Introduction

Why dyeing is required??

Human beings have certain basic needs. We Must have food, clothing, water,
air, and shelter to Survive. If any one of these basic needs is not Met, then
humans cannot survive.

People just find it fun! A little bit of color can go a long way to brighten up
your day and tie-dye is the best representation of that. It’s often been
suggested that people who wear bright and colorful clothes are more joyous
and have less social anxiety overall.

Dyeing : Dyeing is the process of adding colours to textile products like

fabric ,yarn and fibres.

Dyeing is normally done in a specific solution containing dyes and particular

chemical material . After dyeing dye molecules have uncut chemical bond
with fibre molecules.

Dyes: Dyes are coloured substances which can adhere to the surface of
materials and are used to give colour to paper, food- stuffs and various
textiles such as cotton, wool, silk, synthetic fibres etc.

Characteristics of dyeing:
• It should have a suitable colour.
• It should be able to fix itself or be capable of being fixed to the fabric
• It should be fast to light
• It should be resistant to the action of water, dilute acids and alkalies.

The main factors affecting the dyeing process are :

• glossiness
• whiteness
• weft density
• roughness
• gram weight
There are two main classes of dye :
• Natural. and • Man made

Types of dyes
1. Vat dyes
2. Basic dyes
3. Direct dyes
4. Reactive dyes
5. Azo dyes
6. Acid dyes
7. Azoic dyes
8. Sulphur dyes
9. Pigment dyes
10. Mordant dyes
11. Synthatic dyes
12. Disperse dyes
13. Aniline dyes
14. Nitro dyes
15. Anthraquinone dyes
16. Turmericdyes (Natural dyes)

Vat dye :
dye is made from natural plants. So, Vat dye is also called indigo dyes. Vat
dye is insoluble in water but soluble by vatting process. Vat dyes is windly
used in cellulose materials for dyeing purpose. Vat dye have good overall
fastness properties.Vat dye is not directly use for dyeing process. Vatting is
must be required before dyeing. Because vat dye is insoluble in water but it
Solubilized by vatting process and then dyeing is done.

Advantage :
• Vat dyes have good stability for dyeing of cellulosic materials.
• High reproducibility, produce full range of colours.
• Produce better shade for blend materials.
• Vat dyes are produced excellent wet fastness.
 Disadvantage :
• It is give poor rubbing fastness.
• it is expensive /costly process.

Basic dyes :
Basic dye are insoluble in water but Solubility of this dye in water with the
presence of glacial acetic acid. Basic dyes are synthetic type class dyes.
This dyes are windly used in dyeing of synthetic materials. Because this dyes
have more affinity for synthetic materials. It’s produced bright shade and
high tinctorial values. Basic dyes are powerful colouring agent. These dyes
are also be called Cationic dye.

Direct dye :
Direct dye are highly soluble in water. Direct dye are easily dissolve in
water. This dyes are widely used in cellulose materials because direct dye
have good affinity for cellulosic materials such as Cotton materials. Dyeing is
done Alkaline condition. Direct dye is easy and cheap process. But in this
process after treatment is required after dyeing for improving shade of dyed
materials. Direct dye are also be dyed wool, silk, Nylon materials. This dyes
gives good fastness property.

Advantage:
• cheap process, easy to handle, this dyes are given good result
on cellulose materials.

Disadvantage:
• After treatment is required for improvement depth of shade.

Reactive dyes :
Reactive dye are soluble in water. Reactive dyes are also more stable for
cellulosic materials. This dyes have also be high affinity for cellulosic
materials as well as for proteins fibres and also be polyamide fibres. This
dyes is easy to make a Covalent linkage with the fibres and work as a
integral part of fibre. This dye also be use for dyeing of Cotton,wool, and silk
materials.
Azo dyes :
Azo dyes are Soluble in water. Azo dyes are chemically class of dyes and this
dyes are organic compound. Azo dyes are contain functional group (N=N) .
this dyes are bound to Aromatic ring. These ring are break down with high
temp. these dyes are also be use for dyeing of cellulose materials as well as
proteins fibres. Azo dyes are produced strong colour with good depth of
shade on to the materials. Azo dyes are produced Different strong colour
such as acid orange 7, direct blue 15, methyl yellow and acid red.

