SCIENCE GRADE 10 (EXAM PREP) MID-OCEAN RIDGE- A continuous mass of land

with long width and height on the ocean floor.

UNIT 1: EARTH AND SPACE TRENCH- A depression in the seafloor
produced by a subduction process.
VOLCANIC ISLAND ARC- A chain of volcanoes
MODULE1:PLATE that develop parallel to a trench.
TECTONICS RENDERING:
DEFINITIONS:
Earth’s Lithosphere consists of layers, the crust,
GEOLOGY- The science that studies Earth.
and the upper part of the mantle.
P-WAVE- The first type of seismic wave to be
There are two kinds of crust, namely, Oceanic
recorded at the seismic station.
crust which is relatively thinner but denser crust,
S-WAVE- The second type of seismic wave to
and next is Continental crust wherein, its thicker
be recorded in the seismic station.
but less dense.
SEISMOGRAM- A record made by a
7 LARGE PLATES:
seismograph.
Eurasian plate, African plate, South
SEISMOGRAPH- A device used to record
American plate, Antarctic plate,
earthquakes.
Indo-Australian Plate, North American Plate,
EARTHQUAKE- Vibration of Earth due to the
and Pacific Plate.
rapid release of energy.
Tectonics is the slowly yet constantly movement
PLATES- Rigid sections of the lithosphere that
of plates.
move as a unit.
Plate tectonics on the other hand, is the theory
PLATE TECTONICS- A theory which suggests
of moving lithospheric plate.
that Earth’s crust is made up of plates that
S-wave and p-wave helps us determine the
interact in various ways, thus producing
location of an earthquake.
earthquakes, mountains,volcanoes, and other
Given at least three recording stations, you will
geological features.
be able to find the location of the epicenter using
CRUST- The outer portion of the Earth.
the difference in the arrival time of the s-wave
CONTINENTAL CRUST- The thick part of the
and p-wave.
Earth’s crust, not located under the ocean.
TRIANGULATION METHOD is a method used
OCEANIC CRUST- The thin part of the Earth’s
to measure or identify the location of an
crust located under the oceans.
earthquake. By the intersection of the three
FAULT- a break in a rock along which
circles of the three station. The intersection in
movement has taken place.
the middle is the recorded location of the
MAGMA- A mass of molten rock formed at
epicenter.
depth, including dissolved gasses and crystals.
FORMULAS:
HOTSPOT- A concentration of heat in the
TIME DIFFERENCE- P-wave arrival time minus
mantle capable of creating magma.
S-wave arrival time. (seconds)
SUBDUCTION- An event in which a slab of rock
DISTANCE- d= Td/8 seconds*100
thrusts into the mantle.
CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY- A
TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES:
boundary in which two plates move toward each
other, causing one of the slabs of the lithosphere
to subduct under the less dense plate.
DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY- A type of
plate boundary, wherein the lithospheric plates
move away from each other forming a ridge,
developing a new seafloor.
TRANSFORM FAULT PLATE BOUNDARY-
Another type of plate boundary where the plates
crash into each other in a horizontal manner.
CONTINENTAL VOLCANIC ARC- A mountain
formed in part by igneous activity associated
with subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath
a continent.
 of volcanic arc. As the plate moves, different part
of it is targeted by the mantle plume beneath the
lithospheric plates. As it moves, one volcano is
cutted off from the source, while a new one is
formed next or above the mantle plume.

