CFD - Chapter - 4

Type of airfoil stall: - Airfoil can stall from LE or TE.
TE has gradual stall characteristic

whereas LE has abrupt stall characteristic.
Effect of aspect ratio on wing’s lift curve slope: - As the AR is increased, the
aerodynamic features of a three-dimensional wing (such as CL, o, s, CLmax, CDmin) are getting
closer to its two-dimensional airfoil section (such as Cl, o, s, Clmax, Cdmin). This is due
to reduction of the influence of wing tip vortex. As the AR is increased, the wing lift curve slope
(CL) is increased toward the maximum theoretical limit of 2 1/rad. The relationship between
3d wing lift curve slope (CL) and 2d airfoil lift curve slope (Cl) is as follows: -
Grid Generation: -
• Procedure: -
o Geometrical Cleaning (watertight geometry with required points and lines
only and with red and yellow curve only )
o Surface and volume mesh generation (ideal growth ratio – 1.18 to 1.2)
o Mesh Refinement
o Prism Mesh Generation
o Error Check and Mesh Quality Check
o Exporting the mesh according to our requirement
• Structured Mesh: - Physical Location of any mesh point and identity of its
neighbours are know indirectly or implicitly.
• Structured Mesh: - Physical Location of any mesh point and identity of its
neighbours i.e., connectivity of its mesh is to be determined explicitly.
• Hybrid Mesh: - Combination of Structured and unstructured mesh.
• Overset Mesh: - Multiple overlapping grids to discretise the domain, the solver
interpolates the values between various grids in the region of overlap.
• Cartesian Mesh: - This is suitable for Euler computation and in this mesh, each face
cell is orthogonal to its neighbour.
2- Advancing Front
• Mesh boundaries are discretized into triangular faces. These discretized boundaries
form the initial front.
• Tetrahedron are generated one-by-one, starting from boundaries towards the center
of the domain.
• Exposed inner faces of these elements collectively form an advancing front.
Mesh Check Error: -

• Uncovered Face: - means holes in the mesh.
• Volume Orientation: - means order of element don not defines a right-handed
element.
• Surface orientation: - means surface element is shared by multiple volume cells.
Suggestion for mesh quality: -
• Minimum surface quality ≥ 0.2

• Minimum volume quality ≥ 0.1
• Prism T-Grid Skewness ≤ 0.98
• Transition from prism to tetra should be smooth.
• No or minimum number of pyramids should be formed.
Non-linear Potential Equation (Assumption of irrotationality): -
Linear Potential Equation (Assumption of small AOA and thin body till supersonic
Speed): -
Procedure to solve the equations: -
1- Discretisation in space: -
• Finite difference
• Finite element
• Finite volume
2- Marching in time: - Some kind of finite difference method
• Explicit Method
• Implicit Method
3- Now we get the system of equation
Finite Element, Finite Difference and Finite Volume Method

Finite Difference Method: -
• Starting point is conservation equation in differential form. At each grid point, unknow
are placed and differential equation is approximated by replacing the partial derivative
with some algebraic form using Taylor series.
• For all the practical purpose, FD method is applied to structural grid only.
Advantage: -
1. Easy to code and simple to understand
2. Can be both in explicit and implicit formulation
Disadvantage: -
1. Not good to handle the discontinuity
2. limited to structured mesh only
3. Need quardinate transformation for non-uniform grid.
Finite Element Method: -
• The computational domain is divided into several small finite elements that are
generally unstructured.
• The distinguishing feature of FE method is that the equation is multiplied by a weight
function before they integrated over the entire domain.
• The weight function is approximated by such a linear shape function which gives the
continuity of the solution across the element boundary.
Advantage: -
1. No need of the grid transformation
2. Good for the unstructured grid with effectiveness and accuracy.
Disadvantage: -
1- Difficult to implement
2- FE is valid for implicit formulation and no explicit formulation is available.
Finite Volume Method: -

• The solution domain is divided into the finite number of control volume where Integral
form of conservation equation is applied to centroid of each CV to evaluate the variable
values.
• Interpolation is used to express the variable value at the face center in terms of the
nodal values.
Advantage: -
1- Can be used for both structured and unstructured grid.
2- No need of quardinate transformation.
3- Good to handle the discontinuity (Shock and shear layer) and complex geometry.
Disadvantage: -
1- Difficult to implement on unstructured grid
Type of systematic error: -
Model Error: - Difference between real problem and chosen model equation.
Discretization Error: - Difference between exact solution of model equation and exact
solution of discretized system
Convergence Error: - Difference between analytical solution and numerical solution

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Type of airfoil stall: - Airfoil can stall from LE or TE.

TE has gradual stall characteristic

• Hybrid Mesh: - Combination of Structured and unstructured mesh.

Mesh Check Error: -

Suggestion for mesh quality: -

• Minimum surface quality ≥ 0.2

Finite Element, Finite Difference and Finite Volume Method

Finite Volume Method: -

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