CHAPTER 5 TYPICAL AND ATYPICAL

DEVELOPMENT AMONG CHILDREN

Introduction

Have you ever wondered how children

develop? Maybe at one time you have your
development with that of a sibling or cousin of yours. If
this is the case, you interested in child development
which is the pattern of growth, change, and stability
that occurs from conception up until adolescence.
Children do not grow at the same rate at the same
time. This also goes for the students in an inclusive
classroom. Knowing their capabilities can help you
better as their teacher. Find out more about their
development as this chapter focuses on the typical and
atypical development among children from infancy.
Objectives: 2. Cognitive Developmental Theory of
Jean Piaget
● Identify typical and atypical milestone in the
various stages of child development; and This theory is concerned with
● Differentiate typical and atypical development the thought processes of a person and
of children in various stages of their how they used to understand and
development. interact with the environment. Piaget’s
theory focuses on children’s
I. CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND ITS intellectual development and has four
IMPORTANCE stages.

To ensure that a child meets his/her A. Sensorimotor Stage – From birth to two
developmental milestone, it is crucial to observe and years old, a child’s knowledge is limited to his
monitor his/her development. The milestone or or her use the senses.
developmental skills that need to be mastered usually B. Preoperational Stage – From two to six years
at the same rate act a guide for ideal development. It is old, a child learns through the use of language.
done by checking the progress of a child based on his However, mental manipulation of information
or her age to see if the child is developing within does not take place yet.
expectation. For others, checking the milestones can C. Concrete Operational Stage – From 7 to 11
help detect any difficulties at a particular stage. years old, a child begins to think logically and
Intervention can then be given which can help in the have better understanding of mental
development of a child. Usually, it is the parents, operations. However, abstract concepts are
teachers and pediatricians who use the checklist. still difficult to understand.
D. Formal Operational Stage – From 12 years
II. CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES old to adulthood, a person has the ability to
think in abstract concepts.
During the early 20th century, interest in child
development began, specifically, that which focused on 3. Sociocultural Theory of Lev
detecting abnormalities. Certain theories were Vygotsky
discovered based on this interest to appreciate the This theory believes that
growth that children experience from birth to children learn actively through hands-
adolescence. on experiences. Vygotsky highlights
the importance of other people such
1. Psychosocial Development Theory as parents, caregivers, and peers in
of Erik Erikson the development of children. Culture
plays an integral role as well.
This is an eight-stage theory Interaction with others allows learning
that describes the changes one goes to be integrated in the child’s
through in a lifetime. The main focus understanding of the world. Also,
of Erikson’s theory is the conflicts or included in the theory is the zone of
crises one experiences through social proximal development, which is the
interaction. Starting from birth, each portion in between what one can do on
person is faced with a conflict that his or her own and with help. Children
needs to be resolved since it has an best learn when they are in this zone.
impact on the function of the
succeeding stages. If one successfully
overcomes the crisis of each stage, a
psychological virtue emerges.
 4. Social Learning Theory of Albert V. STAGES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Bandura
This theory believes that Stages, along with age are used as
learning takes place through ranges to mark significant periods in a human
observation and modeling. As a child development timeline. In each stage, growth
observes the actions of the people in and development occur in the four domains
his or her environment, new mentioned above.
information is acquired and new skills The stages are as follows:
are developed. A. Infancy (birth to 2 years)
B. Early Childhood (3 to 8 years)
C. Middle Childhood (9 to 11 years)
III. TYPICAL AND ATYPICAL DEVELOPMENT D. Adolescence (12 to 18 years)
The development of a child usually follows a
predictable pattern. There are certain skills and  Infancy (birth to 2 years)
abilities that are observed to gauge a child’s
development are called developmental milestones. is a critical stage in child development
Examples of these sitting, babbling, and following because growth is rapid. Many believe that this
directions. However, each child is unique. With this, stage is the most important stage in one’s life
not all reach a milestone at the same time, thus the since the changes that occur in infancy will
terms typical and atypical development. Let us define affect the later stages of development. This
the two terms first before we look further into what stage is also known as the building block for
makes a child’s development typical and atypical. the succeeding stages in the attainment of
crucial knowledge, skills and behaviors, Let us
The term typical development refers to the look at the chart below to see the typical and
normal progression where children grow by acquiring atypical developmental milestones in the
knowledge, skills, and behaviors called developmental infancy stage.
milestone a certain time frame.
Atypical development is a term used when Table S.1. Typical and atypical development during
development does not follow the normal course. More infancy
so, a child is developing atypically when he/she
reaches a milestone earlier or later than other children
his/her age.
There is no clear way to identify if a child is DOMAINS TYPICAL ATYPICAL
developing typically or atypically. However, there are
three commonly accepted principles of child Physical Holds head Does not hold
development that one should look into. The principles without support head up
are as follows:
1. Rate of development differs among children Pushes legs down Does not put
2. Development occurs in a relatively orderly when feet are on weight on legs
process flat surface
3. Development takes place gradually. Cannot sit without
Rolls over support
IV. DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT
Sits without Does not walk
The developmental milestones are categorized support steadily
into four domains namely, physical, social and
emotional, language, and cognitive. Crawls
The physical domain refers to the
development of physical changes such as size and Walks
strength. The development occurs in both gross and
fine motor skills. The development of the senses and Begins to run
their uses are also part of the physical domain which is
influenced by illness and nutrition. Socio- Smiles at people Does not smile
A child’s experience, expression, and emotional
management of emotions along with the ability to Likes to play Shows no
establish positive relationships with others refer to the affection
social-emotional domain. This includes both the Shy or afraid of
intrapersonal and interpersonal processes that take strangers Does not
place in a child. recognize familiar
‘The language domain refers to the process of Cries when people
acquiring language in a consistent order without the caregiver leaves
need for explicit teaching from the environment.
Construction of thought process which Copies others
includes remembering, problem solving, and decision
making refers to the cognitive domain. Shows
 independence Can use toilet on
his/her own
Language Makes cooing and Does not coo and
babbling sounds babble Socio- Shows affection Does not want
emotional to play with
Responds to own Does not say a Takes turns in others
name single word games
Usually
Makes different Does not speak in Cooperates with withdrawn
sounds sentences other children

Responds to
simple requests Shows concern and
sympathy
Tries to say words
Shows more
Says sentences independence

Cognitive Watches things as Does not watch Language Follows two to three Has unclear
they move things as they step instructions speech
move
Can't tell stories
Uses eyes and Does not know Uses pronouns articulately
hands together what to do with
common objects Tells and retell
Recognizes stories
people at a
distance Speaks clearly

Transfers object Cognitive Plays make-believe Does not play

from one hand to with simple toys
another Works with simple or make-believe
toys
Loses skills
Explores things in Names colors and once had
various ways numbers

Uses things Draws a person

correctly (eats
with spoon) Names letters

Finds hidden Shows development

things of mental skills

 Middle Childhood (9 to 11 years)

is a stage that brings various changes
 Early Childhood (3 to 8 years old) in a child’s life, independence is a
is a period of life with slow growth and characteristic that children in this stage
rapid development. Most psychologist label asserts. Developing friendships is another
this stage as the exploratory and questioning milestone that is evident in this stage. Children
stag since the children enjoy discovering new should be given more tasks to develop their
things in their surroundings. Interactions with sense of responsibility to further develop their
family and the people around them will help growing independence.
shape their development (see table 5.2)
DOMAINS TYPICAL ATYPICAL
DOMAINS TYPICAL ATYPICAL
Physical Growth spurt may Has limited
Physical Runs well Falls down often take place mobility

