Global Food Security 16 (2018) 36–45

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Global Food Security

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/gfs

Review Article

Tapping the economic and nutritional power of vegetables T

a,⁎ b c
Pepijn Schreinemachers , Emmy B. Simmons , Marco C.S. Wopereis
a
World Vegetable Center, P.O. Box 1010 (Kasetsart University), Bangkok 10903, Thailand
b
Independent Researcher, Washington, D.C., U.S.A
c
World Vegetable Center, P.O. Box 42, Shanhua, Tainan 74199, Taiwan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Vegetables are increasingly recognized as essential for food and nutrition security. Vegetable production pro-
Food security vides a promising economic opportunity for reducing rural poverty and unemployment in developing countries
Nutrition security and is a key component of farm diversification strategies. Vegetables are mankind's most affordable source of
Food safety vitamins and minerals needed for good health. Today, neither the economic nor nutritional power of vegetables
Malnutrition
is sufficiently realized. To tap the economic power of vegetables, governments will need to increase their in-
Micronutrients
vestment in farm productivity (including improved varieties, alternatives to chemical pesticides, and the use of
Youth employment
Developing countries protected cultivation), good postharvest management, food safety, and market access. To tap the nutritional
power of vegetables, consumers need to know how vegetables contribute to health, and find them at affordable
prices or be able to grow them themselves. Vegetable consumption must therefore be nurtured through a
combination of supply-side interventions and behavioral change communication emphasizing the importance of
eating vegetables for good nutrition and health. To fully tap the economic and nutritional power of vegetables,
governments and donors will need to give vegetables much greater priority than they currently receive. Now is
the time to prioritize investments in vegetables, providing increased economic opportunities for smallholder
farmers and providing healthy diets for all.

1. Introduction World Health Organization (WHO) recommends a minimum intake of

400 g per day to prevent chronic diseases (especially heart diseases, cancers
Food security has long been associated with a vision of an abun- and diabetes) and supply needed micronutrients (especially calcium, iron,
dance of grains, roots, and tubers – the staple crops that provide af- iodine, vitamin A and zinc) (WHO, 2015; WHO/FAO, 2003). However,
fordable sources of dietary energy. But this picture is changing as the consumers today, even those with higher incomes, are believed to be
concept of nutrition security has become embedded in that of food missing this target. More attention to filling this dietary gap and enabling
security and the importance of dietary diversity for good health has consumers to tap the nutritional power of vegetables is required.
moved to the fore. Healthy, high-quality diets require the consumption Expansion of fruit and vegetable production is an obvious first step.
of a wide range of food categories in the right quantities. Globally, the Growing populations and increased incomes, especially in urban areas, are
prevalence of hunger has declined to 795 million in 2015 (FAO et al., already creating a rise in market demand as consumers seek to diversify
2015), indicating progress in ensuring adequate access to staple foods their diets. Increasing vegetable production to respond to this demand
as measured in terms of caloric intake. But an estimated 2 billion people creates important economic opportunities, especially for smallholder
are affected by insufficient intakes of micronutrients (WHO, 2016) and farmers. Data for Cambodia, Niger, and Vietnam show that profits per
a further 2.1 billion people are overweight or obese (Ng et al., 2014). hectare are 3–14 times higher in vegetable production than in rice pro-
Fruits and vegetables are essential sources for the micronutrients needed duction while profits per labor-day are double (Joosten et al., 2015). Ve-
for healthier diets. Potassium in vegetables helps to maintain healthy blood getables also typically provide more employment per hectare than cereals.
pressure, their dietary fiber content reduces blood cholesterol levels and Weinberger and Lumpkin (2007) showed that vegetable production in six
may lower the risk of heart disease, folate (folic acid) reduces the risks of Asian countries used on average 297 labor-days per hectare per season
birth defects, and vitamin A keeps eyes and skin healthy, while vitamin C against 116 labor-days for cereal production. Particularly for youth, ve-
not only keeps teeth and gums healthy but also aids in iron absorption. getable farming may offer a profitable business opportunity.
Recognizing the important nutritional benefits of fruits and vegetables, the Market-oriented vegetable farming not only creates income for

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (P. Schreinemachers), [email protected] (E.B. Simmons), [email protected] (M.C.S. Wopereis).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2017.09.005
Received 2 June 2017; Received in revised form 4 September 2017; Accepted 4 September 2017
2211-9124/ © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).
P. Schreinemachers et al. Global Food Security 16 (2018) 36–45

Fig. 1. Farmgate value of the global production of food cereals, vegetables and fruit, average 2012–2013, by national income categories, current US dollars.
Source: FAO (2017): Database on the value of agricultural production. Notes: World Bank 2016 classification used to group countries. FAO data on Gross Production Value (current
million US$) are incomplete. Missing values were imputed using linear regression models for each crop using the Gross Production Value (constant 2004–2006 1000 I$) as predictor,
which is more complete. Feed maize excluded from cereals. Watermelons, melons and avocados classified as fruit.

