MEDIEVAL

Medieval art in Europe grew out of the artistic heritage of the Roman Empire and the iconographic
traditions of the early Christian church. These sources were mixed with the vigorous "barbarian"
artistic culture of Northern Europe to produce a remarkable artistic legacy. Indeed, the history of
medieval art can be seen as the history of the interplay between the elements of classical, early
Christian and "barbarian" art. Apart from the formal aspects of classicism, there was a continuous
tradition of realistic depiction of objects that survived in Byzantine art throughout the period, while
in the West it appears intermittently, combining and sometimes competing with new expressionist
possibilities developed in Western Europe and the Northern legacy of energetic decorative
elements. The period ended with the self-perceived Renaissance recovery of the skills and values
of classical art, and the artistic legacy of the Middle Ages was then disparaged for some centuries.
Since a revival of interest and understanding in the 19th century it has been seen as a period of
enormous achievement that underlies the development of later Western art.

At the start of the medieval period most significant works of art were very rare and costly objects
associated with secular elites, monasteries or major churches, and if religious, largely produced by
monks. By the end of the Middle Ages works of considerable artistic interest could be found in
small villages and significant numbers of bourgeois homes in towns, and their production was in
many places an important local industry, with artists from the clergy now the exception.

Hagia Sophia ''Holy Wisdom''; is the former Greek

Orthodox Christian patriarchal cathedral, later an
Ottoman imperial mosque and now a museum in
Istanbul, Turkey. Built in AD 537 during the reign of
Justinian it is famous for its large dome, and was the
world's largest building and an engineering marvel
of its time. It is considered the epitome of Byzantine
architecture and is said to have "changed the history
of architecture".

Byzantine art is the art of the Greek-speaking Byzantine Empire

formed after the division of the Roman Empire between Eastern
and Western halves, and sometimes of parts of Italy under
Byzantine rule. It emerges from Late Antiquity in about 500 CE
and soon formed a tradition distinct from that of Catholic Europe
but with great influence over it.

One of the most famous of the surviving Byzantine mosaics of

the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople is the image of Christ Pan-
tocrator on the walls of the upper southern gallery, Christ being
flanked by the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist; circa 126.

Byzantine art and architecture is divided into four periods by

convention: the Early period, commencing with the Edict of
Milan (when Christian worship was legitimized) and the transfer
of the imperial seat to Constantinople, extends to AD 842, with
the ending of Iconoclasm. The Middle, or high period, begins
with the restoration of the icons in 843, culminating in the Fall of
Constantinople to the Crusaders in 1204.
The Late period includes the eclectic osmosis between Western European and traditional
Byzantine elements in art and architecture, and ends with the Fall of Constantinople to the
Ottoman Turks in 1453. The term post-Byzantine is then used for later years, whereas "Neo-
Byzantine" is used for art and architecture from the 19th century onwards, when the dissolution of
the Ottoman Empire prompted a renewed appreciation of Byzantium by artists and historians alike.
Byzantine art was extremely conservative, for religious and
cultural reasons, but retained a continuous tradition of Greek
realism, which contended with a strong anti-realist and hieratic
impulse.

King David plays the harp on this 10th century Paris Psalter. A work
from the Macedonian period (from the accession of Emperor Basil
I until the fall of the Macedonian dynasty in 1056) when there was
a revival of interest in classical Greco-Roman styles and subjects,
and more sophisticated techniques were used to depict human
figures. There was also a naturalistic style and more complex
techniques from ancient Greek and Roman art mixed with
Christian themes used in art.

This, the oldest Byzantine icon of Mary, is painted in encaustic: a

technique of decoration by burning in colours as an inlay, especially
using coloured clays or pigments mixed with hot wax. It is housed at the
Saint Catherine's Monastery (officially the "Sacred Monastery of the
God-Trodden Mount Sinai") an Eastern Orthodox monastery located at
the foot of mount Sinai, Egypt.

The complex houses irreplaceable works of art including mosaics, and

the best collection of early icons in the world, many in encaustic (wax).
The large icon collection begins with a few dating to the 5th and 6th
centuries, which are unique survivals; the monastery having been
untouched by Byzantine iconoclasm, and never sacked. The oldest icon
on an Old Testament theme is also preserved there.