Climbs easily Needs help in Becomes clumsy

physical
Hops and stands on activities Increased in appetite
one foot

Socio- Forms stronger Has difficulty

emotional friendships making and about the future
keeping friends
Becomes aware of
Behaviors that are atypical should be observed
body changes due to
keenly and recorded carefully. At times, the recorded
puberty
observations might just be isolated events with no
significant impact on later development. However, they
Shows more concern
might also be early warning signs of needs. The
about looks
observed patterns will be useful to confirm if there is
such a need.
May feel stressed
about school work
CHAPTER 6 LEARNERS WITH ADDITIONAL
Language Continues to speak Has unclear
NEEDS
clearly speech
Children learn every day. This happens in
various settings and different ways. Learning at times
Expresses one's Can't tell stories
happens intentionally and with great effort while there
thought articulately articulately
are situations where it happens almost effortlessly.
Cognitive Increased attention Experiences This chapter focuses on learners with additional needs,
span problems with highlighting the definition, identification, learning
comprehension characteristics, and general education adaptations.
Sees the view of and attention
other people more Objectives:
clearly Unable to keep At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:
up with the ● identify the various additional needs learners
school's might have;
curriculum ● differentiate the additional needs from one
another;
● recognize the characteristics of learners with
 Adolescence (12 to 18 years) additional needs;
is the period where puberty begins. By ● discuss what marginalization means; and
the end of this stage, most will have completed ● identify different marginalized groups.
puberty. The child is now called a teen during
this stage. The teen is becoming more vocal I. LEARNERS WHO ARE GIFTED AND
about his/ her opinions due to the development TALENTED
of a unique personality. Peer pressure, A. Definition
however, will be present, which is why
guidance from parents and guardians is very Learners who are gifted and talented are
much needed. students with higher abilities than average and are
often referred to as gifted students. This group refers
DOMAINS TYPICAL ATYPICAL to students whose talents, abilities, and potentials are
developmentally advanced. They require special
Physical Reaches adult Limited mobility provisions to meet their educational needs, thus
weight and height presenting a unique challenge to teachers. They often
finish tasks ahead and might ask for more creative
Socio- Becomes Has limited peer tasks or exercises. Exciting and energizing activities
emotional interested in connections should be provided to continuously keep them
opposite sex motivated. This group includes students with
May exhibit exceptional abilities from all socio-economic, ethnic,
Begins conflict with inappropriate and cultural populations. What is the difference then
parents behavior in between gifted and talented? The term giftedness
public refers to students with extraordinary abilities in various
Shows more academic areas. However, talent focuses on students
independence from with extraordinary abilities in a specific area.
parents
There is also another way to look into
Language Continues to speak Has unclear giftedness which is conceptualized by Gardner in
clearly speech 1993. According to him, intelligence is multifaceted.
The following intelligences are seen in Figure 6.1.
Expresses one's Can't tell stories
thought articulately articulately

Cognitive Acquires and uses Is below grade

defined work habits level

Shows concern
 o Leadership roles can be given to gifted
students since studies have shown that gifted
students are often socially immature.
o Extensive reading on subjects of their own
interest may be coordinated with the school
librarian to further broaden their knowledge.
o Long-term activities may be provided, that will
give the gifted students an opportunity to be
engaged for an extended period of time.

II. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY SEEING

A. Definition
Students in the classroom will exhibit different
B. Identification levels of clarity of eyesight or visual acuity. There may
To identify gifted and talented students, one must do be some students with hampered or restricted vision.
the following: Learners with difficulty seeing are those with issues
● Locate the student's domain of giftedness regarding sight that interfere with academics. The
● Describe the student's level of giftedness definition from Individuals with Disabilities Education
● Describe the student's fields of talent Act (IDEA) states that "an impairment in vision that,
even with correction, adversely affects a child's
C. Learning Characteristics educational performance, which includes both partial
Not all learners will exhibit the learning sight and blindness." These students may need to
characteristics listed below. However, these are the have their eyesight corrected by wearing glasses or
common manifestations of gifted and talented learners. other optical devices.
One might possess a combination of characteristics in
varying degrees and amounts. B. Identification
Learners with difficulty seeing often have
● High level of intellectual curiosity physical signs, such as crossed eyes, squinting, and
● Reads actively eyes that turn outwards. They may also be clumsy,
● High degree of task commitment usually bumping into objects which causes them to fall
● Keen power of observation down. They like to sit near the instructional materials or
● Highly verbal at times would stand up and go near the visual aids.
● Gets bored easily Learners with difficulty seeing may also show
● Can retain and recall information poor eye-hand coordination. This can be seen in their
● Excited about learning new concepts handwriting or poor performance in sporting activities.
● Independence in learning Another indication is poor academic performance as
● Good comprehension of complex contexts these students might have difficulty reading as well as
● Strong, well-developed imagination writing.
● Looks for new ways to do things
● Often gives uncommon responses to common C. Learning Characteristics
questions
Good visual ability is critical in learning. Most
D. General Educational Adaptations school lessons are done through blackboard writing,
Learners who are gifted and talented usually get presentations, or handouts, in most major subjects.
bored since they have mastered the concepts taught in Visual impairments, whether mild, moderate, or
classes. One thing that is common among gifted severe, affect the student's ability to participate in
students is that they are very inquisitive. Fulfilling their normal classroom activities. In the past, students who
instructional needs may be a challenging task. These are visually impaired are placed in special institutions.
are some suggested strategies for teaching gifted Nowadays, most are enrolled with other children who
students: are not visually impaired.
Learners with difficulty seeing have restricted
o Teachers may give enrichment exercises that ways to learn incidentally from their surroundings since
most of them learn through visual clues. Because of
will allow learners to study the same topic at a
this, the other senses are used to acquire knowledge.
more advanced level.
Due to the limited ability to explore the environment,
o Acceleration can let students who are gifted
low motivation to discover is present.
and talented can move at their own pace thus
resulting at times to in completing two grade
D. General Educational Adaptations
levels in one school year.
o Open-ended activities with no right or wrong
Modification in teaching is needed to
answers can be provided, emphasizing on accommodate students with difficulty seeing. The
divergent thinking wherein there are more following strategies may be considered:
possibilities than pre-determined answers.
o If the use of books is part of your
lesson, students with difficulty seeing
 should be informed ahead of time so
that they can be ordered in braille or in  Speaking loudly
an audio recorded format.  Positioning ear toward the direction of the one
o Portions of textbooks and other printed speaking
materials may be recorded so that  Asking for information to be repeated again
visually-impaired students can listen and again
instead of focusing on the visual  Delayed development of speech Watching the
presentation. face of the speaker intently
o All words written on the board should  Favoring one ear
be read clearly.  Not responding when called
o Students with difficulty seeing should  Has difficulty following directions
be seated near the board so that they  Does not mind loud noises
can easily move close to the  Leaning close to the source of sounds
instructional materials used during the
lesson. C. Learning Characteristics
o A buddy can be assigned to a student
with difficulty seeing as needed. This Since much of learning is acquired through
can be crucial to assist in the mobility hearing, students with hearing problems have
of the student such as going to the deficiencies in language and in their experiences.
other places in school during the day. Since they may miss out on daily conversations, they
o Students with difficulty seeing might may miss crucial information that non-hearing-impaired
need more time to complete a task or students learn incidentally. Students may overcome
homework. This might be on a case to these problems by investing time, energy, and
case basis. combined effort by both parents and educators.
o Teachers should be aware of
terminology that would require visual Most learners with difficulty hearing use
acuity (such as over there or like this various methods of communication. The most common
one) which the impaired student may is the use of hearing aids, combined with lip-reading.
not possess. These students are referred to as "oral" since they
o Teachers should monitor the students can communicate thru speech as opposed to sign
closely to know who needs extra time language. They might have delayed communication
in completing tasks. skills since the development of vocabulary is slower.
They understand concepts when the sentence
structure is simpler. Interacting with students can be a
III. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY challenge so they prefer to work on their own. Some
HEARING hearing-impaired students use note-takers in class
since it is difficult to lip- read and take notes
A. Definition simultaneously.