MODULE 2: THE EARTH’S

INTERIOR
PLATE TECTONICS give rise to several
geologic features and events. DEFINITIONS:
LITHOSPHERE- The topmost, solid part of the
GEOLOGICAL FEATURES FORMED IN: Earth that is composed of several plates.
LITHOSPHERIC PLATES- The moving,
CONTINENTAL TO OCEANIC irregularly-shaped slabs that fit together to form
CONVERGENCE the surface of the Earth.
>Volcanic arc ASTHENOSPHERE- Soft, weak upper portion of
>Earthquakes the mantle where the lithospheric plates float
>Trenches/ submarine valleys and move around.
OCEANIC TO OCEANIC CONVERGENCE: SUBDUCTION- The process in which the crust
>Formation of trenches plunges back into the earth.
>Underwater earthquakes TECTONICS- Branch of geology that deals with
>Tsunamis the movements that shape the Earth’s crust.
>Volcanic Island arc SEAFLOOR SPREADING- Process by which
CONTINENTAL PLATES CONVERGENCE: new ocean floor is formed near the mid-ocean
>Large group of tall mountains called mountain ridge and moves outward.
ranges. PLASTICITY- The ability of solid to flow.
>Shallow earthquake activities MOHOROVICIC DISCONTINUITY(MOHO)- The
> No trenches, no volcanic arc etc. boundary that separates the crust and the
DIVERGENCE OF PLATES: mantle.
>Formation of riff valleys MID-OCEAN RIDGE- Area in the middle of the
>Formation of oceanic Ridges ocean where a new ocean floor is formed when
>formation of new ocean floor lava erupts through the cracks in the Earth’s
>Earthquake crust.
TRANSFORM FAULT PLATE BOUNDARY: CONVECTION CURRENT- Current in the
>Earthquake activities mantle because of the heat from the inner layers
>Faults of the earth, and is the force that drives the
plates to move around.
What causes the formation of this chain of CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY- States that all
volcanic islands? The answer lies in an area the continents where once one large landmass
called Hotspot. When geologists determined the that broke apart, and where the pieces moved
age of each volcanic island through radiometric slowly to their current locations.
dating, they noticed that the farther the volcano
from the hotspot, the older and less active it is. DISCUSSION:
Scientist suggested that there is a geologic The earth is made up of three layers. Namely,
feature of molten material called mantle plume The Crust, mantle, and the core.
which is the source of the formation and eruption
Remember, earthquake is a vibration of the through earth and solids. S-waves also called
Earth produced by the rapid release of energy transverse waves, forces the ground to sway
most often because of the slippage along a fault from side to side in rolling motion that shakes
in the Earth’s crust. the ground perpendicular to the direction of the
This energy radiates in all directions from the waves. The concept that S-waves cannot travel
focus in the form of waves called seismic waves, through liquids leds seismologists to conclude
which are recorded in seismographs. that the outer core is liquid.
The two main types of seismic waves are SUMMARY
body waves and surface waves. P-waves can travel through liquids while
S-waves cannot. During an earthquake, the
seismic waves radiate from the focus. Waves
bends due to change in density of the medium.
AS THE DEPTH INCREASES, THE DENSITY
ALSO INCREASES.

SURFACE WAVES
Surface waves can only travel through the
surface of the Earth. They arrive after the main
P-waves and S-waves and are confined to the
outer layers of the earth.
2 TYPES OF SURFACE WAVE:
Love Waves- a wave that is technically faster
than the other wave, Rayleigh wave to be
specific, it moves the ground in a side to side THE COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH’S
horizontal motion, like that of a snake’s causing INTERIOR
the ground to twist. This is the reason why
Love waves causes more destruction than
Rayleigh waves.

Rayleigh Waves- A wave that rolls the ground

just like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean.
Since it rolls, it moves the ground either up and
down or side to side similar to the direction of
the wave’s movement. Most of the shaking felt
from an earthquake is due to rayleigh wave.

