420 3.27 May 1989oe Tt = Se PERFORMANCE Ww, gt csro 5 am anid This equation states that at a given T/8,.,,, (and speed) there will exist a constant W,/5,,, When ‘TSEC is constant. Returning to equation (57), and dividing by Ban w, Poe hy (TSEC) = 5 ‘amb amb (60) Lines of Constant ~~ S Fuel Flow Rate - hss ~ LW: Cb 7 a (Lb) ~Knots THE V~Krows TAA Figure 13. In addition to using the parameter T/3,,, Mach number is also used in plotting the thrust required and available curves as shown in Figure 12. M @ ‘ov Fab ‘Thus to convert from units of velocity, appearing in equation (60), to Mach number, the quantity 9 gry must be inoduced. Dividing equation (60) by 4/2, peo May (989PERFORMANCE, (61) (Poor ‘Equation (61) has introduced three additional parametric ratios () corrected thrust specific fuel consumption, (3) corrected fuel mileage, Bangs The result has accomplished two purposes. First, it generalizes the fuel flow information end Temoves the variable of altitude. Second, it converts from units of true airspeed to Mach number. Thus, instead of having a plot like Figure’ 13 for every altitude, a new plot which is independent of Utitude can be drawn, as in Figure 14. (oy altitude can gare L ron et Wi) . Ta Tare. (o/5.0%.) 0 fal fen TE (IH) M Figure 14 Figure 14 was constructed using EPR as the thrust setting variable and [6,4 as the temperature variable, Using equation (61) ona per engine basis where Fy is net thrust per engine Ds-1420 3.2 May 1685PERFORMANCE ak Fa values of (—SSE&-) can be determined for increasing values of and constant assumed /3 5 ‘amb = ( 7 ) values of » See Figure 15, Sambal ® ant ¢ PER ENGINE DATA = Sano Figure 15. Next, a set of constant Mach lines must be superimposed onto Figure 15 for specific engine conditions. Using specific engine data for a given value of EPR and Mach number, obtain the F corrected net thrust, 5-2. , fram either Figure 12 or 14 of Section 2. and the corrected fuel ‘an Aa flow, [x e | tones 15 of Section 2. ov te Now refer to equation (27) from Section 2, repeated here for convenience. 3.30 6.120 May 1989PERFORMANCE Divide both sides of the equation by 8... ./8__., » as shown by equation (62).to obtain the corrected fuel flow based on ambient conditions. Note the two versions of corrected fuel flow. [ Ww, Ww, [ soak 1+ (62) PamoV/Pans) (5 Pe, Tr id thrust specific fuel alue, J can be d nd and plotted f whe comected thrust specific fuel consumption value, . can be determined and plotted for VP an Ms F the selected Mach number by entering Figure 15 with the [-———Fy— |] and = values amb -V ° amb amb that have been determined, or by using equation (61). By selecting other values of EPR for the same Mach number, a line of constant Mach can now be drawn onto Figure 15. Repeating the above calculations for other Mach values results in a family of Mach lines that show the specific TSEC We airplane-engine relationship berween M, = wm |= for any amb ambal? amb operating condition. See Figure 16. SERENGNE be Figure 16 s.1420 3.31 May 1989PERFORMANCE, Ww, ) Sena/? A cross plot of Figure 16 for constant values of all-engine ( smb" amb} results in Figure 14 TSFC (eninus the V8 values) that can be superimposed onto Figure 10 (or Figure 12), as shown in Ww, Figure 17. For turbojet or turbofan engines that require equation (29) of Section 2, foes) amb” amb, w may be substituted for ( Bat Increase Vy = Constant ose Speed Schedule for Minimum Drag “on Speed Schesle for yh2 Minimum Fuel Flow wats cot N a eee 16-1420 3.45 May 1989PERFORMANCE 120. 1.2, 1.2, FacToR { o's aa fe i ma t of. + = & a Te. 1 a. ah ELAPSED TIME - SECONDS Figure 31. 3.46 peaszo May 1989PERFORMANCE Buffet Limits ‘The previous discussion dealt with buffet limits as concemed specifically with low speed flight. Actually itis found that airflow separation, which causes buffeting, can be experienced at all flight speeds under certain conditions. This introduces the subject of high speed airflow separation. As the flight velocity is increased there is reached 2 condition where the velocity over some part of the wing becomes supersonic. As was discussed in Section 1, it is found that the deceleration of the supersonic air to subsonic velocity before the air leaves the wing causes a shock wave, which in turn precipitates airflow separation. This separation is capable of causing buffeting just as in the low speed region. The only difference will be that as speed is increased the high speed separation will be aggravated, causing greater buffeting. (The low speed buffeting was aggravated by lowering the speed.) ‘The buffet limits for the complete speed range of the airplane are defined from the results of flight tests. In these tests the airplane is flown to maximum level flight speed