This refers to students with an issue regarding D. General Educational Adaptations

hearing that interferes with academics. The definition There is an assumption that the only adjustment for
from Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) hearing impaired students is to make all instructional
defines it as "an impairment in hearing, whether materials and techniques in written format. These are
permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a other ways to adapt to hearing-impaired students:
child's educational performance but is not included
under the definition of 'deafness". Deafness is o Teachers should help students with difficulty
considered when hearing loss is above 90 decibels. A hearing to use the residual hearing they may
hearing loss below 90 decibels is called hearing have.
impairment. o Teachers should help students develop the
The main challenge of hearing-impaired ability for speech reading or watching others'
students is communication since most of them have lips, mouth, and expressions.
varying ways of communicating. The factors affecting o Teachers should be mindful to face the class
the development of communication skills include at all times when presenting information while
intelligence, personality, the degree and nature of ensuring that the students with difficulty
deafness and residual hearing, family environment, hearing sit near them.
and the age of onset. The latter plays the most crucial o Exaggerating the pronunciation of words
role in the development of language as those who should not be done for it just makes it difficult
have hearing loss present at birth are more functionally for the student with difficulty hearing.
disabled than those who lose hearing after language o Directions, as well as important parts of the
and speech development. lesson, should always be written on the board.
o Written or pictorial directions instead of verbal
B. Identification
directions may be given.
o Steps to an activity may be physically acted
To identify learners with difficulty hearing, observe a
student and see if he/she does the following items out instead of verbally given.
below.
 o A variety of multi-sensory activities should be c) Syntax
given to allow the' students to focus on their Syntax is the system of rules governing the
learning strengths. meaningful arrangement of words, which also include
grammar rules. For instance, the sentence, Ready get
o Teachers should be more patient when waiting for the exam does not make sense until arranged in
to hear a response from a hearing-impaired the right sequence as Get ready for the exam.
student which may take longer than usual.
d) Semantics
IV. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY Semantics refers to the meanings associated with
COMMUNICATING words and combination of words in a language. This
Some learners are observed to have difficulty also includes vocabulary, concept development,
communicating, either verbally expressing their ideas connotative meanings of words, and categories.
and needs and/or in understanding what others are
saying. Some may have had a clinical diagnosis of a e) Pragmatics
disability while others display developmental delays Pragmatics revolves around the social use of
and difficulty in the speech and language domain. To language, knowing what, when, and how to
have a clearer understanding of students who have communicate and use language in specific context.
difficulty communicating, we will begin with a definition There are three kinds of pragmatics skills:
of communication and its accompanying concepts: (1) using language for different purposes (e.g.,
how learners with communications difficulties are narrating, explaining, requesting, etc.),
identified, their learning characteristics, and ways how (2) changing language according to the context
to help them manage and become successful in an (e.g., talking to a peer as compared to speaking to a
inclusive setting. well-respected professor). and
(3) following rules for conversations and story-
A. Definition: Types of Communication telling (eg, taking turns, rephrasing when unclear, how
Impairments and Disorders to use facial expressions and eye contact, etc.)
(American Speech- Language Hearing Association,
Communication is the interactive exchange of 2011 cited in Heward, 2013).
information, ideas, feelings, needs, and desires
between and among people (Heward, 2013). Knowing these terms is necessary to understand
Communication is used to serve several functions, the different disabilities that are associated with
particularly to narrate, explain, inform, request (mand), communication disorders, namely Speech Impairments
and express feelings and opinions. and Language Disorders.