Acid dyes :
Acid dye are highly soluble in water compare to the basic dyes. Acid dyes are
windly used for proteins fibres such as wool, silk, acrylic, nylon. Proteins
fibres contain Sulphonic acid groups. The function of Sulphonic acid groups
is to improve or increase the Solubility in water.

Properties :
1. Acid dyes are highly soluble in water compare with basic
dyes.
2. Acid dyes is properly work on proteins fibres such as wool,
silk, nylon.
3. Acid dye have no affinity for cellulosic materials. Hence,
acid dye is not suitable for cellulosic materials.

Azoic dyes :
Azoic dyes are Contain azo group (N=N). Azoic dyes are synthatic types dyes.
Its made in the form of readymade. Azo dyes are produced coloured
substance by the reaction of two components such as,

(1) Coupling compound (napthol)

(2) Di – azo Component ( salt diazo)

Azoic dyes are Colour Component but it is insoluble in water. And azoic dyes
are gives exllent washing fastness property.

Properties :
 1. Azoic dyes are insoluble in water.
2. Azoic dyes give bright colour.

Sulphur dyes :
Sulphur dyes are in soluble in water. Sulphur dyes are more suitable for
cellulosic materials and denim fabric. Sulphur dyes are produced strong deep
shade.

Pigment dyes :
Pigment is not a dye, pigment is a Chemical substance which is windly use
after the pigment dyeing for improving the fastness properties. Pigment
easily panetrate on to the materials with the help of binders. So, binder is
must be required in pigment dyeing. Now a days pigment dyeing is also
carried out in lots of industry.

Mordant dyes :
Mordant dyes are acid dyes in which contains metal atom it can be insert in
dye bath during dyeing. Mordant dyes have good affinity for proteins fibres
such as silk, and wool.Mordanting is must be required for synthatic dyestuff,
some synthatic dyes are generally in use that required mordanting for proper
exhaustion and proper pantration.

This is the reason it produces better shade on to the materials. But if dyes
are made from natural plants then mordanting is not required. Mordant dyes
required a mordant in their uses, it is easy to deposition in the form of colour.

Disperse dye :
Disperse dye are insoluble in water. This dyes are easy to diffuse in to the
fibres Because disperse dye have very small dye particals. Disperse dye are
windly used in synthatic materials such as polyester, nylon, and blend
materials such as polyester/cotton. Disperse dye is given good shade for
synthetic materials.

Developed dyes :
Developed dyes are made from developer with the help of some after
treatment process. The main role of develop dyes are to develop depth of
shade on to the materials. For example, develop dyes are “direct dyes.” This
dyes is also called developed dyes.

Aniline dyes :
Aniline dyes are derived chemically from aniline. Coal – tar distillation
product. For example…. Inks, dyes and other uses.

Nitro dyes :
Nitro dye are Aromatic Compound types dyes. Nitro dyes are produced strong
colour with the help of nitro group and hydroxy group. nitro dyes also be
contain chlorine and nitro dyes are more stable with the presence of nitro
and hydroxy group.

Anthraquinone :
Anthraquinone dyes are synthetic class types dyes. This dyes are found
mostly synthetically. This dyes have carbonyl group (>C=O). anthraquinone
dyes are Colourless but red to blue is found from uses hydroxy or amino
group.

Turmeric (natural dyes) :

Dyes are made from naturally turmeric dye is windly carried out for dyeing of
cellulosic materials. These dyes are used in most of the ancient civilization,
such as India, Egypt or more.

