BASICS OF ELECTRICAL SCIENCES

ESC-206
Dr. Sandeep Kaur
Deptt. Of Electrical Engg.
PEC, Chd.
 INTRODUCTION
• Electrical Network: A combination of various electric elements (Resistor, Inductor,
Capacitor, Voltage source, Current source) connected in any manner what so ever
is called an electrical network. We may classify circuit elements in two categories,
passive and active elements.

• Passive Element: The element which receives energy (or absorbs energy) and then
either converts it into heat (R) or stored it in an electric (C) or magnetic (L ) field is
called passive element.

• Active Element: The elements that supply energy to the circuit is called active
element.
• Examples of active elements include voltage and current sources, generators, and
electronic devices that require power supplies. A transistor is an active circuit
element, meaning that it can amplify power of a signal. On the other hand,
transformer is not an active element because it does not amplify the power level
and power remains same both in primary and secondary sides. Transformer is an
example of passive element.
 SOME DEFINITIONS
• An electric current is defined as the time
rate of flow of charge through a certain
section. Its unit is ampere. A current is said to
be of one ampere when a charge of 1
coulomb flows through a section per second.
Mathematically,
•
 Electric Potential
• The movement of charges contribute to current
and the amount of work done per unit charge is
the potential difference between the two points.
The electronic charges flow from a lower
potential to a higher potential and these
contribute to electronic current, whereas the
conventional current is considered to flow from
higher potential to lower potential.
• If a differential charge dq is given a differential
energy dw, the rise in potential of the charge
• .
 Electric Power
• If potential is multiplied by the current, which
gives rate of change of energy with time and is
equal to power
 Energy
• Energy of a device is defined as the capacity
of doing the work and its derived unit is
watts-sec.
 Resistance & Resistivity
• Experimental evidence shows that the value
of resistances R of a conductor is directly
proportional to its lengths

• Also, if the cross sectional area of the

cylinderical wire is varied, the resistance is
found to be inversely proportional to the
cross-sectional area A
 Conductance & Conductivity
• The specific resistance or resistivity p of a
material represents its opposition to the flow
of electric current. However the reciprocal of p
represents a unit describing the material in terms
of its ease to allow flow of electric current
known as the conductivity of the material.

• Similarly, the reciprocal of resistance R is the

conductance G
 BASIC PROBLEMS
• Example 1. A device stores 500 J of energy
and releases this energy in the form of an
electric current of 40 A which has a duration
of 15 m sec. Determine the average voltage
across the terminals of the device.
Solution : 833 volt
• Example: Determine the resistance of a 1-
km strip of copper of rectangular cross-
section (2.5 cm by 0.05 cm). Assume

• Solution.
OHM’S LAW
 Ohm’s law (contd)
• A d.c. variable supply voltage is connected with positive terminal at
point a and negative terminal at ' b' as shown. As voltage is
increased, the current recorded by the ammeter increases. For
every voltage value the current is recorded and the corresponding
point is plotted on the rectangular graph. With this a straight line
graph passing through origin is obtained in first quadrant. Next the
terminals of the variable de supply are interchanged i.e. a is
connected to –ve polarity of de supply and b is connected to +ve
polarity of de suply.
• Since both the voltmeter and ammeter are moving coil, their
individual connection should also be interchanged so that meters
can read up scale. This has been done to reverse the direction
of flow of current through the resister R. Again the voltage is varied
and corresponding to each voltage, current is recorded and the
pairs of V and I are plotted in the third quadrant.
 Mathematical representation
• The experimental results indicate that there is a linear
relationship between the current and voltage both in the
first and third quadrant. The slope of straight line is also
same in both the quadrants which shows that the potential
difference across the terminals of the conductor is
proportional to the current passing through it

• Also it is found that for a constant current in the conductor

resistance should be changed proportional to the potential
difference

• Combining the two proportionalities, we have

• where k is a constant of proportionality. However, the
units of voltage, current and resistance are defined so that
the value of k = 1. When the current is 1 amp, voltage 1
volt, the resistance is 1 ohm.
• Thus the equation becomes
V= IR
• The equation explains ohm's law which is stated as follows
• Physical condition (Temperature, Pressure etc.) of the
conductor remaining constant, the voltage across the
terminals of a conductor is proportional to the current
flowing through it.
• The expression for power dissipated in a
resistor R is derived as follows :
• We know that
P= VI
• Using one version of ohms law i.e. V =IR