How is speech different from language? Speech Impairments are communication

disorders such as stuttering, impaired articulation, and
Speech is the expression of language with language or voice impairment. Such disorders are
sounds, or oral production. Speech is produced significant enough that they can adversely affect a
through precise physiological and neuromuscular student's academic performance. There are four basic
coordination: (1) respiration (act of breathing), (2) types of speech impairments: articulation,
phonation (production of sound by the larynx and phonological, fluency, and voice disorder (see Table
vocal folds), and (3) articulation (use of lips, tongue, 6.2).
teeth, and hard and soft palates to speak).
Speech Description Example
Language is used for communication, a Impairment
formalized code used by a group. of people to
communicate with one another, that is primarily Articulation A child is unable "I want a blue
arbitrary (Heward, 2013). People decide on symbols, Disorder to produce a lollipop."
their corresponding meaning, and rules that make up a given sound
language. There are five dimensions of language physically. Severe "I want a boo
that describe its form (i.e., phonology, morphology, articulation wowipop."
syntax, content, and use (pragmatics). disorder may
render a child's "Can I get
a) Phonology speech three
Phonology refers to the sound system of a unintelligible. bananas?"
language. A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound Examples are
within a language. For instance, the word dog is made substitutions, "An I et tee
up of three phonemes, namely /d/-/o/-/g/ while beans omissions, nanas?"
has four phonemes, /b/-/ea/-/n/-/s/. distortions, and
additions of
b) Morphology speech sounds.
Morphology of a language refers to the smallest
unit of language that has meaning and which are used Phonological A child produces "That pie is
to combine words. Sounds, syllables, or whole words Disorder multiple patterns good."
are examples of morphemes. of sound errors
 On the other hand, a receptive language
with obvious "Cat bye is
disorder interferes with the understanding of
impairment of tood."
language. A child may have difficulty understanding
intelligibility.
spoken sentences or following the directions a teacher
There is also
gives. Some children may be found to have a
noted inconsistent
combination of receptive and expressive language
misarticulation of
disorder.
sounds (Le.,
sometimes a child
At this point, it is also essential to mention that
is able to
students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) also
articulate it but not
display speech and language difficulties. ASD is an
in other words).
umbrella term for related disorders that affect social
development and communication (Kirk et al. 2015).
Fluency Difficulties with Blocks:
Students with ASD display a triad of impairments in
Disorder the rhythm and "I want a...
social relationships, social communication, and social
timing of speech. banana."
understanding. Other disorders that are subsumed
Stuttering is an (blocks)
under ASD are Rett Syndrome, Pervasive
example marked
Developmental Disorder, and Asperger's
by rapid-fire Prolongations
Syndrome. Oftentimes, students with ASD display
repetitions of "I waaaant a
deficits in the pragmatic use of language that impact
consonant or bbbanana."
their social relationships.
vowel sounds
especially at the Repetitions
B. Identification
beginning of "I want a ba-
Communication difficulty is oftentimes one of
words, ba-ba-
the most common red flags observed by family
prolongations, banana."
members, daycare workers, and early childhood
hesitations,
teachers. Noted absence, delays, and difficulties in
interjections, and
speech and/or language often prompt family members
complete verbal
to consult their general pediatrician who then makes
blocks (Ramig &
referrals to developmental pediatricians and other
Shames, 2006
specialists.
cited in Gargiulo
To screen children with communication
2012).
difficulties, early childhood professionals use
questionnaires and developmental checklists to
Voice Problems with the Phonation
determine the severity of the delay as compared with
Disorder quality or use of disorder
typical language development. Upon screening, a child
one's voice (breathiness,
may receive educational supports and
resulting from hoarseness)
accommodations to help address the delay. If the
disorders of the
difficulty is pronounced, referrals can already be made
larynx. Voice may Hypernasality
to developmental pediatrician and a speech and
be excessively
language pathologist. At times, referrals are also made
hoarse, breathy, Hyponasality
to an occupational therapist if speech difficulty is
or too high-
resulting from motor problems.
pitched.
How do specialists determine a speech and/or
language problem? A comprehensive speech and
Language Disorders involve problems in one language evaluation to determine the presence of a
or more of the five components of language and are communication disorder involves several components
often classified as expressive or receptive. Language (Heward 2013).
disorders are characterized by persistent difficulties in
acquiring use of language that result from deficits in ● Case history and physical examination.
comprehension that include reduced vocabulary, Assessment always begins with the case
limited sentence structure, and impairments in history that provides the specialist the
discourse, that limit a child's functioning (American necessary background about the child's birth
Psychiatric Association 2013). To receive a diagnosis and developmental history, health record,
of language disorder, the difficulties must not be due to achievement test scores, and adjustment in
an accompanying medical or neurological condition school. The specialist examines the child's
and other developmental disability (ie., intellectual Oral-Peripheral Mechanism which includes the
disability or global developmental delay). mouth, noting irregularities in the tongue, lips,
teeth, palate, or other structures that may
There are different types of language disorder- affect speech production.
expressive, receptive, and a combination of the two.
An expressive language disorder interferes ● Hearing. Hearing is tested to determine
with the production of language. A child may have very whether an organic hearing problem is the
limited vocabulary that impacts communications skills cause of the suspected communication
or misuses words and phrases in sentences. disorder, as discussed in the previous section.
 Thus, hearing impairment needs to be treated Children with communication disorders
to develop speech and language skills. frequently struggle across social settings, whether at
home, school, or in other places in the community.
● Articulation. A child's articulation skills are
assessed, which includes identifying speech Some of the difficulties that characterize
errors (see Table 6.2). communication disorders are presented in Table 6.3.
Expressive Language Receptive Language
● Phonological awareness and processing.
Difficulties Difficulties
Phonological awareness and processing skills
provide the foundation for beginning to read in
Limited vocabulary Following oral directions
young children (Adams 2013). Children with
difficulties in processing sounds in language
Incorrect grammar or Understanding humor or
as well as in hearing, segmenting, and
syntax figurative language
identifying phonemes in words may experience
problems with expressive and receptive
Expressive repetition of Comprehending
spoken language as well as in learning how to
information compound and complex
read.
sentences
Difficulty in formulating
● Overall language development and
questions Responding to questions
vocabulary. Formal tests may be used to
appropriately
measure a child's overall language
Difficulty constructing
development and vocabulary as these affect
sentences
how well a child is able to understand and use
language in spontaneous speech and in
academic settings. Assessment of language Children with communication disorders may
function. Language is used to serve several also experience behavioral difficulties. Because they
functions such as to request, name, imitate, struggle in expressing their needs and ideas, some
ask, and converse among others. B. F. children resort to inappropriate behaviors out of
Skinner (Sundberg 2007 cited in Heward frustration or to get the attention of significant others.
2013), emphasized how language is used For instance, a five-year old child with
rather than the structure and form of language. expressive language disorder may resort to grabbing
toys and hitting his peers who try to take the toy he
● Language samples and observation in was playing with the day before. While typically
natural settings. Language difficulties may developing children will be able to say, "May I please
also be identified through play-based, borrow?" or "It's my turn now," a child with
authentic assessment where a specialist plays communication difficulties may not be able to utter
with a child during which spontaneous speech these accurately and instead resort to using actions
and verbalizations can be elicited. resulting to physical aggression. Thus, it is essential
Observations in natural settings, such as a that teachers and professionals take this into
child's home or school, allows the specialist to consideration when working with children with
sample the child's language in daily activities communication disorders and difficulties. Such feelings
and observe parent and child interaction and of frustration may even become worse when peers or
communication as part of holistic assessment. adults are unable to understand them (Gregg 2016).
These are used to supplement assessment
information gathered in clinical settings. Despite these language difficulties, children
with communication disorders are to have their own
Assessments in speech, language, and strengths and abilities. This can be best understood
communication must take into consideration the using the theory of multiple intelligences (Gardner
student's cultural and language context, particularly for 1983 cited in Armstrong 2012), as explained in
children growing up in bilingual environments. At this Chapter 5, that shows the different strengths and
point, it is essential to differentiate English Language abilities children have. In Gardner's theory, children
Learners (ELL) from children with diagnosed may have abilities in different areas or domains, which
communication disorder. ELLs are proficient in their makes it necessary for parents and teachers to provide
mother tongue or first language in both expressive and opportunities for such strengths and abilities to be
receptive language tasks; on the other hand, they displayed. Children with communication disorders may
display difficulties in understanding and speaking the have limitations in the linguistic and interpersonal
second language, such as English. In a multi-cultural areas but may possess good spatial, musical, and
setting, knowing the child's first and second language bodily-kinesthetic abilities. In other a child may struggle
aids teachers and language specialists to determine with communication but can be very good in playing
the possible sources of communication difficulties and musical instruments, be very creative and artistic,
plan for needed supports and interventions. An English and/or excel in sports. As parents, teachers, and
language learner is put at a disadvantage when his/her practitioners, knowing a student's strength and
first language (i.e.. mother tongue) is not identified and highlighting such abilities in an inclusive classroom is
assessed solely in the second language. as important as knowing and understanding his/her
communication disorder.
C. Learning Characteristics
D. General Educational Adaptations
8. Use peer-mediated instruction so that peers
Different strategies and accommodations may without difficulties can serve as language
be used to provide a level playing field for children with models and learning buddies.
communication difficulties or disorders. This section 9. Provide extra time to prepare for oral language
discusses the use of Universal Design for Learning activities. Do not call children with
(UDL) and practical tips to be used in the classroom. communication difficulties/disorders to recite
first in class. Call other typically developing
1. Universal Design for Learning children first to serve as language models.
Use of UDL in the classroom allows 10. Model correct language forms and use
children to learn information, demonstrate appropriate wait times (3-5 seconds or more)
understanding, and stay engaged in multiple to give the child time to think and respond.
ways (i.e., multiple means of presentation, 11. Explicitly teach vocabulary that is needed in
expression, and engagement). Because of the learning context to promote better
weaknesses resulting from communication comprehension.
difficulties or disorders, teaching and learning ___________________________________________
practices as well as assessment should be
presented in different modalities, such as Universal Design for Learning, alongside
visual, auditory, and kinesthetic-motor or different accommodations (ie., presentation, response,
tactile. This means that lessons are presented setting, and timing) that are appropriate to the child,
through various means, such as using pictures and collaboration between the general education
and/or videos and hands- on experiential teacher and the special education professional, will all
learning, and not solely by passive approaches help ensure that children with communication
such as reading from textbooks, lectures, and difficulties/disorders have a chance to be successful in
teacher-directed discussions. Presenting an inclusive classroom.
learning activities in this manner gives children
with communication difficulties or disorders the V. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY
opportunity to use their strengths and stronger MOVING/WALKING
modalities to compensate for their weaknesses The previous section presented the strengths,
and a chance to be successful in an inclusive difficulties, limitations, and educational strategies in
classroom. working with and helping children with
difficulties/disorders in communication. This section
2. Practical Tips for the Classroom now focuses on learners with difficulty moving and/or
In addition to using UDL, there are walking, thus focusing on physical and motor
practical tips and techniques that teachers can disabilities, their learning characteristics, abilities, and
use to provide students with communication the support they need in an inclusive classroom.
difficulties the support they need in order to be
successful. The following list provides practical A. Definition
suggestions that teachers can use in the When a child has difficulty moving and/or
classroom. These suggestions are best walking, the physical domain of development is
implemented in a classroom that promotes a affected. Examples of physical disability are
supportive and respectful culture, one that developmental coordination disorder or dyspraxia,
acknowledges and accepts diversity, and stereotypic movement disorder, tics and cerebral
allows accommodations for learners with palsy. Each one is defined in the succeeding sections.
difficulties.
___________________________________________ Developmental coordination disorder as
1. Allow the child to sit near the teacher and the described in the DSM-5 (American Psychiatric
blackboard, away from auditory and visual Association 2013), refers to significant and persistent
distractions such as the window and the door. deficits in coordinated motor skills that are significantly
2. Get the child's attention before giving below expected typical development. Difficulties are
directions. Call the child's name or use a pre- manifested as clumsiness (e.g., dropping or bumping
arranged signal (e.g., tap on the table or hand into objects), slowness, and inaccuracy of motor skills
on the shoulder) to help the child focus and (e.g., catching an object, using scissors or cutlery,
listen to the directions. handwriting, riding a bike, or participating in sports).
3. Use pictures, charts, and other visual aids These observed deficits impact academic performance
when explaining content to supplement and other activities of daily living, which do not result
auditory information. from intellectual disability, visual impairment, or any
4. Speak slowly and clearly without exaggerating neurological condition affected movement (e.g.,
speech. cerebral palsy). Dyspraxia, used synonymously with
5. Simplify directions into short steps. Break developmental coordination disorder, is a term often
down multi-step directions and give each one used by occupational therapists.
at a time instead of just repeating each one.
6. Provide a written copy of directions for a task Another type of motor problem, Stereotypic
so the child can refer back to it at his/her own movement disorder, is characterized by repetitive,
pace. seemingly driven, and nonfunctional motor behavior
7. Use gestures to clarify information. (e.g., hand shaking or waving, body rocking, head
banging, self- biting, hitting own body). These
Early Difficulty in tying shoelaces,
behaviors interfere with social, academic, or other
Childhood buttoning, using spoon and fork,
activities and may result in self-harm or injury
and getting dressed; problems in
(American Psychiatric Association 2013). Such motor
jumping, skipping, catching, and
behaviors do not result from any other
kicking a ball; a higher tendency
neurodevelopmental or mental disorder.
to bump into things, to fall over,
or to drop things
Cerebral Palsy refers to a disorder of
movement and posture that results from damage to the
areas of the brain that control motor movement (Kirk et School-Age The difficulties in early childhood
al. 2015). This damage to the brain can occur before, be- come more pronounced; tries
during, or after birth due to an accident or injury. to avoid sports; works on writing
Muscle tone (tension in the muscles) affects voluntary tasks for a longer period of time
movement and full control of the muscles that results in in comparison to typically
delays in the child's gross and fine motor development. developing peers
There are different classifications of cerebral palsy,
depending on which parts of the body are affected and In conducting an assessment, a specialist
the nature of the effects on muscle tone and determines the child's developmental history,
movement. The term plegia, from the Greek word intellectual ability, and gross and fine motor skills. To
meaning "to strike," is used with a prefix that indicate differentiate between the two, gross motor skills
the location of limb movement (see Table 6.4). involve the use of large muscles in the body to
coordinate body movement, which includes throwing,
CLASSIFICAT DESCRIPTION  jumping, walking, running, and maintaining balance.
IONS On the other hand, fine motor skills involve the use of
smaller muscles that are needed in activities like
Monoplegia Only one limb is affected (upper or writing, cutting paper, tying shoelaces, and buttoning.
lower)
The evaluator needs to know when and how
Hemiplegia Two limbs on the same side of the developmental milestones are achieved. Assessment
body affected is conducted to check the child's balance, sensitivity to
touch, and performance in other gross and fine motor
Triplegia Three limbs are affected activities (Nordqvist 2017).