History of dyes :
The primary source of dye ,historically, has generally been nature, with the
dyes being extracted from animals and plants .Since the mid-19th century
however humans have produced artificial dyes to achieve a border range of
colours and to render the dyes more stable to resist washing and general use
.Different classes of dyes are used for different types of fibres and at
different stages of the textile production process, from loose fibres through
yarn and cloth to complete garments .
Natural dyes :
Until the 1850s virtually all dyes were obtained from natural sources, most
commonly from vegetables, such as plants, trees, and lichens, with a few
from insects. Solid evidence that dyeing methods are more than 4,000 years
old has been provided by dyed fabrics found in Egyptian tombs. Ancient
hieroglyphs describe extraction and application of natural dyes. Countless
attempts have been made to extract dyes from brightly coloured plants and
flowers; yet only a dozen or so natural dyes found widespread use.
Undoubtedly most attempts failed because most natural dyes are not highly
stable and occur as components of complex mixtures, the successful
separation of which would be unlikely by the crude methods employed in
ancient times. Nevertheless, studies of these dyes in the 1800s provided a
base for development of synthetic dyes, which dominated the market by
1900.

Two natural dyes, alizarin and indigo, have major significance. Alizarin is a
red dye extracted from the roots of the madder plant, Rubia tinctorium. Two
other red dyes were obtained from scale insects. These include kermes,
obtained from Coccus ilicis (or Kermes ilicis), which infects the Kermes oak,
and cochineal, obtained from Dactylopius coccus, which lives on prickly pear
cactus in Mexico. One kilogram (2.2 pounds) of cochineal dye can be
obtained from an estimated 200,000 insects. The principal coloured
components in these dyes are kermesic and carmines acids, respectively,
whose similarity was established by 1920. In their natural state many
colorants are rendered water-soluble through the presence of sugar residues.
These sugars, however, are often lost during dye isolation procedures.
Probably the oldest known dye is the blue dye indigo, obtained in Europe
from the leaves of the dyerswoad herb, Isatis tinctoria, and in Asia from
the indigo plant, Indigofera tinctoria. Even by modern standards, both
alizarin and indigo have very good dyeing properties, and indigo remains a
favoured dye for denim, although synthetic indigo has replaced the
natural material.

With a process developed by the Phoenicians, a derivative of indigo,

Tyrian purple, was extracted in very small amounts from the glands of a
snail, Murex brandaris, indigenous to the Mediterranean Sea. Experiments
in 1909 yielded 1.4 grams (0.05 ounce) from 12,000 snails. Historically,
this dye was also called royal purple because kings, emperors, and high
priests had the exclusive right to wear garments dyed with it, as is well
documented in the Hebrew Bible and illustrated for Roman emperors on
mosaics in Ravenna, Italy. By the 1450s, with the decline of the Eastern
Roman Empire, the Mediterranean purple industry died out.

Natural yellow dyes include louting, from the leaves of weld, Reseda
luteola, and quercetin, from the bark of the North American oak tree,
Quercus tinctoria. These are in the flavonoid family, a group of
compounds occurring almost exclusively in higher plants and producing
the colours of many flowers. In fact, these compounds can produce all the
colours of the rainbow except green. Luteolin, a yellow crystalline
pigment, was used with indigo to produce Lincoln green, the colour
associated with Robin Hood and his merry men.

Another group of compounds, the carotenoids, present in all green plants,

produce yellow to red shades. Lycopene, from which all carotenoids are
derived, produces the red colour of tomatoes. An ancient natural yellow
dye, crocetin, was obtained from the stigmas of Crocus sativus; this dye
is undoubtedly derived from lycopene in the plant. Few of the flavonoid
and carotenoid colorants would have survived ancient extraction
processes.

Logwood is the only natural dye used today. Heartwood extracts of the
logwood tree, Haematoxylon campechianum, yield hematoxylin, which
oxidizes to hematein during isolation. The latter is red but in combination
with chromium gives shades of charcoal, gray, and black; it is used
mainly to dye silk and leather.
Decline of natural dyes :
Until 1857 the dye industry utilized natural dyes almost exclusively;
however, by 1900 nearly 90 percent of industrial dyes were synthetic.
Several factors contributed to the commercial decline of natural dyes. By
1850 the Industrial Revolution in Europe led to a burgeoning textile
industry, which created increased demand for readily available,
inexpensive, and easily applied dyes and revealed the important
economic limitations of natural dyes. Since most dyes were imported
from distant sources, transportation delays were likely to slow the
production of dyed materials. Dye quality was affected by the whims of
nature and the dye maker’s skills. In addition, inefficient processes were
often required for optimum results; for example, Turkey red dyeing could
involve more than 20 steps to produce the desired bright, fast colour.
Advances in organic chemistry, both practical and theoretical, spurred by
studies of the many new compounds found in coal tar, increased interest
in finding ways to utilize this by-product of coke production. The dye
industry played a major role in the development of structural organic
chemistry, which in turn provided a sound scientific foundation for the
dye industry.