at various altitudes and if buffet is not encountered before maximum speed is reached, then the airplane is dived until it is encountered. At the intermediate speeds the airplane must be accelerated in a banked tum or pull up to reach buffet. The result of these tests can be conveniently plotted on a single graph as illustrated in Figure 32, Buffet Boundary + Sonic speed Wo} cD rent phed tee 6-420 Teer 3.4 Nay 1968wir PERFORMANCE Lines of constant WS may also be plotied on Figure 32 by the application of equation (52). W. = 1ast.asic, M's 3 L nb By choosing values of W/Samp and by knowing the wing crea, a relationship between C, and Mach number can be obtained. These lines of constant W/Saq,, have particular significance and merit further discussion, Assume that an airplanc is initially flying in level flight at a given altitude, weight, and speed. The condition can be shown on the buffet C, versus Mach number plot as shown in Figure 33. pe Bale: Boundary 6 sual ovyle = 68 — Ad Figure 33. If the airplane is now speeded up or slowed down it will do so along the line of constant W/8m1 assuming that the altitude is maintained constant. Bout, ifthe altitude is increased, then at the same ‘grOss weight, a higher value Of W/S,qui Will result. This means that at the same Mach number the lift coefficient will be greater. Conversely, a lower altiude at the same weight will result in a lower W/Symp and & lower Cy at the same Mach number, From such a plot, another chart more useful to the flight crew may be made. Equation (52) may be manipulated to give: 8 w ‘amb ~ i 1481.351M°S Cy 8) 3.48 16-1420 May 1989PERFORMANCE M Cc, Ww (Select) | (Fig 32) | (Select) (Select) oO GB) Figure 34, A table such as shown in Figure 34 may be constructed, selecting a range of Mach numbers for « given weight. By repeating the procedure for several weights, and performing the indicated Computations withthe use of eauabon (68), a chart such as that showm ih Figure 35 may be made Figure 35, as shown, is only valid for level flight. be pliy on Altitude Mach Number Figure 35. Having introduced the concept of load factor earlier, another application may now be explored in the area of maneuvering flight. Consider an airplane in a coordinated banked tum such that no Joss of altitude is sustwined. Refer 19 Figure 36. Resolve the lift, L, into its components and note that Leos =W (6) where ¢ is the bank angle. Thus the airplane is in equilibrium vertically, but not laterally. ‘There is an unbalanced lateral component of lift, L sin , which will give ita lateral acceleration. In other words, the airplane is in its wm by virtue of the lateral acceleration imparted to it by the lateral De-1420 3.49 Menlo.PERFORMANCE component of lift. The situation may be analyzed by thinking of the center of gravity of the airplane rotating in a circle as shown in Figure 37. The acceleration may be shown to be V dO/dt, where V is the linear velocity in f/sec and dO/At, the angular velocity, in radians/see. Figure 36. ‘The accelerating force, (F =Ma), necessary to hold che weight, W, in the circular path is, W 46 Fog Var 0) ‘The rate of turn will increase until, WY dO - Lsino = Vor ay “The linear velocity is related to the circular motion: =p ae V=R dt or. do _ Vv aR 72) 3.50 61420 May 1989PERFORMANCE Ae Figure 37 Substitution of equation (69) and (72) into equation (71) yields, L Lsin 9 = which simplifies into, ra a (73) This is an expression for the tum radius of an airplane in terms of its true velocity and bank angle. Returning to Figure 36 and equation (65), solving for the load factor, n, in terms of the bank angle: Therefore, 74) 6.1420 3.51 May 1989PERFORMANCE, Inatur, then, the load factor (or number of g's ) experienced is equal to the inverse of the cosine of the bank angle, assuming no loss or gain of altitude during the maneuver. Also, if the level maneuver is assumed, the engine thrust must be increased since the lift must be increased over suaight and level flight, which will cause an increase in drag. Figure 38 shows the solution to equation (73). The two minute line and the four minute line show the time it takes to fly a 360 degree tum. ‘The preceding discussion of load factor has dealt exclusively with banked tums as the method for: producing accelerations on the airplane. Another method, of course, is the pull up, or push over which is of interest in the design criteria. ‘The application of load factor to the present subject of buffet limits is made by referring again to the , versus Mach number plot of Figure 33, which is redrawn for convenience in Figure 39. Again, a level flight point is located for a given weight, altitude, and speed. This will define a C, (enoted 2s C, ) and Mach number. Assume now that et the samc Mech number the airplane is put into a level flight tm such that the lift now increases to the point corresponding to a new C, (Cenoted as C,_). Once again from equation (65 4 Minute Tum Radius of Tum - 1,000 Feet 2 Minute Tum Bank Angle - Degrees Figure 38. 