BODY WAVES
Body waves can travel through the Earth’s inner
layers. With these characteristics, they are used
by scientists to study the earth’s interior. These
waves are of a higher frequency than the
surface waves.
2 TYPES OF BODY WAVES: CRUST
P-wave (primary wave)- is a pulse energy that The thinnest and outermost layer of the earth
travels quickly through the earth and through that extends from the surface to about 32
LIQUIDS. It travels faster than S-waves. kilometers the surface to about 32 kilometers
P-waves also called compressional waves, below.
travel by particles vibrating parallel to the It is subdivided into two regions: the continental
direction the wave travel. P-waves travel through crust and the oceanic crust.
SOLIDS, LIQUIDS, AND GASSES. CONTINENTAL CRUST is mainly made up of
S-wave ( secondary wave or shear wave)- IS silicon, oxygen, aluminum, calcium, sodium, and
a pulse energy that travels slower than P-waves
potassium. Its thickness range from 35-40 km. it > The overall density of the earth is much higher
is made up of less dense rocks such as granite. than the density of the rocks in the crust. This
OCEANIC CRUST is around 7-10 km thick while suggests that the inside must be made up of
its average thickness is 8 kilometers. It is made something denser than rocks.
mainly dense rocks such as Basalt. > The whole earth and meteorite roughly have
the same density, thus the earth’s mantle rock
ELEMENTS IN THE EARTH’S CRUST and a meteorite minus its iron, have the same
Oxygen, Silicon, Aluminum, Iron, Calcium, density.
Sodium, Potassium, Magnesium, Titanium, and
Hydrogen. THE EARTH’S MECHANISM
MANTLE
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
Beneath the crust is called mantle which
in 1912, Alfred Wegener, a german
extends to about 2900 km. It makes up about
meteorologist, proposed a theory that about 200
80% of the earth’s total volume and about 68%
million years ago, the continents were once one
of its total mass. The mantle is mainly made up
large mass.
of silicate rocks and is solid since both P-wave
PANGEA- that’s what Wegener called the big
and S-wave pass through it. The lower mantle is
landmass that was once connected. In Greek,
denser than the upper portion. The crust and the
it's a word which means, “all Earth”.
upper mantle are relatively cool,and the
outermost rigid is called the lithosphere. These
This Pangea started to break into two smaller
lithospheric plates move relative to each other.
supercontinents called Laurasia and
Beneath the lithosphere lies the soft, weak layer
Gondwanaland during the Jurassic period.
known as the asthenosphere, made up of hot
molten material. The asthenosphere has a
temperature enough to facilitate a small amount
of melting, and make it capable of flowing.
This property of the asthenosphere facilitates
the movement of the lithospheric plates. THE
LITHOSPHERE, WITH THE CONTINENTS ON
TOP OF IT, IS BEING CARRIED BY THE
FLOWING ASTHENOSPHERE.

ELEMENTS IN THE EARTH’S MANTLE

Silicon, oxygen, iron, and magnesium.