Synthetic dyes :
In 1856 the first commercially successful synthetic dye, mauve, was
serendipitously discovered by British chemist William H. Perkin, who
recognized and quickly exploited its commercial significance. The
introduction of mauve in 1857 triggered the decline in the dominance of
natural dyes in world markets. Mauve had a short commercial lifetime
(lasting about seven years), but its success catalyzed activities that
quickly led to the discovery of better dyes. Today only one natural dye,
logwood, is used commercially, to a small degree, to dye silk, leather, and
nylon black.

The synthetic dye industry arose directly from studies of coal tar. By 1850
coal tar was an industrial nuisance because only a fraction was utilized
as wood preservative, road binder, and a source of the solvent naphtha.
Fortunately, it attracted the attention of chemists as a source of new
organic compounds, isolable by distillation. A leading researcher in this
area, German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann, had been attracted
to England in 1845 to direct the Royal College of Chemistry. In the
following 20 years, he trained most of the chemists in the English dye
industry, one of whom was Perkin, the discoverer of mauve. The success
of mauve led to demands by English textile manufacturers for other new
dyes. By trial and error, reactions of coal tar compounds were found to
yield useful dyes. However, Hofmann became disenchanted with this
purely empirical approach, insisting that it was more important to
understand the chemistry than to proceed blindly. In 1865 he returned to
Germany, and by 1875 most of his students had been lured to German
industrial positions. By 1900 more than 50 compounds had been isolated
from coal tar, many of which were used in the developing German
chemical industry. By 1914 the synthetic dye industry was firmly
established in Germany, where 90 percent of the world’s dyes were
produced.

Dye structure and colour :

Advances in structural theory led to investigations of correlations
between chemical constitution and colour. In 1868 German chemists Carl
Graebe and Carl Liebermann recognized that dyes contain sequences of
conjugated double bonds: X=C―C=C―C=C―…, where X is carbon, oxygen,
or nitrogen. In 1876 German chemist Otto Witt proposed that dyes
contained conjugated systems of benzene rings bearing simple
unsaturated groups (e.g., ―NO2, ―N=N―, ―C=O), which he called
chromophores, and polar groups (e.g., ―NH 2, ―OH), which he named
auxochromes. These ideas remain valid, although they have been
broadened by better recognition of the role of specific structural features.
He had also claimed that auxochromes impart dyeing properties to these
compounds, but it later became clear that colour and dyeing properties
are not directly related. Witt suggested the term chromogen for specific
chromophore-auxochrome combinations.

Examples of dyes, each containing a different chromophore, include

azobenzene, xanthene, and triphenylmethane. Alizarin contains the
anthraquinone chromophore. These four dyes were commercial products
in the late 1800s.
The colours of dyes and pigments are due to the absorption of visible light
by the compounds. The electromagnetic spectrum spans a wavelength
range of 1012 metres, from long radio waves (about 10 km [6.2 miles]) to
short X-rays (about 1 nm [1 nm = 10–9 metre]), but human eyes detect
radiation over only the small visible range of 400–700 nm.

The visible spectrum, which represents the portion of the

electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the human eye, absorbs
wavelengths of 400–700 nm.