Quadriplegia All four limbs, both arms and legs, Oral motor coordination in doing activities like
are affected; movement of the blowing kisses or blowing out birthday candles may
trunk and face may also be also be reported. Moreover, an evaluator will check for
impaired the following: (1) strength and flexibility by palpating
muscle bulk and texture, assessing flexibility of joints,
Diplegia Legs are affected, less severe and the quality and intensity of grasp and (2) motor
involvement of the arms planning which includes observing functional fine and
gross motor skills and determining hand dominance or
Double Impairment primarily involves the lack thereof (Harris et al. 2015).
hemiplegia arms, less severe involvement of
the legs Stereotypic Movement Disorder. Similar
steps are followed in the identification of the presence
of Stereotypic Movement Disorder (SMD) among
B. Identification
children. Typically developing children may display
stereotypic movements, or behaviors, often referred to
Developmental Coordination Disorder.
as stereotypies, between ages two and five as well as
Identifying children with motor difficulties begins with
children with other neurological conditions such as
family members and early childhood practitioners.
Autism Spectrum Disorder and other developmental
Upon noticing that their child is showing difficulties and
disabilities. Because of this, specialists classify SMD
delays in fine and/or gross motor movements, parents
as "primary" when it occurs in an otherwise typically
oftentimes consult their general pediatrician who in
developing child, or "secondary" if it exists alongside
turn may refer them to other specialists such as a
other neurological disorders (Valente et al. 2019).
developmental pediatrician, a physical therapist, or an
occupational therapist. Some signs that a child may
C. Learning Characteristics
have developmental coordination disorder, that is more
than just typical difficulty in moving or walking, are
Motor difficulties and disabilities are known to
presented in Table 6.5 (Nordqvist 2017).
significantly affect a child's ability to perform daily
activities, which include memory, perception and
Developmenta Signs processing, planning, carrying out coordinated
l Stage movements. Speech may also be affected as motor
control is needed in articulation and production.
Moreover, developmental coordination disorder also
affects psychosocial functioning as children report to
have lower levels of self-efficacy and competence in coordination/movement disorder (Pollock & Missiuna
physical and social domains, experience more 2007; Beech 2010).
symptoms of being depressed and anxious, as well as
display externalizing behaviors (Harris et al. 2015).
Children with stereotypic movement disorder also tend
to have low self-esteem and have been reported to be
withdrawn (Valente et al. 2019).

On the other hand, a "range of strengths"

Type of Description
needs to be acknowledged in every child with a
Accommodations
disability (Armstrong 2012). Students with motor/
movement disorders may excel in other areas of
Response Assign a peer/adult as scribe
intelligences that are not controlled by motor functions.
for note- taking
They may have adequate intelligence, creativity, and
Use different sizes of paper
language skills depending on the severity of the
and graph paper to align
disorder and the presence of a supportive adult. In
numbers"
fact, some children and adults who are physically
handicapped or have cerebral palsy have learned to
Try different writing tools and
paint with their mouths or feet to compensate for their
pencil grips Use a word
rigid limbs and have done so successfully. Some
processor/computer
children may do well in logical thinking and
comprehension and even in writing using assistive
Use text-to-speech programs
technology. Hence, for children with motor difficulties
and disabilities, support systems are needed to ensure
Allow for oral recitation/test-
that they are given equal opportunities to access
taking to supplement written
learning experiences in school alongside their typically
tests 
developing peers.
Provide alternate assessment
D. General Educational Adaptations
methods
First and foremost, children with motor
Setting Allow for preferential seating
difficulties and disabilities need primary intervention
near the teacher 
with specialists such as physical and occupational
therapists. These professionals are responsible for
Adjust chair and/or desk
setting goals in motor development, planning, and
height to maximize posture
mobility as well as in providing teachers and others
and stability
with information about the child's physical conditions,
limitations, and abilities (Kirk et al. 2015).
Place a non-skid mat on the
chair
Physical accessibility of a school and
classrooms to children with motor difficulty/disability is
Provide opportunities for
essential. Ramps and elevators for schools with
movement breaks
multiple levels of buildings is necessary, as well as the
provision of wheelchairs. Providing such structures and Schedule Allow for extra time to
supports ensure that children with motor complete tests and writing
difficulty/disability would be able to access as well as assignments
move around the classroom safely.
Provide extra time to change
The type of accommodations given will always for physical education classes
be relative to the strengths, abilities, and difficulties of
the child. For a child with developmental coordination Others Photocopy notes and
or stereotypic movement disorder who struggles or is homework reminders for the
unable to write but has adequate articulation and child 
language skills, he/she may benefit from being given
accommodations in the way understanding is Allow to take photos of notes
demonstrated (Le., response). Some of the and homework reminders 
recommendations for a child with such a profile may
include the following: (1) assigning an adult or a peer Give advance organizers
to be a scribe when accomplishing written tasks may before a lesson/lecture to
be an option and (2) being given a pencil or pen grip lessen/remove writing task
and different size/ diameter for a pencil for those with
poor fine-motor control. Send lecture handouts via
email
Table 6.6 presents practical classroom
accommodations for children with developmental
VI. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY REMEMBERING
Dividing Mental resources that involves
AND FOCUSING
attention focusing on ore more activities or
In this section, we will learn about students
tasks simultaneously (e.g.,
who find it difficult to remember lessons, concepts, and
listening to music while driving).
even instructions as well as those who find it a
challenge to sustain their focus. Students with Learning Disability (LD) and/or
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) are
characterized by having difficulties with memory and
attention functions. The subsequent sections present
the definition, identification, and learning
A. Definition characteristics for each disability.

The International Classification of Functioning,

Disability, and Health of the World Health Organization 1. LD
(2001) provides definitions of specific mental functions It was Samuel Kirk who coined the term, "learning
and focusing Memory functions include short-term disability" in 1962 when he met with parents and
memory, long- term memory, and retrieval, while families as they discussed about students who
attention functions include sustaining, shifting, encountered pronounced difficulties in school despite
dividing, and sharing attention. Santrock (2011) also having average to above-average intelligence. He
provides a description of each of these functions (see further described students with learning disabilities as
Table 6.7). Understanding these concepts is necessary a heterogeneous mix of learners who all had
to have a clearer picture of how to enable learners with neurologically-based problems that affected their
such difficulties to succeed and how to provide support learning in different ways (Kirk et al., 2015).
in an inclusive setting.
To better understand learning disabilities, Gargiulo
Memory Functions (2012) provided common components on the
involves encoding, storage, and retrieval of information definitions of a LD:
over time  Intellectual functioning within normal range
Short- Mental resources that allow for  Significant gap or discrepancy between a
term storing information temporarily, for student's assumed potential and actual
memory only ap- proximately 30 seconds, achievement
after which is lost if strategies are  Inference that LD is not primarily caused by
not used to integrate them into other disabilities or extrinsic factors
long-term memory (e.g.,  Difficulty in learning in one or more academic
remembering a 7-digit landline areas
number for a moment to be able to  Presumption of CNS dysfunction. (p.198)
write it down).
These components are also found in the definition
Long- Mental resources that allow for provided by the National Joint Commission on
term storing information for a long period Learning Disabilities (1990):
memory of time
"Learning disabilities is a general term that
Retrieval Mental resources used to recall refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders
information stored in long-term manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition
memory and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing,
reasoning, or mathematical abilities. These disorders
are intrinsic to the individual, presumed to be due to
Attention Functions central nervous system dysfunction, and may occur
involves focusing of mental resources on a stimulus for across the life span. Problems in self- regulatory
a required time period behaviors, social perception, and social interaction
Sustained Mental resources used to maintain may exist with learning disabilities but do not by
attention attention for an extended period themselves constitute a learning disability. Although
also called vigilance (e.g., staying learning disabilities may occur concomitantly with
focused while reading a chapter in other disabilities (for example, sensory impairment,
a classical novel without any intellectual disabilities, emotional disturbance), or with
interruptions until it is finished). extrinsic influences (such as cultural or linguistic
differences, insufficient or inappropriate instruction),
Selective Mental resources that allow for they are not the result of those conditions or
attention focusing on a specific stimulus influences."
that is important while ignoring
others (e.g., focusing on the voice The term Learning Disability is differentiated
of a lecturer amidst the noise of a from Specific Learning Disability which focuses on
group of used to refocus difficulties in "one or more basic psychological
concentration from one stimulus to processes involved in understanding or in using
another). language, spoken, or written, which may manifest as
difficulties in the ability to listen, think, spark, read,
write, spell, or do mathematical calculations"  Display a persistent pattern for at least 6
(Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 1997 in months that significantly interferes with
Hallahan, 2014, p. 168). Thus, the term Learning functioning or development Observed in two or
Disability is a general term under which other more settings (e.g., at home, school, work;
difficulties are subsumed. with friends or relatives; and in other activities)