3.52 Dewan May 1989PERFORMANCE ay and at Cy, L.=w Thus, L, nayel But at Cy Law * 2 L Ly 498 a oe, a8 If the same speeds are assumed for conditions 1 and 2: ay 42 ‘Thus, ey a (78) If the airplane is assumed to be banked to the point that it reaches the buffet limit (C, , in Figure 39), then the load factor developed at this point will be: 16-1420, 3.53 May 1989PERFORMANCE Figure 39. Thus, in general, considering accelerated flight conditions: or, Law (76) In plotting Figure 39, it was assumed that L = W (level flight) in computing W/Sjmyp Curves. Actually the calculations were more general since what was really done was to calculate lines of constant L/Sz,,%,, The curves can thus be labeled as lines of constant nW/8,m), #8 indicated by equation (76). From equation (75) 3.54 Dé.1420 May 1930PERFORMANCE (5) ("oon Therefore, the usefulness of Figure 35 can be increased by labeling the weight lines as nW lines, or equivalent 1-g gross weight lines. or, q7) With the preceding analysis and with the Cy, versus Mach number plot, Figure 39, a new plot of the initial buffet boundary on axes of nW/S,.,4 and M can be made, See Figure 40, Figure 40 finds its usefulness in defining the acceleration characteristics of the airplane. With this curve as a basis, and assuming equivalent 1-g airplane gross weights, another useful char: for any maneuver Condition can now be drawn as shown in Figure 41. For a given equivalent 1-g gross weight value, an infinite number of gross weight load factor combinations may apply. burret boundary nW/é Figure 40. D6-1420, 3.5 Nay 1989,PERFORMANCE 60 55 MANEUVER MARGIN 45 BANK ANGLE - DEGREES: NOPMAL ASCELERATION TO INTIAL BUFFET-G'S 20, a5 EQUIVALENT 1-9 GROSS WEIGHT \ ww SPEED 8 ALTITUDE MARGIN INDICATED AIRSPEED Figure 41. The lower part of Figure 41 has airspeed instead of Mach for the abscissa scale and a family of ‘Mach lines are drawn within the chart, This is an improvement over Figure 35. However, the two parts of Figure 41 are not in a chase-around format, one part to the other. When working a maneuver problem, information from one part has to be transferred to the other part to obtain some of the answers, An additional improvement can be made by crossplotiing the lower part of Figure 41 to equivalent 1g gross weight versus M for constant values of pressure altitide and airspeed, and rotating the upper part to match the equivelent I-g gross weight scale, The information of Figure 41 is now in a chase-around format as shown by Figure 42 where the equivalent 1-g gross 3.56 D6-1420 May 1986PERFORMANCE weight, now a hidden scale, does not have to be determined or considered. This chart can be presented in the operating manuals showing the cruise maneuver capability of the airplane for any maneuver, Stall Warning As the airplane is decelerating toward low speed stall, it will encounter initial stall buffet speed at some margin above the stall speed. FAR Part 25.207 requires that clear and distinctive stall ‘warning shall be apparent to the pilot with sufficient margin to prevent inadvertent stalling of the airplane in all possible landing gear and flap configurations. It shall be acceptable for the warning to be furnished either through the inherent buffeting characteristics of the airplane or through a device which will give adequate stall waning. A stall waming beginning at a speed 7 percent above the stalling speed is the required margin. For some flap configurations, where the margin between initial buffet and stall is less than the required 7 percent as shown in Figure 43, a stall warning device is required. Given Flap Configuration Weight Figure 43. Maximum Speeds Another flight limit is maximum speeds under given conditions of weight, altitude, and thrust setting, The determination of maximum speeds can be made from speed thrust charis similar to Figure 12. ‘This is possible because under all stabilized flight conditions the thrust must equal the drag. Thus, the intersection of any T/8ym) available Tine With 4 T/B,n4 Tequired line will define a maximum speed point for those particular conditions. Of interest are the maximum speeds at all altitudes under conditions of maximum cruise thrust. The interscctions, when taken from a plot such as Figure 12, can be plotted on axes of W/8anp, versus M as in Figure 4, Also, the buifet boundary can be drawn on Figure 44. ‘The appearaace of the buffet line on Figure 44 indicates the ability of the airplane to approach buffet in level