Organic compounds absorb electromagnetic energy, but only those with

several conjugated double bonds appear coloured by the absorption of
visible light . Without substituents, chromophores do not absorb visible
light, but the auxochromes shift the absorption of these chromogens into
the visible region. In effect, the auxochromes extend the conjugated
system. Absorption spectra (plots of absorption intensity versus
wavelength) are used to characterize specific compounds. In visible
spectra, the absorption patterns tend to be broad bands with maxima at
longer wavelengths corresponding to more extended conjugation. The
position and shape of the absorption band affect the appearance of the
observed colour. Many compounds absorb in the ultraviolet region, with
some absorptions extending into the violet (400–430 nm) region. Thus,
these compounds appear yellowish to the eye—i.e., the perceived colour
is complementary to the absorbed colour. Progressive absorption into the
visible region gives orange (430–480 nm), red (480–550 nm), violet (550–
600 nm), and blue (600–700 nm); absorption at 400–450 and 580–700 nm
gives green. Black objects absorb all visible light; white objects reflect all
visible light. The brilliance of a colour increases with decreasing
bandwidth. Synthetic dyes tend to give brilliant colours. This undoubtedly
led to their rapid rise in popularity because, by comparison, natural dyes
give rather drab, diffuse colorations.

Dye retention :
Various attractive forces play a role in the retention of particular dyes on
specific fibres. These include polar or ionic attractions, hydrogen
bonding, Van der Waals forces, and solubilities. The affinity of a dye for a
given substrate through such interactions is termed its substantivity.
Dyes can be classified by their substantivity, which depends, in part, on
the nature of the substituents in the dye molecules.Attractive ionic
interactions are operative in the case of anionic (acid) and cationic
(basic) dyes, which have negatively and positively charged groups,
respectively. These charged groups are attracted to sites of opposite
polarity on the fibre. Mordant dyes are a related type. In the mordanting
process, the fabric is pretreated with metallic salts, which complex with
polar groups of the fibre to form more highly polarized sites for better
subsequent interaction with the dye molecules.

Nonionic groups can also be involved in attractive interactions. Since the

electronegativities of oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur are greater than those
of carbon and hydrogen, when these elements are part of a compound,
the electron densities at their atomic sites are enhanced and those at
neighbouring atoms are decreased. An O―H bond is therefore polar, and
an attractive interaction between the hydrogen of one bond and the
oxygen of a neighbouring bond can occur. Hydrogen bonding may be
exhibited by any weakly acidic hydrogen. Although there is no chemical
bond, strong attractive forces are involved. Phenolic hydroxyl groups are
more highly polarized and, in dyes, can act as auxochromes and as good
hydrogen-bonding sites.

Similar, but weaker, attractive forces are operative between other closely
spaced polarized groups. These are the Van der Waals interactions, which
are effective for dye adsorption if the separation between molecules is
small. Such interactions are particularly important for cellulosics, which
tend to have relatively large planar areas to which dye molecules are
favourably attracted.Although most dyes are applied as aqueous
solutions, the finished goods should not be prone to dye loss through
washing or other exposure to moisture. An exception is in the common
use of highly soluble dyes to identify different fibres for weaving
processes. These are called fugitive tints and are readily removed with
water.

Harmful effects of dyes :

T absorb and reflect sunlight in water . This diminished photosynthetic
activity of algae and seriously influences the food chain.

•Many dyes and their breakdown products are carcinogenic , mutagenic

and or toxic to life .

•Triple primary cancer involving skin , kidney , urinary bladder and liver of
dye workers have been reported.

•Textile dyes can cause allergies such as contact dermatitis and

respiratory diseases , allergic reaction in eyes skin irritation ,and
irritation to mucous membrane and the upper respiratory tract.

•Certain reactive dyes cause respiratory sensitisation of workers who are

occupationally exposed to them .

•The presence of very small amount of dyes in the water , seriously

affects the quality and transparency of water bodies such as lakes , rivers
and others , damages the aquatic environment.

•The highly toxic and mutagenic dyes decrease light penetration and
photosynthetic activity , causing oxygen deficiency and limiting
downstream beneficial uses such as recreation , drinking water and
irrigation .

•Azo dyes have toxic effects , especially carcinogenic and mutagenic .

They enter the body by ingestion and are metabolized by intestinal
microorganism causing DNA damage.
 Description of the experiment
Aim :
To dye wool, cotton and silk clothes with malachite green

Requirements :
500ml beakers, tripod stand, wire gauze, glass rod, spatula, wool cloth,
cotton cloth and silk cloth. Sodium carbonate, tannic acid, tartaremetic
and malachite green.