Fig. 2. Farmgate value of global vegetable production by income groups of countries, average 2012–2013, current US dollars.
Source: FAO (2017): Gross Production Value (current million US$). Notes: See notes under Fig. 1. Similar crops were added together; for instance, cucurbits include pumpkin, squash,
gourds, cucumbers and gherkins. However, cucurbits excludes watermelons and melons. Not all countries report values for each vegetable and instead report an aggregate for “other fresh
vegetables”.

smallholder farmers but also helps to build their resilience to external risks. nutritional impacts, however, has been limited by the relatively low
Diversity of vegetable crops, short growing cycles, and efficient use of ir- levels of support that national governments and international donors
rigation can reduce farmers’ vulnerability to climate change. For economic direct to public sector vegetable research and development. Public and
resilience, farmers may either opt to integrate vegetables into existing staple private investments in agriculture are still largely focused on staple
cropping systems or move into specialized vegetable production. crops and oil crops, not on commodities rich in micronutrients (Haddad
Vegetable production, processing and marketing offer potential oppor- et al., 2016; Pingali, 2015). To the extent that private sector invest-
tunities that can be especially attractive to youth: production requires only ments in lower income countries are directed at vegetables, these tend
small amounts of land, is technology-savvy, and high profits can be ob- to be focused on a narrow range of globally-important vegetables such
tained in a relatively short period of time. Furthermore, low levels of me- as tomatoes, onions, green beans, peppers, lettuce and cucumbers.
chanization in vegetable production and the need for careful handling of The World Vegetable Center (“WorldVeg”) is an international public
produce often create a specific demand for female labor. Public investments research organization focused exclusively on expanding vegetable produc-
in infrastructure, training and subsidies in support of vegetable value chains tion and promoting increased consumption of vegetables. Founded in 1971
could advance such employment. by several East and Southeast Asian countries, the United States and the
The potential of vegetables to generate positive economic and Asian Development Bank as the Asian Vegetable Research and Development

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P. Schreinemachers et al. Global Food Security 16 (2018) 36–45

Fig. 3. Per capita tomato production in low-and middle-income countries, 1990–2014.

Sources: FAO (2017): Crop production data. UN (2017): Total Population - Both Sexes. Notes: World Bank 2016 classification used to group countries. Averages per group weighted by
country populations.

Fig. 4. Per capita availability of fruit and vegetables

by income group of countries, 1990–2013.
Source: FAO (2017): Food Balance Sheets. Notes:
World Bank 2016 classification used to group coun-
tries. Averages per group are unweighted by country
populations: each country is one observation. China
is therefore not shown separately. Watermelons,
melons and avocados classified as fruit. Dashed
horizontal line shows the FAO/WHO recommended
consumption level of 200 g/capita/day.

Center (AVRDC), the Center now works across Asia and Africa. WorldVeg 2. Vegetables in the global food economy
has a long history of conservation of vegetable germplasm, successful
breeding of both global and indigenous vegetables, and development of Few people appreciate the significant economic role already played by
production technologies that support the growth of vegetables on an in- vegetables and their close cousins, fruits.1 The FAO Food Price Index pro-
tensification gradient from home gardens aimed at family nutrition to in- vides no information on the market conditions for fruit or vegetables, al-
tensive market-oriented vegetable farming at scale. though the broader databases maintained by the UN Food and Agriculture
This paper explores the potential for vegetables, first, to provide new Organization (FAO) include data on supply and availability of key vege-
opportunities for economic growth for smallholder farmers living in low-in- tables as well as their farmgate value.2 The FAO data underscore the global
come tropical and subtropical countries and, second, to advance food and importance of these crops (Fig. 1). The estimated farmgate value of annual
nutrition security–and better health–for billions of consumers in line with the
Sustainable Development Goals. Our exploration will draw heavily on the
1
work on the World Vegetable Center, but also references other key studies. There is no universally agreed classification of fruit and vegetables; the difference is
based on cultural definitions and culinary use rather than botany. This section therefore
Section 2 summarizes the current status of global vegetable supply and de-
discusses both fruit and vegetables.
mand. Section 3 describes challenges to increasing vegetable supplies and 2
The data must be interpreted with caution. The data may underestimate the true
highlights a number of cases where these have been successfully met. Section value of fruit and vegetable production as a substantial share is produced in home gardens
4 considers experience in influencing and enabling increased vegetable or collected from the wild for family consumption (e.g. Beal et al., 2017). At the same
consumption. Section 5 concludes with recommendations for public policies time, the data overestimate actual availability as they do not adequately account for
waste and loss in the supply chains for fresh, highly-perishable produce. Further, data
and interventions to expand the abilities of producers and consumers to tap
focus on so-called “global” vegetables and exclude many of the “traditional” or “in-
the economic and nutritional power of vegetables. digenous” vegetables of importance in local markets.