There are different types of specific learning  Several of the symptoms were present before
disabilities for each type of difficulty namely, Dyslexia the age of 12 years.
for difficulties with reading, spelling, and oral reading
fluency: Dyscalculia for difficulties in math  The behaviors are not resulting from other
computation, problem- solving, and analysis; and disorders (e.g., schizophrenia, anxiety
Dysgraphia for difficulties with handwriting and written disorder, personality disorder, etc.)
expression (see Table 6.8).
More behavioral manifestations are presented in Table
6.9
Type Definition

Dyslexia Characterized by difficulties with Inattention

accurate and/or fluent word
recognition and by poor spelling Does not pay attention to details and works in a
and word reading abilities that haphazard manner resulting in careless
result from a deficit in mistakes (e.g., school tasks, at work, in other
phonological processing activities)
abilities. The difficulties are
often unexpected in relation to Finds it difficult to sustain attention in tasks
other cognitive abilities and the
provision of effective classroom Easily distracted and sidetracked by extraneous
instruction (IDA 2002). Limited stimuli
vocabulary and background
knowledge as well. as problems Often does not follow through on instruction and
in reading comprehension may fails to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in the
result as secondary workplace
consequences (Shaywitz 2003).
Appears not to listen or distracted when spoken
Dyscalculia A specific learning disability that to directly
affects how students acquire
and develop their arithmetic Has difficulty following instructions resulting in
skills despite average unfinished work Shows a tendency to be
intelligence (Shalev 2011) and forgetful in daily tasks and routines
may manifest as difficulty in
retrieval of math facts and Has problems in organizing tasks and activities
understanding number concepts
or using symbols or functions. Tends to lose things that are needed for
schoolwork and other activities
Dysgraphia A specific learning disability that
affects the development of Hyperactivity and Impulsivity
writing abilities which may
display as spelling, hand- Often restless and fidgety and cannot seem to
writing, and expressive writing stay still while sitting down
difficulties resulting from
problems in organizing and Often stands from seat to roam around the room
putting thoughts on paper
(NCLD 2007 cited in LD Online Often runs around or climbs in situations when
2019). sitting is required

Often rather talkative, interrupts in

2. ADHD conversations, and blurts responses
DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association
2013) provides the diagnostic criteria for ADHD, which Finds it difficult to wait for one's turn in tasks and
include inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity, and a activities
combination of the two. For a child to be diagnosed
with ADHD, the observed behaviors should meet the Impulsive with words and actions
following criteria:
May struggle in following instructions and rushes
through tasks
  Medical examinations are needed to rule out
the presence of sensory impairment or middle
B. Identification ear infections that can cause hearing
problems. Other medical conditions such as
Identifying students with LD and ADHD begins with seizure disorders, brain tumors, and thyroid
the parents and teachers. The presence of difficulties problems that may be the underlying cause of
in mental functions provided in Table 6.8 and the the inattentive and/or hyperactive behaviors
behaviors enumerated in Table 6.9, as well as meeting also need to be ruled out (Barkley & Edwards
the provided criteria for persistence and consistency in 2006 cited in Hallahan et al. 2014).
more than one setting, may create the impetus for
parents to consult specialists and for teachers to apply  Clinical interview with the parent's provides
pre- referral strategies before referring the student for the specialists with a holistic perspective of the
special education testing. child and essential information about the
1. LD student's physical and psychological
In identifying students with LD, a discrepancy characteristics, family and cultural background,
between academic achievement and intelligence and peer relationships. An ecological approach
needs to be established using tests that measure in assessment is necessary to rule out other
intelligence and standardized achievement tests. contributing factors, like drastic changes in
Children with LD oftentimes display average to above family dynamics such as separation of parents,
average intelligence but perform below their grade unexpected deaths, and others that may be
placement in achievement tests of reading, spelling, causing the observed behaviors of inattention
math, and written expression. The problem, however, and/or hyperactivity.
in identifying children with LD is establishing the
discrepancy as there is no clear description or level of  Teacher and parent rating scales are used
discrepancy to occur for a student to be diagnosed to as additional tools to provide evidence of the
have LD (Gargiulo 2012). student's inattention, hyperactivity, and/or
combination of the two. Standardized rating
In addition to the use of clinical testing, teachers scales, such as the Conners Rating Scales
can provide essential information about a student's (Conners 2007 cited in Hallahan et al. 2014),
patterns of abilities and difficulties. Conducting student are used by clinical psychologists and special
observations, interviews, and error analysis of education diagnosticians to identify the
schoolwork will provide the supplementary information presence of ADHD in a student. The rating
needed to determine ways to help a child who may be scale measures the following behaviors:
at-risk and/or have signs of a learning disability. A hyperactivity, aggressive behavior, violent
clinical/educational psychologist and/or a special tendencies, compulsive behaviors,
education diagnostician use all available data from perfectionism, difficulty in class, extra trouble
norm-referenced tests, teachers' observations, with math, difficulty with language, social
analysis of achievement tests, and parent interview to issues, emotional distress, and separation
determine if the learning difficulties may be attributed anxiety (Johnson 2018). The teachers' and
to the presence of a learning disability. parents' responses to the rating scales are
based on their daily observations of the
On the other hand, identifying children with student for the past six months in their
specific learning disabilities, do not adhere to the respective settings (home, school, or
achievement-potential discrepancy. In its place, what is workplace).
measured is the discrepancy between the current level
of skills (i.e., reading, spelling, math, written C. Learning Characteristics
expression) and the expected grade level performance
in achievement tests in reading, spelling, oral reading Oftentimes, learning characteristics refer to the
fluency, and math. This discrepancy needs to be difficulties and challenges experienced by students
established to ascertain that the underlying difficulties with LD and ADHD. While these are also essential to
emanate from the disability and not due to other determine possible accommodations and interventions,
contributory factors. To create a holistic picture of the it is equally important to present their strengths and
learner, observations, and interviews with parents and abilities alongside their challenges as these can be
teachers are essential. used to help create a positive niche for students
(Armstrong 2012).