• Again using second version of ohms law

PROBLEMS BASED ON OHM’S LAW
• Example 1. The load resistance in a 220 V
circuit is 80 ohms. Determine the load current

• Example 2. Determine the conductance of a

short circuit on 120 volt which results in a
short circuit current of 500A
• Example 3. A resistor is rated for 10 kohms
1 watt. Determine its maximum voltage and
current ratings.
• Solution.
• Example1. Using ohm's law

• Example 2:

• Example 3:
• Example 4. An electric motor operating from
220 volts supply takes a current of 8 A. The
motor has an efficiency of 80%. Determine
the output of the motor.
• Solution to example 4
Power input to the motor
P = VI = 220 x 8 = 1760 watts.
Since the efficiency of the motor is 80%,
80% of input will be the power output,
so output of motor =
 KVL
• Kirchhoffs voltage law usually abbreviated as KVL is stated
as follows :
• The algebraic sum of all branch voltages around any closed
loop of a network is zero at all instants of time.
Alternatively, Kirchoffs voltage law can be stated in terms
of voltage drops and rises as follows. The sum of voltage
rises and drops in a closed loop at any instant of time are
equal. KVL is a consequence of law of conservation of
energy as voltage is energy or work per unit charge. If we
start from one node in a loop and move along the closed
loop and comeback to the same node, obviously the total
potential difference or sum of potential rises must equal
the total sum of potential falls.
• Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law
• V1 + V2 + V3 - V = 0
• Or in terms of voltage drops and voltage rises
V1 + V2 + V3 = V
 KCL
• Kirchhoffs current law states
that the algebraic sum of all
currents terminating at a
node equals zero at any
instant of time.
Alternatively, this states
that sum of all currents
entering a node equals the
sum of currents leaving the
same node at any instant of
time.
• Applying Kirchhofi's current
law abbreviated by KCL we
get
Mesh/Loop analysis
Steps of mesh analysis
Mesh analysis
Mesh analysis
Mesh analysis
 Loop/Mesh Analysis
• Example 1. Determine the current in all
the branches of the network using loop
analysis.
 Nodal analysis
• Nodal analysis is a method that provides a
general procedure for analyzing circuits using
node voltages as the circuit variables.
• Nodal Analysis is based on the application of
the Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL).
 Nodal analysis

• Having ‘n’ nodes there will be ‘n-1’ simultaneous

equations to solve.
• Solving ‘n-1’ equations all the nodes voltages can
be obtained.
• The number of non reference nodes is equal to
the number of Nodal equations.
 Steps of solution
• Select any node as the reference node. Choosing the node
with the most connections can simplify the analysis. For a
circuit of N nodes the number of nodal equations is N−1.
• Assign a variable for each node whose voltage is unknown.
If the voltage is already known, it is not necessary to assign
a variable.
• For each unknown voltage, form an equation based on
Kirchhoff's Current Law (i.e. add together all currents
leaving from the node and mark the sum equal to zero).
• If there are voltage sources between two unknown
voltages, join the two nodes as a supernode. The currents
of the two nodes are combined in a single equation, and a
new equation for the voltages is formed.
• Solve the system of simultaneous equations for each
unknown voltage.
 Nodal analysis with independent
source

• Nodal Analysis In the above circuit, node D is

chosen as the reference node and the other
three nodes are assumed to have voltages, Va
, Vb and Vc with respect to node D.
• As Va=10V and Vc=20V
Dependent sources
Problem with supernode
Super node problem (contd.)
• combine the two nodes 2 and 3 as one
supernode. V3-V2=22 or V3=V2+22
• Applying KCL as supernode
 Problems on nodal analysis
Q1) Find node voltage of given ckt.

Q2) Find I0 through node voltage analysis

Q3) Write node voltage equations for the given ckt.