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P. Schreinemachers et al. Global Food Security 16 (2018) 36–45

Fig. 5. Public sector researchers in cereals, vege-

tables and fruits by income group of countries,
average 2008–2014.
Sources: IFPRI (2017): Agricultural Science and
Technology Indicators (ASTI) “Researchers, total
(Full time equivalents)”. UN (2017): Population
data. FAO (2017): Gross Production Value (constant
2004–2006 1000 I$). Notes: World Bank 2016 clas-
sification used to group countries. Number of coun-
tries in brackets. The group of upper-middle income
countries also includes four high income countries
(Chile, Oman, Trinidad and Tobago and Uruguay).
Means per income group not weighted by country
populations or gross production values. Cereals in-
clude wheat, rice, maize, barley, sorghum and other
cereals. Fruits excludes bananas. Although the ASTI
data are available for the period 2008–2014, there is
usually only 1 observation per country.

global fruit and vegetable production, at nearly $1 trillion per year, exceeds comes second, accounting for 8% and 7% of global vegetable and fruit
the farmgate value of all food grains combined (US$ 837 billion). production, respectively.
This section provides more disaggregation of trends relevant to FAO data on food balance sheets suggest that the current per capita
vegetables. Substantial rises in both production and consumption are availability of vegetables in upper-middle income countries has con-
occurring in middle-income countries, but not in low-income countries. verged to levels observed in high-income countries and that availability
There are indications of underinvestment in vegetable research, espe- in middle income countries is increasing at the same rate (Fig. 4).
cially by the public sector and in improving “indigenous” or “tradi- Middle-income countries, on average, now produce a large enough
tional” vegetables that primarily reach local and regional markets. quantity of fruit and vegetables to meet the FAO/WHO recommended
The most dominant vegetables in the global food economy are to- intake levels of 200 g of fruit and 200 g of vegetables per day (WHO/
matoes, cucurbits (pumpkins, squashes, cucumbers, and gherkins), al- FAO, 2003). Low-income countries, on the other hand, have seen little
liums (onions, shallots, garlic) and chilies. These vegetables are con- growth in their average vegetable production, and availability is well
sumed in nearly all countries—although with much variation in shapes, below the recommended consumption level, although this may be
sizes, colors and tastes—and are rightly called “global.” As shown in partly compensated by production and consumption of more traditional
Fig. 2, apart from okra, no data on what are often called “indigenous” vegetables, not captured in the FAO data.6
or “traditional” vegetables (e.g. amaranth, bitter gourd, kangkong, and It is also likely that productivity of vegetable farming is not rising as
spiderplant) are reported. While the marketing of global vegetables rapidly as it could be. Technological progress relies upon systematic
accounts for significant revenue streams, traditional vegetables often research efforts to develop new varieties, crop management techniques,
have superior nutritional properties (Yang and Keding, 2009). For in- and innovations in postharvest handling and processing. Even in high
stance, 100 g of leaves of amaranth, jute mallow, African nightshade or income countries like the United States, there is evidence that public
vegetable cowpea can provide over 100% of the vitamin A needs of funding for vegetable research (as part of the “specialty crops” sector) is
pregnant women (World Vegetable Center, 2017). lower than expected given its economic value and its contribution to
Tomatoes alone are the fourth most economically-valuable food human health (Alston and Pardey, 2008). Public funding for research in
crop produced in low- and middle-income countries, after rice, su- low- and middle-income countries is rarely disaggregated enough to
garcane and wheat. Tomatoes accounted for US$ 63 billion per year in assess investments in vegetable research alone (See Pray et al., 2011 for
traded value (at farmgate) in 2012–13, with 35% of this value produced SSA).
in China.3 Fig. 3 depicts the rapid growth in tomato production in Fig. 5 gives a specific point of comparison of the level of priority
middle-income countries since 1990, with the remarkable six-fold in- currently allocated to fruit/vegetable research compared to cereals. It
crease in per capita tomato production in China reflecting the country's shows data for 70 countries on the number of public sector researchers
overall growth in horticultural production and the potential for eco- per million population (panel A) and per million dollars of gross pro-
nomic gain associated with tomatoes. These opportunities are foregone duction value (panel B). These data suggest that lower income countries
in low-income countries as the trend line for tomato production in these attach greater research priority to increasing productivity of staple food
countries is nearly flat. grains than they do to fruit and vegetables. While there are 4–5 pub-
Rising vegetable demand is driven by rising incomes as well as licly-funded cereal researchers per 1 million population in all country
population growth. Globally, a 1% increase in per capita income in groups, in low- and lower-middle income countries, on average, only
developing countries is associated with a 0.5% increase in per capita one researcher is working on fruit or vegetables. Panel B shows that
vegetable availability.4 It follows that the bulk of the global supply of research investment in fruits and vegetables per dollar of production
fruit and vegetables (77% of total value) is produced in populous value is about the same for all country groups, but higher income
middle-income countries.5 China accounts for 45% of the global value countries invest much more per dollar of cereal output than per dollar
of vegetable production and 24% of fruit production (FAO, 2017). India
6
It must be noted, however, that availability does not automatically translate into
actual dietary consumption. There is evidence that vegetable demand must be nurtured
3
Estimate based on FAO data on the value of agricultural production (“Net Production and requires active policy intervention as part of efforts to promote healthier food
Value (constant 2004–2006 1000 I$)”). Values averaged over 2012–2013. choices. Comparing the food balance sheet data to the Global Dietary Database, for ex-
4
Regressing the exponential growth rate for per capita vegetable availability over the ample, Del Gobbo et al. (2015) found that these data overestimate individual-based ve-
period 2003–2013 (from FAOSTAT) on the exponential growth rate for per capita GPD getable intakes by 75%. The difference is likely due to measurement error and un-
over the same period (from World Bank) while controlling for 2003 levels of per capita accounted waste from cooking, spoilage and plate waste. Although actual levels may not
vegetable availability (in natural logarithms). Sample includes 113 developing countries. be accurate, these data nevertheless illustrate strong growth in fruit and vegetable sup-
5
As classified by the World Bank based on gross national income per capita. plies in many middle-income countries over two decades.