2. ADHD Students with LD are known to have

challenges in language, literacy, and memory (Kirk et
There are four components that are needed in al. 2015) as well as in math, writing, and
identifying students with ADHD: (1) medical focusing/attending skills. Nonetheless, it is important to
examination, (2) clinic interviews, (3) use of teacher note that these are merely general characteristics as
and parent rating scales, and (4) behavioral there are individual differences in terms of abilities and
observations (Hallahan et al. 2014). Each one is difficulties among children with LD and ADHD.
discussed as follows.
In language development, they often display
delays in learning how to speak, have difficulties in
naming objects and retrieving words from memory, and
very good." give good."
have limited vocabulary in comparison to typically
developing peers. Students with LD oftentimes
Words Student's Spelling
struggle with having to organize their thoughts that
they are unable to use precise words to express their will wel
ideas. On the other hand, there are students with LD arm urm
who are better at oral expression in relation to their dress bres
reading and writing skills. Such students are better at train tran
expressing themselves, at times rather fluently. but are shout  saot
unable to transfer their thoughts to writing. watch wuch
grown gom
In terms of reading skills, students with
dyslexia display delays and difficulties in phonological
processing, word reading/decoding, spelling, and oral In terms of written language, students with
reading. fluency. Fundamental to reading is LD have tendencies to reverse letters or words, have
phonological awareness, or the knowledge. that all poor spelling skills and display difficulties in the quality,
words can be segmented into phonemes (sounds) and organization, sentence fluency, and application of
that the letters in a written word correspond to these writing conventions, including handwriting, spelling,
sounds. Individuals with dyslexia have poor and grammar, as well as motivation to write (Graham
phonological awareness that subsequently impedes 2017).
word reading ability, fluency, and accuracy. This basic
weakness, then, blocks access to higher-order As for math skills, the difficulties manifest in
language processes and to gaining meaning from text. relation to students' age and grade (Shalev 2004). For
Thus, problems with comprehension may be attributed instance, students in the first-grade level have
to inaccurate decoding and lack of oral reading problems in the retrieval of basic math facts and in
fluency, but they can use higher-level skills of computing exercises, while older children display
vocabulary, reasoning, problem-solving, concept severe difficulties in learning the multiplication table
formation, and general intelligence (Shaywitz 2003). and understanding algorithms of the four basic
operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
To a certain extent, their reading skills may be division). Moreover, they are known to have
compared with younger children who are at the incomplete or inadequate procedural knowledge of
beginning reading level. Oral reading fluency tends to algorithms, which are reflected in the way they misuse
be slow and laborious, others reading in a word-by- or substitute arithmetic sign, forgetting to regroup,
word fashion, at times substituting words, and lacking misplacing digits, not following the proper alignment of
in proper intonation/expression due to poor decoding digits when solving, or solving from left to right. As a
skills. and sight word vocabulary. Table 6.11 shows a result, students with LD struggle with more complex
sample oral reading of a nine- year old student with math equations and problems as they lack the
dyslexia. It is expected that the student will not be able foundational arithmetic skills.
to understand the passage well because of all the
substitution errors unless he/she uses his/her prior Moreover, students with LD also display
knowledge and experience revolving around the story. problems with short-term and working memory (ie.,
mental resources used to retain information while
Table 6.10. Sample oral reading and spelling of a simultaneously engaged in another activity), deficits in
student with dyslexia metacognition, display attention problems, and
hyperactivity. As a result, they often have trouble
Original Text Student's Oral Reading focusing on tasks, exhibit excess movement,
restlessness, and fidgety behaviors that are
characteristic of students with ADHD (see Table 6.9).
A man got out of the car. In a man got out of the
Because of difficulties in executive functioning,
car.
students with LD and ADHD are known to be forgetful
of daily activities and routines, can be disorganized
He had a pretty box He had a pet pate on his
with their personal belongings and even schedules,
under his arm. arm
and have problems monitoring comprehension.
Parents complain about having to buy a new set of
A little girl ran from the A let girl run form... farm
pens and pencils every week because their children
house to meet the man. the house to meet him
tend to lose them easily. Adults tend to be frustrated
because such learners seem to be forgetful and/or
"Hello, Father" she said. "Hello, Father," she said.
absent-minded and they need to be constantly
reminded of chores and other daily routines, which
"Do you have a surprise Father said, "I have
typically developing learners would have already
for me?" Father said. "I some "Do you have a
remembered easily. Moreover, due to their impulsivity,
have something for a sharp for me?" thing for
students with ADHD exhibit academic
good girl." you got girl."
underachievement as well as disruptive behavior that
impact on family and peer relationships (DuPaul and
The girl laughed, "I am The girl let her. "I have
Stoner 2003 cited in DuPaul et al. 2012).
 Anchoring on neurodiversity, children with LD  Use reading materials
and ADHD also have their strengths and abilities that include rich visual
amidst such difficulties and limitations. Students with representation in the
LD are known to have strong artistic abilities and form of photos,
visual-spatial skills. As a result, they oftentimes display graphic organizers,
unusual skills in drawing, doing mechanical puzzles, diagrams, etc.
as well as in building models. Moreover, they are
Multiple In addition to traditional
known to be creative, divergent thinkers, imaginative,
means of measures of assessment,
and highly curious. For instance, a famous person with
expression provide variety of ways to
dyslexia is Charles Schwab, founder of Charles
demonstrate understanding of
Schwab Corporation, who attributes his success to his
concepts/ lessons:
dyslexia. He only learned he had dyslexia when he
was 40 years old after his son was diagnosed with the
same condition. Despite being excellent in economics  debates
and business, he narrated that he would sound out  build models
words to understand them when he was younger and  experimentation
that he would still struggle in understanding books  digital audio
about topics unfamiliar to him. But because of his presentations
dyslexia, he was able to think of out-of-the-box  writing activities
solutions.  portfolio assessment
 photographs/pictures
In relation to this, Shaywitz (2003) presented a  blogs
"Sea of Strengths Model of Dyslexia," where  draw pictures/use
weakness in decoding is compensated through other graphic organizers to
strengths such as reasoning, concept formation, illustrate concepts or
comprehension, general knowledge, problem-solving, content
vocabulary, critical thinking, and reasoning abilities.
This is the reason why students with dyslexia are Multiple Provide varied activities to
oftentimes active in class recitations and projects but means of support student engagement
struggle with literacy tasks that involve reading and engagement through:
writing stemming from their phonological deficits.
 hands-on, kinesthetic
D. General Educational Adaptations activities
 plays/drama/dance
The use of Universal Design for Learning (UDL)  simulation games
principles, such as providing multiple means of  role playing
representation, expression, and engagement are  discussion and
effective for all types of learners and provide a level debates
playing field for students with LD, SLD, and ADHD
 give opportunity for
(see Table 6.11) Through a variety of approaches,
student choice (e.g.,
students with difficulty remembering and focusing are
range of reading
given opportunities to compensate for their
materials, activities) 
weaknesses and use their strengths to learn as much
 use inquiry-based
as their typically developing peers.
learning and project-
based approach
Table 6.11. Application of UDL in an inclusive
classroom.
In addition to UDL, an approach that has been
UDL Principle Examples
proven to be effective for students with memory and
Multiple focusing difficulties is the use of explicit instruction
 Audio books alongside
means of of literacy skills, comprehension, and writing
real books
representation strategies. Such approach uses a step-by-step
 Multimedia
instruction that includes modeling, providing guided
presentations and
practice, as well as independent practice, while giving
videos to supplement
immediate corrective feedback so students will
textbooks
understand what and how to improve. Part of this
 Math-manipulative approach is the use of think-aloud to model concrete
materials and steps in problem-solving, such as how to attack an
illustrations to unfamiliar word, how to begin a writing task through
reinforce lessons brainstorming, and how to begin answering a math
 Hands-on word problem.
experiences, use of
multisensorial For instance, students with dyslexia and
activities in addition to struggling readers benefit from the direct/explicit
teacher-talk approach in phonological processing, phonics
instructions, (and spelling rules. Because of their his/her behavior, and (3) providing home-school
reading and spelling difficulties, learning through mere communication.
visual approach will not be effective. They may And finally, the provision of different types of
remember the words now, as they are processed in accommodations in terms of presentation, response,
their short-term memory, but forget them by tomorrow, setting, and scheduling is beneficial for students with
because the words were not stored in their long-term difficulty remembering and focusing (see Table 6.12).
memory, along with other accompanying difficulties.
Gough (1993 in Magpuri-Lavell et al. 2014)
demonstrated that explicit instruction in phonemic
awareness and phonics was essential to develop a
firm understanding of the alphabetic principles.
Another meta-analysis conducted by Galuschka et al
(2014) found that phonics instruction is the most
intensively investigated treatment approach and the
only one that has been found to be effective and
statistically confirmed in improving the reading and
spelling performance of children and adolescents with
reading disabilities.