flight conditions. From such a plot as Figure 44 another useful and more easily understood plot can be made, Figure 45, 3.58 pé.1470 May 1989W/Bezn PERFORMANCE MODAN CRUISE THRUST Teh + 27 temp Figure 44, Figure 45 shows the altitude - true airspeed capabilities of the airplane at various weights when operating with rated ALTITUDE 6.1420 May 1989 thrust. The structural placard speed limit, to be discussed later, is also shown. Aish? grog, RATED THRUST STANDARD DAY eowy srogg tropopausePERFORMANCE, Ceilings ‘The maximum altitude obtainable under given conditions of thrust and weights is defined as the absolute ceiling of the airplane. Although the altitude capability of the jet transport is not approached, itis desirable to discuss this condition briefly. Referring to Figure 44, the highest point on each curve of constant altitude represent the maximum W/Samb attainable at that altitude and thus define the maximum weight attainable. These altitudes are the absolute ceilings for those weights. The same may be seen from Figure 45 in which, again, the peaks of the consiant weight lines define the absolute ceilings at those weights. In all cases, @ unique speed is associated with the absolute ceiling. This means that when an airplane is at its absolute ceiling (a practical impossibility) it will have to fly at one speed only. To fly either faster or slower will result in akitude loss. A ceiling of practical value is the service ceiling defined where the rate of climb is 100 ft per min, Structural Limitations Since structural airspeed limitations must be considered. some additional terminology, as defined in Part 25 of the Federal Aviation Regulations, is required. Some of the speed limits and explanations of their determinations are given below. Vq-~ design maneuvering airspeed. The design maneuvering speed V, shall not be less than: FAR Part. 25.335(c) (1) Vas Vs Ve (78) where n is the limit positive maneuvering load factor at V, , 2.5 for commercial airplanes; and Vs, is the n = 1 stalling speed for clean configuration at maximum flight gross weight as determined by FAA flight test of the airplane. V, is the maximum speed at which application of full available rudder or elevator will not overstress the airplane. In the flaps up configuration, full aileron can be applied at any speed. Aileron, rudder or angle of attack controls must be designed for full deflection at V', FAR Part 25.1583(a) (3) Example; From the lift equation (52), AW = tagi3sic, ws 3 L amb amb. and for a 747 Boeing aizplane with a wing area of 5500 square feet, 22734 x 10° 2 (79) amb 2 cLM From equation (79), a value of C; M? may be found for the condition specified; that is, the flaps up stalling speed at the maximam weight. Evaluating equation (79) for W = 817, 000 pounds, n= 1, 3.60 16-1420 ‘May 1986PERFORMANCE and at sea level Sump = 1.000, C,M? = 0.1003. Froma curve showing the variation of CM? with M, the stall Mach number, hence the stall speed, Vs, may be determined. Figure 46 shows the variation of Mach with C, M2, and is constructed from C,,.,. versus Mach number relationships as shown in Figure 47, Figure 46 shows the siall Mach number, Mg, to be .307. Atsea level, this corresponds to Veg = 203 knovs. Cy M? Vs Mach No. Evaluating V, at sea level, V, = 203-V25 = 321 kis, EAS where limit load factor n = 2.5. Vp--design speed for maximum gust intensity. This speed shall be selected not to be lower than: Vs a) M gust @ Ve (80) 1 or as determined by the intersection of the 66 fps gust line (when below 20,000 ft) and the Chvax line on the V n diagram as shown in Figure 48. Vs) is the flaps reacted stalling speed at the weight under consideration. Vg need not be greater than Vo, FAR Part 25.335 (d) 16-1420 3.61 May 1989PERFORMANCE For Boeing airplanes, a Vz, speed greater than FAR requirements is used for structural analy: 12 1 ' |_[ Ty Gane |_| 101 rom Flight Test - uf t Lstax 6 | — 4 a : | 1 2 3 M Figure 47. The V-n Diagram ‘The V-n diagram, Figure 48, is a very convenient means of indicating the loading conditions on the airplane due to a sudden pull up, push over, maneuver or gust penetration which the airplane must be designed to withstand. In trimmed level flight through stil air, the airplane is subjected 10 loads normal t0 its longitudinal axis of only such magnitude as to counteract the gravitational force of its, weight. The condition is call ]__g orn = 1 flight. In order to pull up. push over, or maneuver, additional forces must be applied and additional loads are imposed upon the structure. Also, vertical gusts or the vertical components of other gusts impose the same type of loading by changing the relative angles of attack. ‘These loading conditions must be taken ito consideration in