CORE
The core is divided into two layers: Outer core
and inner core.
OUTER CORE is about 2900 km below the
Earth’s surface. And 2250 km thick. It is mostly
made up of iron and nickel. The temperature in
the outer core ranges from 2000 degrees
celsius, resulting in the iron and nickel to melt.
INNER CORE is made up of solid iron and
nickel and has a radius of 1300 km. Its
temperature reaches to about 5000 degrees
celsius. The extreme temperature could have EVIDENCES:
molten the iron and nickel but it is believed to THE CONTINENTAL JIGSAW PUZZLE
have solidified as a result of pressure freezing, It seems impossible that the continents that are
which is common to liquids subjected under now miles and miles away from each other were
tremendous pressure. once connected. But evidence shows that the
edges of each continent seem to connect like a
WHAT TELLS US THAT THE INNER CORE IS jigsaw puzzle. One example is that South
MADE UP OF IRON? America and Africa fit together.
> Iron and nickel are both dense and magnetic.
DISTRIBUTION OF FOSSILS: FINDINGS THAT SUPPORT SEAFLOOR
Fossils are remains or traces of either animals SPREADING THEORY:
or plants hundred or millions of years ago. An 1. Rocks are younger at the mid-ocean
example of this is the glossopteris that were ridge.
found in a 250 million years old rock. These 2. Rocks far from the mid-ocean ridge are
fossils were spread onto numerous continents older.
wherein it is physically impossible for it to travel. 3. Sediments are thinner at the ridge.
EVIDENCE FROM ROCKS: 4. Rocks at the ocean floor are younger
The rocks themselves also provide evidence than those at the continents.
that continents drifted apart from each other.
The folded cape mountains of south america MAGNETIC REVERSAL
and africa line up perfectly as if they were once
Magnetic rocks near the ridge follow a pattern
a long mountain range.
aside from the fact that rocks near the ridge are
remarkably younger than those far from the
COAL DEPOSITS:
ridge.
Coal beds were formed from the compaction
MAGNETIC COMPASS- Tells us directions on
and decomposition of swamp plants that lived
earth. It also proves to us that Earth has a
millions of years ago.
magnetic field.
- The needle of a magnetic compass
usually points to the north pole of the
THE SEAFLOOR SPREADING
earth which is the south magnetic pole
Wegener wasn't able to explain how drifting took
in the present time.
place despite the evidence he provided.
- The earth’s magnetic pole is generated
During the 1950s and 1960s, with the use of
in the vwr hot molten outer core and has
sonars and submersibles, scientists had a
already existed since the birth of our
clearer view of the ocean floor.
planet.
Scientists found a system of ridges or mountains
- The earth’s magnetic field is a dipole,
in the seafloor similar to those found in
one that has a north pole and south
continents. These are called mid-ocean ridges.
pole.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT - Suggested by
WHAT IS MAGNETIC REVERSAL?
scientists, Harry Hess together with Robert
Magnetic reversal is also called magnetic ‘FLIP’
Dietz. It is called the Seafloor spreading theory.
on earth.
SEA FLOOR SPREADING - Hot less dense
HOW DOES MAGNETIC REVERSAL
materials from below the earth’s crust rises
HAPPEN?
towards the surface at the mid-ocean ridge.
It happens when the north pole is transformed
Overtime, the new oceanic crust pushed the old
into a south pole and the south pole becomes
oceanic crust far from the ridge. The process of
the north pole. This is due to the change in the
seafloor spreading allowed the creation of new
direction of flow in the outer core.
bodies of water. Sea floor spreading is also
HOW DOES IT PROVE SEAFLOOR
pulling the continents. The east pacific rise is
SPREADING?
one of the most active sites of seafloor
-When lava solidifies, iron bearing minerals
spreading, with more than 14 centimeters per
crystallize. As these crystallize, the minerals
year.
behave like tiny compasses and align with the
When two oceanic plate or oceanic and
Earth’s magnetic field.
continental plate collide, a subduction zone
So, when magnetic reversal occurs, there is
occurs. As the new seafloor is formed at the
also a change in polarity of the rocks.
mid-ocean ridge, the old seafloor farthest from
the ridge is destroyed at the subduction zone.
Note: the rate of formation of a new seafloor is
not always as fast as the destruction of the old
seafloor at the subduction zone. If subduction is
faster than seafloor spreading, the ocean
shrinks. When the seafloor spreading is greater
than the subduction then the ocean gets wider.
 The hot, less dense rising material spreads out
as it reaches the upper mantle causing upward
and sideward forces. These forces lift and split
the lithosphere at divergent plate boundaries.
The hot magma flows out of the mantle and
cools down to form the new ocean crust.
The downward movement of the convection
current occurs along a convergent boundary
where the sinking force pulls the tectonic
plate downward.
The convection current rotate very slowly, as
they move and drag the plates along.
RIDGE PUSH
Over the last 10 million years, there has been an As an oceanic crust moves away from a
average of 4 to 5 reversals per million years. divergent boundary, it becomes denser than the
- New rocks are added to the ocean floor newer oceanic crust. As the older seafloor sinks,
near the mid-ocean ridge. the weight of the uplifted ridge pushes the
- The stripes on both sides are of equal oceanic crust toward the trench at the
size and polarity which seemed to be subduction zone.
mirror image across the ocean ridge. SLAB PULL
WHAT DOES THIS INDICATE? It indicates that The weight of the subducting plate pulls the
indeed, the seafloor is spreading. trailing slab into the subduction zone just like the
table clothing slipping off the table and pulling
PLATE TECTONIC THEORY items with it.
The plate tectonic theory provided an
explanation about the movement of the
lithospheric plates.
- The earth is divided into several plates.
These plates rides over the weak
asthenosphere.

THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF PLATE

MOVEMENT:
DIVERGENT-Separation of two plates.
CONVERGENT-Collision of two plates.
TRANSFORM FAULT-Sliding past each other of
plates.

WHAT FACILITATES THE MOVEMENT OF

THE PLATES?
Heat is produced in the core that produces
convection in the mantle.
These convection causes the plate to move
around.

CONVECTION CURRENT
As a substance like water is heated, the less
dense particles rise while denser particles sink.
Once the hot less dense particles cool down,
they sink, and the other less dense particles
rise.
This process is called convection current.
This is what exactly happens in the Earth’s
mantle.