Significant changes in Byzantine art coincided with the reign of Justinian I(527–565), who devoted
much of his reign to reconquering Italy, North Africa and Spain. He also laid the foundations of the
imperial absolutism of the Byzantine state, codifying its laws and imposing his religious views on all
his subjects by law.
A significant component of Justinian's project of imperial renovation was a massive building
programme. He renovated, rebuilt, or founded anew countless churches within Constantinople,
including Hagia Sophia, which had been destroyed during the Nika riots (when almost half of
Constantinople was destroyed in one week in 532). Justinian also built a number of churches and
fortifications outside of the imperial capital, including Saint Catherine's Monastery on Mount Sinai
and the Basilica of Saint Sofia in Sofia.
The famous Justinian and Theodora mosaic panels
in the Basilica San Vitale, Ravena, were completed in
547, although neither ever visited the church. On the
right is a mosaic depicting the East Roman Emperor
Justinian I, clad in Tyrian purple with a golden halo,
standing next to court officials, Bishop Maximian,
palatine guards and deacons. The halo around his
head, part of the tradition of rendering the imperial
family with haloes, gives him the same aspect as
Christ in the dome of the apse. Justinian himself
stands in the middle, with soldiers on his right and
clergy on his left, emphasizing that Justinian is the
leader of both church and state of his empire. The later insertion of the Bishop Maximian's name
above his head suggests that the mosaic may have been modified in 547, replacing the
representation of the prior bishop with that of the Maximian.
The gold background of the mosaic shows that Justinian and his entourage are inside the church.
The figures are placed in a V shape; Justinian is placed in the front and in the middle to show his
importance, with Bishop Maximian on his left and lesser individuals being placed behind them. This
placement can be seen through the overlapping feet of the individuals present in the mosaic.
Another panel shows Empress Theodora, solemn
and formal with golden halo, crown and jewels, and
a group of court women as well as eunuchs. The
Empress holds the Eucharistic vessel for wine, and
her panel differs from that of Justinian in having a
more complex background, with a fountain, cupola,
and lavish hangings. All the mosaics in this highly
decorated church are executed in the Hellenistic-
Roman tradition: lively and imaginative, with rich
colours and a certain perspective, and many with a
vivid depiction of the landscape, plants and birds.
These frescoes of the Lamentation of the body of
Christ, from 1146, are found in a church in the tiny
Macedonian village of Nerezi near Skopje, Albania. The
depiction of the muscles on the body of Christ and the
folds of the garments are schematized into decorative
patterns, but there is an expression of pathos in the
faces which is moving and real; their unique blend of
high tragedy, gentle humanity, and homespun realism,
anticipating the approach of Cimabue, Giotto and other
pre-Renaissance Italian artists.

The Paleologos family rose to nobility during the 11 th century and

ultimately produced the last ruling dynasty of the Byzantine Empire.
The icons, which became a favoured medium for artistic expression
during this time, were characterized by a less austere attitude, new
appreciation for purely decorative qualities of painting and meticulous
attention to details, earning the popular name of the Paleologan
Mannerism for the period in general.

The Annunciation (11/12th c.) from the Church of Saint Climent in the
Macedonian city of Ohrid, is one of the most admired icons of the so
called Paleologan mannerism, and bears comparison with the finest
contemporary works by Italian artists

Pre-Romanesque art is from the period from the 5th until the
11th century. The earliest mosaics in the Basilica of Saint Mary
Major, Rome date from the founding of the building in the 5th
century. They include some of the oldest representations of the
Virgin Mary in Christian Late Antiquity.

The iconographic depiction of the Virgin Mary in many of the

mosaics was chosen at least in part to celebrate the affirmation
of Mary as Theotokos, the bearer of God. This panel depicts the
presentation of the infant Christ to the temple, and demon-
strates a primitive form of perspective. In the central altar the
perspective is reversed, much as in Cubist art of the twentieth
century.
The Latin basilica has three distinct applications in modern English. Originally, the word was used
to refer to an an ancient Roman public building, where courts were held, as well as serving other
official and public functions. It usually had the door at one end and a slightly raised platform and an
apse at the other, where the magistrate or other officials were seated.
Secondly, as the Roman Empire adopted Christianity, the major church buildings were typically
constructed with this basic architectural plan and thus it became popular throughout Europe. It
continues to be used in an architectural sense to describe rectangular buildings with a central nave
and aisles, and usually a raised platform at the opposite end from the door.