Theory :
Cotton fibres :

It show good durability and utility . It is the stable material ; it

stays undamaged even in the condition of high exposure of weak acid and
alkali . It has high water absorbing capacity. Cotton fabrics are easy to
dye ; they have very low elastic characters . They are easy washable and
can be ironed at high temperatures.

Woolen fibres :

They are high moisture absorber too . They take up moisture in

vapour form . It generates heat when it absorbs moisture . Each wool
fibre is a molecular coil spring making the fibre remarkably elastic . They
have high durability and resilience. Nature has folded the chemical
polypeptide chain back upon themselves in such a way that they act like
a coiled spring which elongates when it’s extended and retracts when it
is released

Malanchite green :

Malanchite green is an organic compound that is used as a

dyestuff and controversially as an antimicrobial in aquaculture. Malachite
green is traditionally used as a dye for materials such as silk, leather, and
paper. Despite its name the dye is not prepared from the mineral
malachite; the name just comes from the similarity of color.

Structure :
Procedure :
1. Preparation of sodium carbonate solution.

Take about 0.5g if solid sodium carbonate and dissolve it in 250 ml of

water.

2. Preparation of tartaremtic solution.

Take about 0.2g of tartaremetic and dissolve it in 100ml of water by

stirring with the help of a glass rod.

3. Preparation of tannic acid solution.

Take 100 ml of water in a beaker and add about 1.0g of tannic acid to it.
Heat the solution. On heating a clear solution of tannic acid is obtained.

4. Preparation of dye solution.

Take about 0.1g of malachite green dye and add to it 400 ml of water. On
warming a clear solution of the dye results.

5. Dyeing of wool and silk.

Take about 200ml dye solution and dip in it the woollen/ silk cloth to be
dyed. Boil the solution for about 2 minutes. After that remove the cloth
and wash it with hot water 3-4 times, squeeze and keep it for drying.
 6. Dyeing of cotton.

Cotton does not absorb malachite green readily, therefore it requires the
use of a mordant. For dyeing a cotton cloth dip it in sodium carbonate
solution for about 10 minutes and then rinse with water. Then put the
cloth in hot tannic acid solution for about 5 minutes. Now take out the
cloth from tannic acid solution and keep it in tartaremetic solution for
about 5 minutes. Remove the cloth and squeeze it with the spatula to
remove most of the solution. Now place the cloth in boiling solution of the
dye for about 2 minutes. Remove and wash the dyed cloth thouroughly
with water, squeeze and keep it for drying.

7. Dyeing of cotton directly.

Take another piece of cotton cloth and put it directly into boiling solution
of the dye. Keep it dipped for about 2 minutes. Remove the cloth, wash
with water, squeeze and keep it for drying

Observations :
1. The colour of the wool cloth dyed directly by dipping in hot solution of
malachite green dye is fast.
2. The colour of cotton cloth dyed directly (without using mordant) by
dipping in hot solution of malachite green is not fast to washing and is
of low intensity.
3. The colour of cotton cloth dyed by using mordant and then by dipping
in hot solution of malachite green is fast to washing and is of high
intensity.
4. The colour of the silk cloth is fast and is of high intensity.

Precautions :
• Let the Malanchite Green solution boil properly for 8-10 mins to
get a better results.
• While dyeing cotton directly, let the cotton cloth be present in
the dye for more than or equal to 2 mins but not less
• Using solution such as tartaremetic solution , tannic acid
solution must be eminent
 • Usage of gloves is preferable to ensure tidiness

Conclusion

1. Wool and silk absorb the dye colour well.

2. Use of mordant helps in giving fast colour to the cotton cloth

 RESULT

According to both my assumption and further research it was found That

it was hypothesised that there would be significant variation across
different fabrics in terms of absorption of dye that the natural fabric
would observe the dye more efficiently than the synthetic fibres
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

• www.seminarsonly.com
• www.google.com
• www.chemstudy.com
• https://en.m.wikipedia.org
• https://www.britannica.com