the desiga of the structure. ‘The commercial transport is not expected to be subjected to violent maneuvers such as might be expected to be the case with fighter aircraft, missiles, or even large bombardment airplanes. Figure 48 shows that operating close to the FAR Vj speed (as determined by the intersection of the maximum gust line and the Cryqax line) in gusty weather results in the least increase in load factor, and increasing the gust penctzation speed for design and operational Purposes increases the load factor for a given gust intensity. Since an airplane is Limited 10 its design load fecior it will be limited :0 some maximum rough air gust speed. The recommended gust penetration speed under gusty conditions can be any speed between the minimum speed, and the maximum Vp speed used for structural analysis. 3.62 61420 May 1586[Given Weight] Altitude < 20,000 Feet | Flaps Retracted Stall Speed pode Maneuvering Envelope ‘Meximum maneuvering acceleration limits have been imposed to comply with Federal Aviation Regulations. ‘The positive mancuvering load factor n for any flight speed up to Vp shall be selected by the applicant, except that it shall not be less than 2.5. ‘The negative maneuvering load factor shall have a minimum value of -1.0 at all speeds up to Ve, and it shall vary lincarly with speed from the value at V¢ to zero at Vp, CEAR Pans 25.337 (b) and 25.337 (¢).) ‘The maneuvering envelope can now be drawn using the pull up and push over values up to Va and the design maneuver factors defined previously. The envelope is shown on Figure 49. Gust Envelope Gust effects are based upon encountering standard vertical gust components as defined in the Federal Aviation Regulations, FAR Part 25.341(a), while in level flight: Positive (up) and negative (down) rough air gusts of 66 fps at the speed Vx shall be considered at altitudes between sea level and 20,000 feet. At altitudes above 20,000 feet, the gust velocity may be reduced linearly from 66 fps at 20,000 feet to 38 fps at 50,000 feet e 61420 May 1988PERFORMANCE, Positive and negative gusts of 50 fps at speed Vo shall be considered at altitudes between sea level and 20,000 feet. At altitudes above 20,000 feet, the gust velocity may be recuced linearly from'50 fps at 20,000 feet to 25 fps at 50,000 feet. Positive and negative gusis of 25 fps at the speed Vp shall be considered at altitudes between sea level and 20,000 fect. At altitudes above 20,000 feet, the gust velocity may be reduced ineariy from 25 fps at 20,000 feet 12.5 fps at 50,000 feet ee Maneuvering Envelope Design Gross Weight Flaps Up (Typical Values) Limit Load Factor - Figure 49. Altitude - 1,000 Feet 20 30 40 50 Uy, - Gust Velocity - FPS = Fan Bepivinads soe =Hb oe May 1989 els UPERFORMANCE, Gust load factors shall be assumed to vary linearly between the specified conditions. (per FAR Part 25.341 (b) (2). See Figure 53. In the absence of a more rational analysis, the gust load factors shall be computed in accordance with the following formula: Ky Us vem i 498.(%) “ where: m = slope of airplane normal force coefficient curve yyy per radian if the gust loads are applied to the wings and the horizontal tail surface simultaneously by the rational method. 1 shall be acceptable to use the wing lift curve slope C_ per radian when the gust load is applied. to the wings only and horizontal tail loads are treated as a separated condition. FAR Part 25.341 (c) ‘The load factor equation prescribed above can be derived in the following manner: Consider the velocity vector diagram in Figure 51 itn G8 ye Wath U,. = Design Gust Velocity Ao. (Duc to Gust) ‘Ve Level Flight Figure 51. As aresult of the gust whose vertical velocity component is Uge, the angle of attack is changed by the increment AG, and the Cy is increased suddenly by the increment AC,_in Figure 52. Since the change is sudden, the velocity has not had time to change appreciably, $0, iy = De.1420 3.65 May 1989PERFORMANCE ac o oy 7 | bese 82 Figure 52. and, But, ec, =e, £2¢, 2 - 50, ac Sok Tan Me or, mA where mis the slope of the lift curve per radian. If Act is given in degrees, it must be changed to radians or m replaced by a, the slope per degree. Since design gust velocity, Uge, is specified in fps and velocity is in knots, 3.66 s-1420 May 1989PERFORMANCE U eae Ao = T6878 Ve ‘The angle Acris assumed to be small, therefore, acy Also, 295.375 W vis Since, ac (tel actw) n=14\ Teg7gy, )\ 295375 W mu,Y a nelt——# 8 @2) WwW 498.5 () “This is a "sharp edge gust formula" based on an assumption of instantaneous gust penetration. That is, the gust is assumed to act on the entire aispiane at the same time. However, as an airplane penetrates an actual gust, the gust does not act on the entire airplane at the