Thirdly, the term refers to an official designation of a certain kind of church in the Roman Catholic
Church: a large and important place of worship that has been given special ceremonial rights by
the Pope.

Romanesque art developed in the period between about 1000 to the rise of Gothic art in the 12th
century, in conjunction with the rise of monasticism in Western Europe. The style developed initially
in France, but spread to Christian Spain, England, Flanders, Germany, Italy, and elsewhere to
become the first medieval style found all over Europe, though with regional differences.

Romanesque architecture is an architectural style of

medieval Europe characterized by semi-circular arches. There
is no consensus for the beginning date of the Romanesque
style, with proposals ranging from the 6th to the 11th century,
this later date being the most commonly held. In the 12th
century it developed into the Gothic style, marked by pointed
arches. Examples of Romanesque architecture can be found
across the continent, making it the first pan-European
architectural style since Imperial Roman architecture. The
Romanesque style in England is traditionally referred to as
Norman architecture.

Vézelay Abbey is a Benedictine and Cluniac mon-

astery in the east-central French department of Yonne.
The Benedictine abbey church, now the Basilica of
Sainte-Marie-Madeleine, with its complex programme
of imagery in sculpted capitals and portals, is one of
the outstanding masterpieces of Burgundian
Romanesque art and architecture. These two views
illustrate the characteristic features of the
Romanesque style with its massive quality, thick walls,
round arches, sturdy pillars, barrel vaults, large towers
and decorative arcading.

The Grade I listed church of St. Mary and St. Nicholas

in Wilton, Wiltshire was built as a replacement for the
parish church between 1841 and 1844. Designed by the
architect Thomas Henry Wyatt in the Romanesque style,
with considerable Byzantine influences, for a small town,
it is enormous, representing the wealth of its
benefactors.
Combining features of ancient Roman and Byzantine
buildings and other local traditions, Romanesque
architecture has clearly defined forms, frequently of very
regular, symmetrical plan; the overall appearance is one of simplicity when compared with the
Gothic buildings that were to follow. The style can be identified right across Europe, despite
regional characteristics and different materials.
Sant Climent de Taüll is a Roman Catholic church in
Catalonia, Spain. It is a form of Romanesque archi-
tecture containing magnificent examples of Roman-
esque art. Other influences include the Lombard and
Byzantine styles, which can be seen throughout the
exterior and interior of the building. The church is on a
basilica plan structure with three naves, each of them
with a terminal apse, and large columns separating the
side naves. Connecting to the church is a slim bell
tower that has six floors plus a base. The artworks
inside the church include the famous mural paintings
by the Master of Taüll. It is the largest, most well
preserved, and has the most outstanding architecture
out of all the churches in the Valley of Boí.

The Apse of Sant Climent de Taüll is decorated with a Panto-

crator, an early 12th century Romanesque fresco (removed to the
National Art Museum of Catalonia, Barcelona, and replaced with a
reproduction) which is one of the masterpieces of the European
Romanesque, and from which the unknown Master of Taül takes
his name. Its genius lies in the way it combines elements from
different Biblical visions (Revelation, Isiah and Ezekiel) to present
the Christ of the Day of Judgement. Christ appears from the
background, surrounded by a mandorla, causing a movement
outwards from the centre of the composition, which is presided by
the ornamental sense of the outlines and the skilful use of colour
to create volume.