39
P. Schreinemachers et al. Global Food Security 16 (2018) 36–45

of vegetable output. This may be because their production value of fruit mountainous parts of the country with packing centers and a country-
and vegetables is increasing faster than that of cereals, or because these wide cold chain distribution network. This network has high levels of
countries invest more into cereal research to keep up the income of trust among consumers who are willing to pay a substantial price pre-
cereal farmers as compared to other farmers and other sectors of the mium. Similar or cheaper initiatives are expanding in other countries,
economy. for example, organic farms directly delivering baskets with a variety of
Private sector research investment is important, particularly for vegetables to consumers on a weekly basis. Regular phone-based sys-
vegetables. Data on private sector investments in vegetable R & D are tems or Internet applications are emerging as other avenues for vege-
difficult to collect. However, the extensive consolidation that has taken table farmers and producer groups to connect to consumers to a supply
place in the global vegetable seed industry and competitiveness within of safe, high-quality vegetables.
the industry for market share are indicative for its large economic value Food safety goals require policymakers to define suitable standards
(Howard, 2009). Yet, even for China and India, which are considered for vegetable production and handling and to put in place systems for
leaders in this regard, the private sector accounts for only about a fifth monitoring compliance, including regular testing for pesticide residues
of the total research investment (Hu et al., 2011; Pray and Nagarajan, and pathogens at major markets and public dissemination of the test
2012). Investments in private sector vegetable research tend to be di- results.
rected toward hybrid development in a limited range of “global” ve-
getables that are of high commercial value, e.g., tomatoes, chilies, 3.2. Improving on-farm productivity
onions, and cucumbers.
On-farm productivity of vegetables varies widely. For instance,
3. Increasing the availability of a diverse range of safe vegetables average tomato yields of Nigerian growers are only 4 t/ha (FAO, 2017;
average 2012–2014). In comparison, growers in Cameroon attain yields
To meet the growing market demand for vegetables at affordable of 13 t/ha, in India 21 t/ha, and in China they attain as much as 51 t/ha
prices, production has to increase. This can be achieved through di- (FAO, 2017). Similar yield differences can be found for other vege-
versification of staple crop systems to include vegetables as well as tables. These differences are due to tremendous variability in growing
intensification of existing specialized vegetable systems, particularly in conditions and input use. This variability indicates the potential to
peri-urban areas (e.g. Beed et al., 2015). But ensuring the safety of the improve on-farm productivity through innovation. We focus here on
vegetable supply is a critical correlate of increasing its availability. This three key areas of innovation: varietal improvement, pest and disease
section first addresses the importance of actions to ensure that vege- management, and protected cultivation.
tables are safe to eat and then examines three key challenges for in-
creasing vegetable supply: improving on-farm productivity, reducing 3.2.1. Improved vegetable varieties
postharvest losses, and improving market access. The availability of quality vegetable seeds is fundamental to in-
creasing on-farm productivity. The rising supply of global vegetables
3.1. Ensuring that vegetables are safe to eat has been linked to investments in research and development of hybrid
varieties, and the marketing of seeds appropriately matched to specific
Most vegetables are highly susceptible to damage from insect pests production constraints. Policies that have supported private invest-
and plant diseases in the production phase. Certain pests and diseases ments in quality vegetable seed development and production have paid