same time, ‘This condition tends to alleviate the acceleration loading and decreases the value of the load factor determined by equation (82) by a factor, Kg, The value of Kg, known as the "gust alleviation factor", has been determined empirically to yield the formula: @ ote, 3) e534 where, [t,, the "airplane mass ratio" equals, Ww _ 2) Hy= pemg and © is the mean geometric chord ps. 3.67 May 1959.PERFORMANCE ‘Thus, including the "Kussner-Wagner" effect, the equivalent sharp edge gust formala dope Lcu-m)Gne 5, OU, n=1t (84) GY) 3 re Aa 9 A GUS? ENVELOPE 3+] W = 23,000 18 wae FLAPS WP ee CG = .335 MAC yo PF 50 FP CRITICAL ALTITUDES eee ao | [(reetean varus) ae 425 oP 5% é = By 3 § i Boo "25 fos 6: AIRSPEED - XT EAS ® te “0 toe “1 Figure 53. Equation (84) assumes that the lift curve slope, m, has incorporated the compressible and aeroelastic effects of the wing. The data for Boeing airplanes are based on a lift curve determined by a steady-state acroclastic analysis of the wing which includes the Mach number effects and the flexibility characteristics. ‘The gust envelope calculated at the critical altitudes and with the CG at 33.5% MAC for a Boeing airplane is shown in Figure 53. 3.68PERFORMANCE yo Fe winou ner Goole cue 15 Fer eo Gak (a ts se) - ta Od ete mo ‘he ban De Critical Altitude Typical Values I 1 I Aspe kzas ! I Figure 54. Composite V-n Diagram ‘The airplane must be structurally able to withstand all load factors included on or within the wo envelopes presented above. Thus all the design load factors can be given on and within 2 composite envelope which includes all regions enclosed by the two envelopes. This design V-n diagram for the critical altitudes with CG at 33.5% MAC is showa on Figure 54, ‘The diagram has been limited to speeds above stall since it is impossible to fly at lower speeds. ‘Therefore, consideration will not be given to the higher load factor values of the gust over the maneuver values for Cymax at velocities below Vs, The reason for this is that the CLmax line Tepresents the maximum loading condition in this region. Asa result, the gust values of load factor cannot be attained and are of academic interest only. Vc -- design cruising speed. The minimum design cruising speed, Vc, shall be sufficiently greater than Vp to provide for inadvertent speed increases likely to occur as 2 result of severe atmospheric turbulence. In the absence of a rational investigation substantiating the use of other values: (Wc2 Vy +43 know) (5) Se except that it need not execed the maximum speed in level flight at maxitnum continuous power for the corresponding altitude. At altitudes where Vp (design dive speed) is limited by Mach number or compressibility, it shall be acceptable to limit Ve to a Mach number selected by the applicant FAR Part 25.335 (a) Dé-1420 3.69 May 1989PERFORMANCE Vg and Mg values for Boeing airplanes are arbitrarily selected by Boeing, meeting FAR requirements. Vip ~ design dive speed. The design dive speed shall be used to determine the maximum operating limit speed for the airplane in accordance with FAR Part 25.1505; which insures. this speed shall not be exceeded if the aimplane is upset from flight at normal maximum operating speed FAR Part 25.335 (b) For Boeing airplanes, Vp and Mp are selected as required for certification. ‘The structural design speeds for a typical airplane are shown in Figure 55 Mach Number - M 60 65 775 8085 ' 1 ‘ ' 1 ' ' 1 : 1 1 40 t 1 Typical Values 1 1 ' ' ' 1 t 35 1,000 Feet Altitude 10} 300 340 380 420 460 500 540 580, ‘True Airspeed - Knots Figure’ 55, Wp ~ design flap speeds, The flap placard speeds are determined to meet design criteria in accordance with FAR Part 25.335 (c) (3): 3.70 6.1420 May 1989PERFORMANCE, th flaps in approach position at maximum landing weight; and ith flaps in landing position az maximum landing weight Wing flaps and their supporting structure and operating mechanism must be designed for the critical loads resviting from the conditions prescribed in FAR Fart 25.345 raking into account the Joads occurring during transition from one flap position and airspeed to another. FAR Part 25.457 ‘The wing flap control shall be designed to retract the flaps from the fully extended position during steady flight at maximum continuous engine power at any speed below Vp-+90 (kts). FAR Part 25.697 (d) “The stall speeds for the maximum takeoff and landing weights may be obtained from Figure 30 when determining the flap placard speeds. A typical set of flap placard speeds are tabulated in Figure 56. For convenience, a plot of the flap placard speeds is shown in Figure 57. Also, for some aispianes, there may be an altitude placard for flaps down operation since it may be possible to exceed limit loads when applying maximum roll capability. Figure 56. pé1409 3.71 May 1689PERFORMANCE ° 10 20 30 ho Sp - FIAP POSITION, DEGREES Figure 57. There are no speed limitations imposed on the spoilers, The spoiler angle for a given input signal will decrease with an increase in airspeed. As the "gq" force on the spoilers increases it will overcome the hydraulic pressure in the actuator, and the spoiler will blow down. Figure 58 shows the design blowdown speeds. It should be understood that the spoiler angle decreases with altitude increase for any given equivalent airspeed because of compressibility effects. However, deviations are small enough that they are usually neglected. 