Superposition theorm
Conditions to apply superposition
theorem
 Superpostion theorem (contd.)
• Example:1
 Test problem
• Find the current through 6 ohm resistor. Also
calculate the current through the load
resistance
 Thevenin’s theorem

Thevenin's Theorem states that any linear bilateral network, no matter how
complex it is, can be converted to an equivalent circuit with just a single voltage
source and series resistance connected to a load.
 Thevenin’s theorm
• The current flowing through a load resistance
RL connected across any two terminals A and
B of a linear, active bilateral network is given
by Vth || (Rth + RL) where Vth is the open-
circuit voltage (i.e. voltage across the two
terminals when RL is removed) and Rth is the
total resistance of the network as viewed back
into the open-circuited network from
terminals A and B with all voltage sources
replaced by their internal resistance (if any)
and current sources by infinite resistance.
 Example of Thevenin’s theorm
• Step 4: Replace the voltage source by thevenin
equivalent source. For this case, the open
circuit voltage ETh is the same as the voltage
drop across the 6 Ω resistor. Applying the
voltage divider rule gives
 Thevenin’s theorem
• Step 5:Replace the network with thevenin source and
resistance. Connect the load resistance back in series to
thevenins resistance
 Problem on Thevenin’s theorem
• Find the current through 3 ohm resistance.
 Norton’s Theorem
• Norton’s Theorem states that it is possible to
simplify any linear bilateral circuit to an
equivalent circuit with a single current source
and equivalent parallel resistance connected
to a load. The simplified circuit is known as
the Norton Equivalent Circuit.
 Norton’s Theorem
• Norton’s Theorem is an alternative to the
Thevenin Theorem. In Norton’s theorem, the
circuit network is reduced into a single
constant current source in which, the
equivalent resistance is connected in parallel
with it. Every voltage source can be converted
into an equivalent current source.
How to Find Norton Equivalent Circuit

• Remove the resistance RL from terminals A

and B and make the terminals A and B short-
circuited by zero resistance.
• Calculate the short circuit current or Norton
equivalent current IN through the points A and
B.
How to Find Norton Equivalent Circuit
How to Find Norton Equivalent Circuit
• To find norton resistance

RL is reconnected across terminals A and B along with source of constant

current IN with shunt connected internal resistance RN . This is Norton
equivalent circuit.
Norton equivalent circuit
 Problem 1
• Find the current through the load resistance
using norton’s theorem
 Problem 2
• Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the
network given also find current through the 9
Ω resistor.
Solution

RN = R1 + R2 = 5 Ω + 4 Ω = 9 ohm
Maximum power transfer theorem
 Maximum power transfer to load
Under the condition of maximum power
delivery, the current through the circuit is given
as
I = (Vo/2RTh)
Therefore, maximum amount of power transfer
to load = I2RL= I2RTh as (RL = RTh)
= [(Vo)2/4RTh]
 Efficiency
• Efficiency during maximum power transfer is
the ratio of power dissipated in load to the
total power supplied by the source.
Total Power Delivered by Source Ps
= Power dissipated in RL + Power dissipated in load RTh
= I2RL + I2RTh
= I2 (RL+ RTh)
= 2 I2 RL (since, RL = RTh)
= 2 PL (PL is power dissipated in load)

Efficiency = PL / Ps
= PL / 2PL
= 0.5
Hence, percentage efficiency during maximum power
transfer condition
= 0.5×100
= 50%

Field of application of MPTT: Communication ckts.

Q1) Find current through 2 ohm resistor connected across terminal A & B using thevenin equivalent ckt..

Q2) Determine the current through the branch AB of the network shown here using Thevenins equivalent.

Q3: Find current through 2 ohm resistor connected across terminal A & B using norton equivalent ckt..

Q4. Determine the current through the branch AB of the network shown here using Nortons equivalent.
 Assignment 1
Ref. B.L Thereja vol.1 Tutorial problem
• sec. 2.1 (4, 7, 10)
• Sec. 2.2 (3)
• Sec. 2.3 (2, 3, 5)
• Sec. 2.4(5, 9)
• Sec. 2.5 (1, 8, 12)
• Sec. 2.6 (2, 8, 13)