can cause blemishes or odd shapes as well as reduce yields. Since off in terms of vegetable supply volumes.
consumers place a high value on the appearance of fresh produce of- The story of India's vegetable seed sector is instructive. Until 1988,
fered in markets, farm managers often turn to excessive use of pesti- the Government of India tightly regulated the seed sector, preventing
cides to reduce these economic risks. The use of pesticides is much more entry of large domestic and foreign companies and restricting the im-
intense on high-value crops than on low-value crops and farmers tend port of seed for research or commercial purposes (Pray et al., 2001).
to spray preventively to protect their investment (e.g. Riwthong et al., The market for hybrid varieties was largely non-existent, there were
2015 for Thailand). This practice not only increases potential health only few private seed companies, and most farmers were served by the
hazards and food safety concerns for consumers, but also exposes farm informal seed sector or recycled their own seed (Kolady et al., 2012;
workers and their families to pesticide residues that can affect their own Pray et al., 2001). Subsequent seed sector liberalization and stronger
health (Praneetvatakul et al., 2013). protection of breeders’ rights gave an enormous boost to private seed
In addition, vegetable supplies can be affected by foodborne pa- sector development and the vegetable seed sector in particular. Quality
thogens through various routes of contamination such as the use of vegetable seeds are now available in nearly all parts of India. There is a
organic waste in vegetable production, the use unclean water for irri- highly competitive seed sector and hundreds of hybrids are available
gation or produce washing, and direct contamination by livestock, wild with different fruit and plant traits, with high yield and widespread
animals or birds (Heaton and Jones, 2008; Ha et al., 2008; Park et al., resistance to key pest- and diseases (Schreinemachers et al., 2016b).
2012). Currently, the Indian vegetable seed sector market is reportedly valued
As a result, consumers are increasingly concerned about the safety at US$ 580 million per year and growing at a rate of 5% per year
of vegetables. If vegetables regularly contain pathogens or exceed (Kapur, 2017). The availability of a diverse range of seeds will also be
maximum pesticide residue limits, then consumers will associate fresh important for climate change adaptation.
vegetables with health risks rather than health benefits and reduce In Africa, there is still little to no local capacity for private sector
consumption. Modernization of supply chains (e.g., refrigeration and vegetable breeding and the supply of improved vegetable varieties re-
quality control systems provided by supermarkets) only offer a partial mains limited (Afari-Sefa et al., 2012; Perez et al., 2017). Limited
solution. Studies have found that vegetables sold in supermarkets have choice in vegetable seed does not enable farmers to select those vari-
a lower microbial contamination than vegetables sold in wet markets eties best suited to their production conditions. Without further seed
(e.g. Duedu et al., 2014), but both may be equally contaminated with development, lack of appropriate varieties will expose farmers to ele-
pesticide residues (e.g. Wanwimolruk et al., 2016). vated risks associated with climate change – changes in rainfall and
Some middle-income countries have seen the development of in- temperatures, and changing patterns of pests and diseases. However,
novative market channels aimed at offering consumers a more trusted there are ample opportunities in sub-Saharan Africa for economic gain
supply of fresh vegetables, some of which is certified as conforming to through vegetable variety improvement.
safety and quality standards. In Thailand, for example, the Royal In the mid-1990s, for example, the World Vegetable Center and
Project Foundation links vegetable-producing communities in poor partners in Tanzania tested various tropically-adapted open-pollinated