Moreover, planning the classroom

environment and how routines are implemented is
equally important in an inclusive classroom. Because
students with LD and ADHD show a tendency to be
restless, become hyperactive, and have short attention
spans, providing a classroom that is highly structured
and with clear expectations is essential. Class rules
and norms, agreements, routines as well as schedules
need to be written and accompanied by clear and
simple images. These need to be explained, displayed,
and implemented consistently to make the classroom
environment structured and safe for all children. Table 6.12. Types of accommodations to provide
support for students with difficulty remembering and
One intervention that has been reported to be focusing
effective in helping students with ADHD is the use of
the Daily Report Card (DRC), which is an
individualized intervention to manage target behaviors Type of Accommodations/
of a child (Moore et al.2016). It begins with an Accommodatio Supports
assessment through observation and teacher/ parent n
interviews to determine specific behaviors that need to
be managed and/or developed in a student (see Figure Presentation Provide the following:
6.2). Once identified, the target behaviors are framed
positively, and teachers monitor the student's progress Audio files to supplement a
on the DRC throughout the day by recording whether slide presentation
the targets have been met. A system of reinforcements
and consequences is developed with the child. Bigger font sizes in reading
Reinforcements can be in the form of tangible rewards materials and worksheets 
such as stickers, stamps, puzzles, etc. but they can
also be opportunities to do certain activities in school, Leveled books that match
such as having extra time in the classroom or library, student's reading level
having an extra book to borrow, being the leader for
the day, being the teacher's lunch buddy, and other Audio books and/or have a
activities. Parents are also included in the planning and peer read aloud the selection
implementation to promote home-school
communication and collaboration. In this manner, Digital text that provides
generalization of behaviors is targeted to the home word meanings
setting or vice-versa.
A meta-analysis of DRC literature from 2007- Advance organizers to serve
2017 yielded results that ranged from weak to strong as guide during lectures
impact on the academic and social behavior of
elementary students who were noted to have Preview of vocabulary or key
disruptive behaviors as well as the ones diagnosed points to provide the big
with disabilities (Riden et al. 2018). The study found picture
important components that the DRC should have to
make it effective: (1) clear and operationalized target Active involvement in class
behaviors, (2) provide feedback to the student about
Use graphic organizers and
 mind mapping techniques for tensions
note-taking during class
Allow students to doodle
Explain and write directions while listening to lecture
step-by-step while making (Andrade 2010 in Armstrong
sure student is attentive and 2012)
listening

Response Allow students to use the

following: 
Use text-to-speech software
VII. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY WITH SELF-
to facilitate writing CARE

Use word processor with This section presents another set of

spelling and grammar check learners with specific difficulties in self-care, or
caring for oneself.
Waive incorrect spelling in
specific subjects (do not A. Definition
mark misspellings as
incorrect provided content is
accurate) Self-care often refers to a person's capacity to
perform daily living activities or specific to body
Graphic organizers as a pre- care such as the following skills: washing oneself,
writing task brushing teeth, combing, trimming nails, toileting,
dressing, eating, drinking, and looking after one's
Math supports: health. Self-care skills are gradually learned by
 calculation devices very young typically developing children through
(calculator) adult modeling and direct instruction within
 concrete material
developmental expectations. On the other hand,
and manipulatives
 chart of math facts children with additional needs may struggle with
and formula the basic activities of daily living. Oftentimes, such
 special paper with students are those with moderate to severe
grids for cognitive deficits, including individuals with
computation Intellectual Disability or Intellectual
Developmental Disorder (ID or IDD).
Setting Preferential seating (away
from sources of distraction)
Intellectual disability is a developmental
Play appropriate background disorder that includes deficits in intellectual and
music through individual adaptive functioning across domains of
earphones while studying  conceptual, social, and practical that occur during
the developmental period. To be diagnosed with
Allow students to move or ID/IDD, a student must have deficits in both the
run around a few times cognitive and adaptive domains (Kirk 2015).
before class or in between Children with Down's syndrome with moderate to
classes severe disability may also have problems with
self-care.
Scheduling Provide extended time 

Break tasks into sections B. Identification

Time limits for assignment Young children suspected to have cognitive

and countdown deficits which manifest as difficulties with self-care
can be identified at a very young age. The
Allow for quick brain breaks traditional approach to measuring levels of
to move around and stretch severity of ID was determined through the use of
in between activities
intellectual tests:
Behavior Teach self-talk skills
management Mild level IQ 50-70
Teach physical relaxation Moderate IQ 35-50
techniques such as mindful Severe IQ 20-35
breathing Profound IQ below 20
Use squeeze balls to release
However, based on the definition provided by the needs, make them aware of these strengths, and
American Psychiatric Association (2013), using use them to their advantage.
measures of intelligence is only one aspect as
adaptive functioning also needs to be assessed to D. General Educational Adaptations
identify if a child has an intellectual disability. In
place of IQ levels, the support needed by a Specific approaches have been found to be
person with ID is used to determine the level or
degree of severity of the disability. The presence effective in teaching students with difficulty with
of ID or IDD is measured by direct observation,
structured interviews, and standardized scales self-care, namely the use of direct/explicit
such as the AAMR Adaptive Behavior Scale
(Lambert et al.1993 in Heward 2013) and instruction, task analysis, forward and backward
Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (Sparrow et
al. 2016). Some of the domains measured by the chaining, as well as the use of video modeling.
AAMR Adaptive Behavior Scale include personal
self-sufficiency, community self- sufficiency, and
social adjustment. On the other hand, the It is essential that the instructions given are
Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales cover simple and straight forward and that hands-on,
communication, daily living skills, socialization, experiential activities are used.
and motor skills.

C. Learning Characteristics Task analysis is a behavioral approach that

breaks down a complex behavior or task into
step-by-step procedures, thereby providing
Students who have difficulty with self-care
modeling and ample practice for the student with
oftentimes reach developmental milestones at a
difficulties. Gargiulo (2012) provided working
later age compared to typically developing peers.
guidelines on how to do task analysis.
They learn to sit up, crawl, walk, and talk later
than other children and may have trouble
remembering and understanding consequences  Define the target behavior or task.
of actions. Due to cognitive difficulties, children
with ID may also have deficits in the areas of  Identify the required skills needed to
reasoning, planning, judgment, and abstract successfully complete the task.
thinking.
 Identify the necessary materials to perform
On the other hand, depending on the level of the task.
support needed, a student with ID learns adaptive
skills at a slower pace, resulting in delay,  Observe an able and competent person
compared to same aged typically developing perform the task.
students. They benefit from modeling and can
imitate well. Moreover, adults with mild intellectual
 List the needed steps in sequential order
disability eventually learn to be functional and
to complete the task.
independent in society.
In an inclusive classroom, self-care skills such as
Youths with intellectual disabilities are known to
washing hands and brushing teeth can be tasks
be friendly, sociable, and are reported to have
analyzed into the simplest steps and presented in
positive coping skills. A study conducted by
a poster accompanied by pictures (see Figure
Carter et al. (2015) investigated the strengths and
6.3). Using direct instructions, the teacher models
positive traits of transition- age youth with
how each step is done then allows the student to
intellectual disability and/or autism, as reported by
try the steps with guidance and prompts until
their parents. Using quantitative and qualitative
he/she is able to do the task independently.
measures, the study yielded the following positive
Hence, direct instruction and support from the
traits of the youths: (1) they have a positive
environment in the form of prompts and as well as
outlook in life, (2) shows positive relations with
routines that are simplified are essential for
others, (3) have active coping skills, and (4) have
students to eventually become independent in
acceptance coping skills. In this study, they found
using self-care skills (Heward, 2013).
that the youths were rated highest in items
pertaining to the positive outlook factor.

These results suggest the importance of having to

find the strengths in children with additional
 The use of video-based intervention including
video modeling and video prompting for teaching
daily living skills, such as brushing teeth, setting a
table, washing dishes, etc. has been found
effective for learners with intellectual and learning
difficulties (Rayner 2011, Bellini & Akullian 20017
cited in Heward 2013). With video modeling, a
student watches a brief video of an able person
performing a target skill or task and then imitates
the behavior. In video self-modeling, the student
watches a video of himself/herself performing a
task. In video prompting, each step is shown in
a video, which the student imitates before the
next step is shown. This is helpful as the student
can access the video anytime, replay it as often
as needed to develop independence.

In summary, this chapter has presented important

definitions, identification and assessment,
learning characteristics, and general educational
adaptations for learners with additional needs
namely: (1) the gifted and talented students with
difficulties in (2) seeing, (3) hearing, (4)
Forward and backward chaining is used
communicating, (5) walking and moving, (6)
alongside task analysis. In forward chaining, the
remembering and focusing, and (7) self-care. You
program begins with the first step in the
have learned the different disability labels that are
sequence, such as getting the toothbrush and
associated with the difficulties, their challenges in
toothpaste, then providing the needed hand-over-
learning, their strengths, and educational
hand assistance, and then gradually fading verbal
adaptations in the form of accommodation. While
and then gestural prompts. The goal is to allow
awareness and understanding of their disability
the student to master the first step first and then
and needs are essential, as educators supportive
followed by the next step in the sequence until the
of inclusive education, it is of utmost importance
entire task has been performed. On the other
that we see learners with additional needs
hand, in backward chaining, the teacher models
beyond their difficulties, to enable them to explore
all the steps from the beginning and then allows
and use their range of strengths and abilities as
the child to do the last step of the behavior chain
well as provide opportunities for them to succeed
with assistance and prompts.
and flourish in their own positive niches.