4 60 Dnmee ia g Be Feet Bets ho ase 9B a won ple i fous pier A ao & 10 6 3.72, 6.1420 May 1989PERFORMANCE, ‘Vajo/Myo~ maximum operating limit speed (@) The maximum operating limit speed is a speed which shall not be deliberately exeeeded in any regime of flight (climb, cruise, or descent), except where a higher speed is authorized for flight test or pilot training operations. ‘This operating limitation, denoted by the symbols Vyig/Myjo (airspeed or Mach number, whichever is critical at a particular altitude), shall be established to be hot greater than the design cruising speed Vc and sufficiently below Vp/Mp or Vpr/Vpr (demonstrated flight dive speed) to make it highly improbable that the latter speeds will be inadvertently exceeded in operations, The speed margin between Vio/Myjo and Vp/Mp or Vpr/Mpe shall be determined in accordance with paragraph 25.335 (b), but shall not be less than the margin found necessary in flight tests in accordance with FAR Part 25.253 FAR Part 25.1505 iter of the values determined in accordance with (1) From an initial condition of stabilized flight at Vc/Mg, the airplane shall be assumed to be upset, Flown forQ20 second3 along a flight panies dea below the initial path and pulled up at a load factor of(1.5 (5g acceleration increment). It shall be acceptable to calculate speed increase occurring in this maneuver, provided reliable or conservative acrodynamic data are used, Power as specified in 25.175(b) (1) (iv) shall be assumed until the pullup is initiated, at which time power reduction and the ay be assumed. FAR Part 25.335 (b) (1) aid (2) The margin shat jent 10 provide for atmospheric variations) such as horizontal gusts, penetration of jet airframe, production variations. It shall be accepy: these factors on a probability basis but the ‘margin ataltitudes where Mc is limited by compressibility effects shall not be less than .0SM. FAR Part 25.335 (b) (2) ©) VoMc shall not be greater than 0.8 Vp/Mp, FAR Part 25.335 (b) Vio ~ landing gear operating speed. The landing gear operating speed, Vj.¢, shall be established not to exceed a speed at which itis safe to extend or retract the landing gear 2s limited by design in accordance with FAR Part 25,729 or by flight characteristics. FAR Part 25.1515 (a) 1) The landing gear retracting mechanism, wheel well doors, and supporting structuse shall be designed for loads occurring in the flight conditions when the gear is in the retracted position, and for the combination of friction, inertia, brake torque, air loads, and gyroscopic loads resulting from the wheels rorating at x peripheral speed equal to 1.3 Vs (with flaps in takeoff position st design takeoff weight) occurring during retraction and extension at any speed up to 1.6 Vs}, (flaps in the approach position at design landing weight), and any load factor up to those specified per FAR Part 25.345(a) for the flap extended condition. FAR Part 25.729 (a) (1) 16-1420 a8 May 1989PERFORMANCE Example: 103.5 knots, EAS 1,6 (103.5) = 166 knots EAS Yyo _ is selected at 270 knots EAS Myo is selected at 83 ‘The speed limitation is a structural placard on the landing gear doors which are down during gear operation. Upon completion of the operation, the wheel well doors are automatically closed and the airplane may operate at increased speed with the landing gear in the extended position. Vig ~ landing gear extended speed, The landing gear extended speed, V, p, shall be established not to exceed a speed at which it has been shown that the airplane can be safely flown with the landing gear secured in the full extended position, and for which the structure has been proven in accordance with FAR Part 25.729 . FAR Part 25.1515 (b) (2), The landing gear, the retracting mechanism, and the airplane structure including wheel well doors) shall be designed :o withstand the flight loads occurring with the landing gear in the extended position at any speed up to 0.67 Vo, unless other means are provided to decelerate the airplane in flight at this speed FAR Part 25.729 (a) (2) Example: Assume a Vi equal to 360 kts EAS. 0.67 Ve =0.67 (360) = 241 knots EAS Viz is selected at 320 knots EAS. Mrz is selected at 83. 