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tomato varieties from Asia and made those that showed promise themselves but also to engage in trading and processing the greater
available to local private seed companies. Two of the introduced vari- supply of tomatoes.
eties now cover about 82% of the planted tomato area in Tanzania. This
publicly-funded research had generated US$12.5 of economic benefit 3.2.3. Protected cultivation
by 2014 for every dollar invested since 1987 and have resulted in a The incidence of pests and diseases can also be lowered through the
total economic gain of US$ 255 million for Tanzania until 2014 use of protected cultivation systems. Such systems enable producers to
(Schreinemachers et al., 2017c). gain more control over their production environment. They can also
Farmer demand for better vegetable varieties is encouraging global allow farmers to produce vegetables outside the “regular” season (often
seed companies to invest in vegetable seed development and production defined by rainfall and temperature). Production brought to market
for Africa (Access to Seeds Foundation, 2016; Broek, 2015). However, outside of this season can realize significantly higher prices.
experience of the World Vegetable Center shows that the private sector Technologies range from simple rain shelters made of bamboo and
in Africa, as well as in Asia, tends to focus on global rather than local plastic sheets to fully equipped greenhouses allowing for year-round
vegetables. For example, there are few sources of improved seed of cultivation. The use of protected cultivation methods is spreading ra-
African nightshade or jute mallow in Africa and of Malabar spinach in pidly across Asia (Kang et al., 2013; Nair and Barche, 2014). A study in
Asia, despite these vegetables being important locally. Public sector Bangladesh showed that training farmers to grow tomatoes in the hot-
research may need to lead the way to develop better varieties of these wet season using low-cost rain shelters, heat-resistant varieties and
crops. plant hormones to induce flowering increased farmers’ seasonal in-
Challenges of ensuring a match between market demand and nu- comes by 48% (Schreinemachers et al., 2016c).
tritional quality must be met as new varieties of both global and in- The use of protected cultivation is still limited in Africa, but there is
digenous vegetables are developed. Data on the nutritional profiles of enormous potential near medium- to large-size cities where vegetables
many traditional vegetables in raw and cooked forms are currently find a ready market. However, the required inputs are often simply not
lacking, although many of these appear to be far more nutrient-dense available and private and public investment is needed to import ma-
than global vegetables. More insight is needed with respect to how terials or produce these locally. The decision to adopt (or to promote)
nutrient profiles vary with varietal choice, growing conditions, pro- protected cultivation would benefit from public policy support in other
cessing and cooking methods and ultimately to what extent these nu- areas as well. Farmers may need to seek out sources of credit, upgrade
trients are absorbed by the human body, which again depends on a skills in bookkeeping to keep track of cash flows, and use market in-
range of other factors, including individuals’ health status (Sriwichai formation to better plan production.
et al., 2016). More evidence of the health benefits of traditional vege-
table consumption supported by greater availability of improved and/ 3.3. Reducing postharvest losses
or adapted indigenous seed varieties could create new investment op-
portunities for vegetable producers, processors and marketers. Postharvest losses in vegetable value chains are typically large, es-
timated in many developing countries to be in the range of 30–50% of
3.2.2. Safe and sustainable pest management farm production volumes (FAO, 2011). Reduction of these losses begins
Farmers often identify crop pests and diseases as their main sources on-farm with appropriate selection of varieties and the use of good
of risk because they reduce yields and negatively affect the market- agricultural practices. Simple on-farm innovations such as harvesting at
ability of the produce. Indications are that the intensity of pest and the right time of the day and sorting and grading of produce, combined
disease pressures may increase due to climate change (Bebber et al., with the use of appropriate packaging near the farmgate, can reduce
2013) so methods of mitigation will assume even greater importance economic losses.
going forward. World Vegetable Center experience indicates three key Post-farmgate investments in logistics, cold storage systems and
sets of interventions could help: use of biocontrol methods, grafting market information systems are needed to improve market functioning
high-yielding seedlings on to resistant rootstocks, and investing in for high-value perishable vegetables. This mid-stream segment of ve-
protected cultivation systems. getable value chains, what Reardon (2015) coined as the “hidden-
Bio-control methods (i.e. the use of living organisms such as pre- middle”, is exceedingly important and is undergoing rapid change in
dator insects or parasites to control pests) have much potential to re- many middle-income countries. Postharvest interventions are complex
place chemical pesticides, thereby improving food safety and lowering as they require coordinated changes in the entire vegetable value chain
production risks. However, the diffusion of such methods is hampered from farm input providers to retailers. There is an urgent need to
in many countries by the rapid expansion of global trade in chemical document what works and what doesn’t in vegetable value chain in-
pesticides and the high satisfaction of farmers with the effectiveness of terventions.
chemical pesticides combined with limited risk awareness and knowl-
edge of biocontrol methods (Schreinemachers et al., 2015). Regulatory 3.4. Improving market access
frameworks often treat biopesticides (i.e., pesticides derived from nat-
ural materials such as of the neem plant) the same as chemical Increased access to domestic, regional and international markets for
pesticides, which hampers the commercialization of safer methods vegetables can provide important income incentives for farmers to enter
(Srinivasan, 2012). vegetable production, as for instance shown by Muriithi and Matz
Vegetable grafting is also a promising method to control pests and (2015) for Kenya. There, as well as in Ghana, producers have success-
diseases. The practice of grafting is widespread for fruit and vegetable fully broken into the vegetable export business by producing non-tra-
production in high-income countries, but until recently it was un- ditional vegetables such as fresh French beans and Asian vegetables to
common in Southeast Asia or Africa. In the 1990s, the World Vegetable exacting market specifications, packaged to retain freshness, and
Center developed tomato scions with excellent fruit characteristics that shipped by air or sea directly to supermarkets in Europe. In Kenya,
could be grafted to eggplant and tomato rootstocks resistant to soil- these exports are valued at about US$ 1 billion a year (Fernandez-Stark
borne diseases, nematodes and flooding. Introduced to southern et al., 2011).
Vietnam tomato producers in 1998, this technology was adopted by Many developing countries have also seen a transformation of tra-
nearly all producers in Lam Dong province by 2014. The grafted tomato ditional value chains related to the growth of modern retail such as
plants gave a yield advantage of about 37% over non-grafted plants supermarkets (Reardon et al., 2003). If well-managed, this can benefit
(Genova et al., 2013). Grafting also created new economic opportu- both consumers and farmers. However, it requires upgrading of
nities for small companies not only to produce grafted seedlings farmers’ skills to use new technologies, engage in contracting, and

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invest in equipment and infrastructure to meet the demands for quality, about dietary quality. The evidence for impact is still limited, but some
consistency, and volume of modern retail. For Indonesia, Reardon and show promising results. For example, Ochieng et al. (2017) evaluated
Gulati (2008) noted that the net profit of tomato farmers supplying the impact of campaigns promoting the use of African traditional ve-
supermarket channels was 33–39% higher than of farmers supplying getables on dietary diversity among rural and urban households in
traditional markets. For Kenya, Chege et al. (2015) showed that sup- northern Tanzania and found significant increases in the dietary di-
plying supermarkets not only increased incomes, but also households’ versity of children under 5 years and of women in reproductive age.
own micronutrient consumption. Studies in high-income countries show that simple informational
interventions can nudge children toward healthier food choices, in-
4. Increasing vegetable consumption to improve nutrition cluding associating vegetables with superhero powers or giving vege-
table dishes names attractive to children. Other “nudges” to changing
For low-income populations, the dietary priority is often to consume eating behaviors involve simply cutting vegetables into smaller pieces
enough energy-rich foods to meet essential intakes of calories. or serving vegetables before serving meat and staples (e.g. Appleton
Vegetables are relatively expensive per kilocalorie of energy compared et al., 2016; Wansink et al., 2012). Very little such research has been
to food staples, so the low priority given to purchasing vegetables seems conducted in or applied to developing countries. There is an urgent
understandable. Increased availability of vegetables is a necessary but need to do this.
not a sufficient condition to achieve the recommended intake levels of The use of financial incentives (either cash or vouchers) to en-
400 g per day. Nor are rising incomes likely to result in satisfactory courage low-income consumers to purchase a greater diversity of foods,
intakes of fruits and vegetables. In some countries, vegetable con- including vegetables, has been widely proposed as a means of im-
sumption has actually fallen in spite of growth in average incomes proving the “nutrition sensitivity” of social protection and food safety
(Global Panel, 2016). net programs and encouraging healthier diets. The Healthy Incentives
Changes in food consumption patterns are complex, reflecting other Pilot in the U.S. found positive results both in terms of behavior and
factors besides availability and price (Kearney, 2010; Traill et al., potential nutritional impact from the provision of economic incentives
2014). Tastes, changing lifestyles, convenience, food habits, low nu- specifically tied to fruit and vegetable purchases (Bartlett et al., 2014).
tritional awareness, and food safety concerns all emerge as potent A study of food choices associated with provision of food, cash or
reasons for why vegetables are not always included in family meals. vouchers to low-income populations in Ecuador found that vouchers
Certain segments of the population (think about young children) simply were the most effective in encouraging vegetable consumption
don’t “like” vegetables. Cultural norms in some areas associate vege- (Hidrobo et al., 2014).
table consumption with low social status or poverty. In other places, More documentation is needed to show “what works” to influence
consumption of animal-based foods such meat and dairy is perceived as consumers in various countries, with varying cultural preferences, and
conveying higher social status or providing more nutrition than vege- with different incomes to increase their vegetable intakes to re-
tables. And in some places there are social taboos; for instance, re- commended levels.
spondents of one study in Cameroon expressed a belief that the con-
sumption of amaranth causes male impotency (Kamga et al., 2013). 4.2. Home gardens and rural vegetable consumption
Further, in high and low income countries alike, there is a shift
toward the consumption of highly processed foods, including increasing Home garden interventions designed with nutritional quality in
quantities of sugars, salts, and edible oils (Popkin et al., 2012). As a mind pair hands-on training in vegetable production with nutrition and
result, the gap between recommended and actual consumption of ve- health behavioral change communication (e.g. World Vegetable Center,
getables persists even when vegetables are available and affordable. 2016). Such interventions simultaneously address vegetable avail-
To realize the nutritional and health benefits associated with re- ability, access, demand and utilization. This multipronged approach is
commended intakes of vegetables, consumer behaviors need to be especially effective at increasing vegetable consumption among poor
modified. This section briefly describes three key approaches that have rural households vulnerable to micronutrient deficiencies (DFID, 2014;
been tested to encourage the inclusion of more vegetables in healthier Galhena et al., 2013; Olney et al., 2009; Schreinemachers et al., 2016a).
diets: behavior change communication aimed at nudging people toward A study of Helen Keller International's integrated household food pro-
healthier food choices including vegetables, vegetable home gardens to duction program in Burkina Faso found significant improvements in
simultaneously increase demand and supply at the household level, and several child nutrition indicators, including reductions in wasting,
the inclusion of vegetables in school meal programs to improve nutri- diarrhea, and anemia, especially among young children (Olney et al.,
tion of young children in poor areas. Still, the scale of the problem of 2015).
insufficient vegetable consumption requires that the food system as a Home garden interventions are often targeted at women as they are
whole must be retooled to promote healthier diets and, especially, in- typically in control of meal choice and preparation, but sometimes it is
creased intakes of the fruits and vegetables that can deliver needed also important to involve men and grandmothers in behavioral change
nutrients. communication. There is evidence that home gardens contribute to
women's empowerment in Bangladesh (Bushamuka et al., 2005;
Patalagsa et al., 2015), but there is need to test this in other countries as
4.1. Behavior change communication on vegetable consumption
well.
Public campaigns promoting vegetable consumption and nutritional
4.3. School meals
awareness are part of the information landscape in many countries, e.g.,
the United Kingdom's “Five a Day” campaign.7 Educational programs in
School meals provide a good entry point for influencing children's
hospitals, schools and markets also encourage dietary diversity and
diets; recent studies provide sound evidence for their nutritional impact
eating behaviors that promote good nutrition. Such campaigns and
(Global Panel, 2015; Kristjansson et al., 2006). Nutritional benefits can
programs are regularly conducted by nongovernmental organizations in
be increased when school meal programs include fresh fruit and vege-
Africa and Asia, although an increased focus on nutrition by both na-
tables alongside food staples, pulses, vegetable oil, dairy and meat.
tional and regional organizations (e.g., members of the Scaling Up
Brazil has made local procurement of fresh foods a critical element of
Nutrition movement) has also sparked an increased flow of information
school meal programs (Sidaner et al., 2012). There is much recent in-
terest in home-grown school feeding to link school meals to procure-
7
http://www.nhs.uk/Livewell/5ADAY/Pages/5ADAYhome.aspx. ment of commodities from local farmers (Gelli et al., 2010; World Food