3.74 pé1a00 May 1989PERFORMANCE 3-5 Takeoff Takeoff consists of the ground nun, rotation to lift off, flare to 35 foot height (15 foot height for wet runway certification), and climb segments. The takeoff distance is from brake release to the 35-foot height. The takeoff climb requirements, as given in the regulations, are referred to defined segments of the flight path from 35 feet to 1,500 feet above the takeoff surface, or at which the transition from the takeoff to the enroute configuration is completed, whichever point is higher. Figure 59 shows the takeoff profile. FIRST SECOND. THIRD. FINAL seGMenT|] SEGMENT | SEGMENT SEGMENT ENGINE RATING- TAKEOFF | TAKEOFF | TaKgorr | AT LEAST MCT uct. TAKEOFF FLAP RETRACTION | FLAPS UP I FLAP SETTING- TAKEOFF | TAKEOFF I (OREDIT FORGROUND-EFFECT eee 4 FLAPS UP aT Least S00 Fr ATLEAST snort onae RELEASE come | | { TAREORF DETRICE | TAREOFF CONG SEGNENTS | Figure 59. The takeoff from brake release to the end of the first takeoff climb segment with the gear up is determined from flight test, and therefore includes ground effect. The first takeoff climb segment begins at 35 feet and continues to gear up. The second takeoff climb segment is from gear up to a minimum height of at least 400 feet above reference zero, the point on the runway at the takeoff distance. Flap retraction at this height results ina third takeoff climb segmeat. The final takeoff climb segment is from the flap reaction height where flaps are up to the 1,500-foot height. Although the takeoff climbout segments starting at 35 feet are considered a part of the takeoff, analysis of these parts will not be made until the climb is discussed. General Takeoff Distance Equation In developing the equation for ground distance under any acceleration condition: ds Ye 6420 3.75 May 1989PERFORMANCE ant (86) From equation (86), and, thus, ds=—y (87) Integrating equation (87) between any two arbitrary speeds and distances, the following equation results: y Vav < 8) If the takeoff ground run to rotation speed is considered, sy - sx can be replaced by Sg (ground distance), Vx by Vw (airplane starting from rest where Vw is the wind velocity), and VdV by (V - Vw) dV since the acceleration, a, in the integrand is a function of the ground velocity (V- Vw). Vy is replaced by Vp, rotation speed, as defined below. The acceleration, a, in the integrand is related. to velocity change and is therefore indepencent of the velocity reference point. Ve J w W=¥ia) av (89), ‘The acceleration of an sirplane during the ground run may be found by considering the forces existing on the airplane, as in Figure 60. The aizplane is seen to be under the influence of lift (L), drag (D), thrust (T), weight (W), rolling friction force (Fr), and runway slope (9). Figure 60. 3.76 16.1420, May 1989PERFORMANCE Since the tangential force reterding the motion of a moving body is proportional to the perpendicular, or normal force, a general relationship may be written letting the Greek letter Mu, 1, represent the constant of proportionality (90) where, Fis frictional force, Ibs Fhor is the normal force, (W - L), Ibs ‘The constant, [1 is usually referred to as a coefficient of friction. The friction forees shown to exist on the airplane of Figure 60 may be determined from the application of equation (90), as the product of the coefficient, }, and the weight on the wheels, which at any given instant is equal to (WL). The value of the coefficient is approximately 015 under rolling conditions on dry concrete, which means the retarding force will be equal to 1 1/2 percent of the weight on the wheels. This, value can be used in all estimated calculations involving the coefficient of rolling friction. If flight test information is available showing 1 10 be slightly different from .015, the actual results are used. Since, then, and, a=agl(T -nW)-(D-n1)- Wo] a=W L(T-BW)-(Cy HC.) Sa- WO] on ‘Substituting equation (91) into equation (89) results in: (Y= Vy W)- (Cpe) Sa- Wa] eA ‘This is the general expression for the takeoff ground run distance to rotation speed. To carry out the integration, however, the variation of thrust, weight, drag, and lift with velocity must be determined. In general, thrust is « function of velocity, air temperature and pressuse; weight will be nearly consiant for the ground run; drag and lift are functions of velocity and air density. Since the aircraft attitude remains constant until rotation on aircraft with tricycle landing gear, Cand Cp will be constant during the ground run. Figure 61 is a plot showing the magnitude of the forces acting during a takeoff mun, De1420 B97 May 1989