42
P. Schreinemachers et al. Global Food Security 16 (2018) 36–45

Programme, 2009), but there is still little evidence that this can effec- agricultural economies. Intensified vegetable production has the po-
tively complement school meals with fresh fruit and vegetables. The tential to generate more income and employment than other segments
opportunity for the education, health and agriculture sectors to effec- of the agricultural economy, making vegetables an important element
tively work together for the benefit of children and local farmers alike is of any agricultural growth strategy.
one that is beginning to be realized. Today, however, neither the economic nor the nutritional power of
School garden programs—involving a combination of nutrition and vegetables is sufficiently realized. The longstanding focus on staple food
health education with hands-on experience in gardening—is one such crops must be adjusted to take in a broader view. Governments and
integrated approach to influencing children's food behavior toward donors need to raise the priority given to increasing the productivity of
healthier food choices, including fruit and vegetables. School garden vegetable production systems, reducing postharvest losses, and in-
interventions aim to expose children at a young age to fruit and vege- creasing affordability and market access. Measures to ensure that ve-
tables and to develop eating habits and food attitudes during childhood getables are safe are fundamental. With a growing understanding of the
that may persist through to adulthood. Despite being a popular inter- linkages between dietary quality and health, policymakers must also be
vention in high- and low-income countries alike, the evidence basis for prepared to support additional interventions to promote vegetable
achieving these goals is thin. The World Vegetable Center recently consumption. Elimination of the persistent gap between recommended
evaluated the combined impact of school gardens linked to com- and actual intakes of vegetables would go a long way to achieving the
plementary lessons and promotional activities about gardening and Sustainable Development Goals related to improving food and nutrition
nutrition among 10- to 15-year-old school children in Bhutan and Nepal security and good health.
(Schreinemachers et al., 2017a, 2017b). These studies found a sig- Now is the time to direct increased attention to the vegetable sector,
nificant increase in children's awareness and knowledge about fruit and providing increased opportunities for generating employment and in-
vegetables and their stated preferences for eating fruit and vegetables, come, especially for new entry and smallholder farmers, as well as
but no significant improvements in fruit and vegetable consumption or promoting more diverse, healthy, high-quality diets for all.
nutritional status. The same has been observed in a recent systematic
survey of the impact of school gardens in high-income countries (Ohly Conflict of interest
et al., 2016). This suggests that school garden interventions alone are
unable to achieve better quality diets and in low income countries may P. Schreinemachers and M.C.S. Wopereis are staff of the World
require strong linkages to school meals or home garden programs. Vegetable Center. E.B. Simmons is a member of the Global Panel on
Agriculture and Food Systems for Nutrition and a former member of the
4.4. Modifying food systems for better nutrition Board of Directors of the World Vegetable Center.

There is growing recognition that current food systems are not re- Acknowledgment
sulting in increasingly healthy, high-quality diets (Global Panel, 2016).
Agricultural policies are strongly biased toward increasing productivity This work was supported by core donors to the World Vegetable
of the food crops (cereals, roots, and tubers) that serve as the primary Center: Republic of China (Taiwan), UK Department for International
source of calories, especially for low-income consumers. But, as in- Development (UK aid), United States Agency for International
comes increase, foods with added sugars, fats, and salt are added to the Development (USAID), Australian Centre for International Agricultural
diet and nutritional quality suffers. Further, the consumption of pro- Research (ACIAR), Germany, Thailand, Philippines, Korea, and Japan.
cessed, or even ultra-processed, foods and beverages is increasing fast, The second author acknowledges that the paper benefited from her
even in rural areas (Tschirley et al., 2015). While these foods are con- involvement in the Global Panel on Agriculture and Food Systems for
venient and often more affordable than fresh and more nutrient-rich Nutrition. The paper benefitted from the comments of the journal's
foods, they do not support the kind of diverse, nutritionally-adequate editor-in-chief and two anonymous reviewers.
diets that are required for health. Micronutrient malnutrition levels,
therefore, remain high and overweight and obesity are increasing in References
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