The round surface beneath Christ’s feet re- A mandorla is an almond shaped
aureola, i.e. a frame that surrounds
presents the earth and the halo on his head re- the totality of an iconographic figure.
presents divinity. Christ’s right hand symbolizes It is usually synonymous with vesica,
blessing, and in his left hand he holds a book a lens shape. Mandorlas often
with the words EGO SUM LUX MUNDI (“I am surround the figures of Jesus Christ
the light of the world”). The symbols of Alpha and the Virgin Mary in traditional
Christian iconography. It is disting-
and Omega hanging like lamps on either side of uished from a halo in that it en-
Christ, symbolize the beginning and end. The circles the entire body and not
fourfold images represent four evangelists. To just the head. Seal from Stone
Priory, Staffordshire
the right, an angel is seen beside the lion 13th/14th C
holding one of its hind legs, which is a symbol of
It is commonly used to frame the figure of Christ in
St. Mark. To the left, an angel holding the tail of Majesty in early medieval, Romanesque and Byzantine
the bull is a symbol of St. Luke. The other two art. It is the shape generally used for mediaeval ecc-
evangelists fit into the triangular space on either lesiastical seals, secular seals generally being round.
side of the mandorla. An angel holding the
In icons of the Eastern Orthodox Church, the mandorla
Gospel Book represents St. Matthew, and the is used to depict sacred moments that transcend time
other angel is St. John holding an eagle in his and space, such as the Resurrection and the Trans-
arms. Ranged below the mural painting of Christ figuration of Jesus Christ.
in the mandorla is St Thomas, St Bartholomew,
In the symbolism of Saint Hildegard of Bingen the
Mother of God, St. John the Evangelist, St.
mandorla symbolizes the Cosmos.
James and San Felipe. The Mother of God holds
a bowl where red rays emerge from it, which Mandorlas may also be found in the intersecting
symbolize the blood of Christ. circles traceable in the ground plans of churches;
and is said to be a symbolic representation of the
vagina: the portal by which mankind enters the
world.
The exceptional nature of this work and its
pictorial strength have influenced modern artists
such as Picasso and Francis Picabia.
Most Romanesque sculpture is pictorial and
biblical in subject. A great variety of themes
are found on capitals and include scenes of
the Fall of Man of Creation, Nativities and
episodes from the life of Christ; and Old
Testament scenes which prefigure his death
and resurrection, such as Jonah and the
Whale and Daniel in the lions den. The
cloisters of Santo Domingo de Silos Abbey in
Northern Spain, and Moissac, south-western
France, are fine examples surviving complete
as in this sculpture of the prophet Jeremiah
– a rare well preserved statue from the portal
of Moissac abbey, which has some of the
most outstanding Romanesque sculptures in
France.

This 12th century capital of Christ washing the feet of his

Apostles, from the cloisters of Notre Dame en Vaux,
Northern France, has strong narrative qualities in the
interaction of the figures as they circle around the double
capital. Echoes of Classical sculpture may be seen in the
folds of the Roman robes and the curls of the hair and
beard of the leading Apostle as he places his foot on a
stool to be washed by Jesus. The Christ figure is distin-
guished by the cruciform decoration on his halo.

The Allegory of Good and Bad

Government is a series of three
fresco panels painted by Ambrogio
Lorenzetti between February 1338
and May 1339. The paintings are
located in Siena's council hall where
elected officials performed executive
functions. The paintings have been
construed as being "designed to
remind the Nine [magistrates] of just
how much was at stake as they made
their decisions".
Considered Lorenzetti's "undisputed masterpiece" the series consists of six different scenes: here
we see the Effects of Good Government.

The term Poor Man's Bible has come into use in modern
times to describe works of art within churches and
cathedrals which either individually or collectively have
been created to illustrate the teachings of the Bible for a
largely illiterate population. These artworks may take the
form of carvings, paintings, mosaics or stained-glass
windows. In some churches a single artwork, such as a
stained-glass window window has the role of Poor Man's
Bible while in others, the entire church is decorated with
a complex biblical narrative that unites in a single
scheme, as in this detail of the Apocalypse, early XIII
century, Bourges Cathedral.
The message of sorrow, guilt and fear
For the Poor Man's Bible to fulfil its aim, the viewer needs to know and to
accept the Christian premise that he/she is a sinful being and as such will
be brought to trial on the Day of Judgement, as described by the last book
of the Bible: Revelation of St John or the Book of Revelation in which John
describes many scenes, including the dreadful Apocalypse and a vision of
the Lord seated on a throne borne up by four Heavenly Beasts - a winged
lion, a winged man, a winged bull and an eagle, as also described in the
book of Ezekiel.
This Revelation is often depicted, with or without the Judgement and the
rewards of Heaven and terrors of Hell, above the lintel of the main
entrance door. In countries where stone-carving prevails as an art, it is
externally placed. In countries where murals are more common, the Last
Judgement occupies the internal wall above the main door.
The 13th century Poor Mans Bible Window in Canterbury Cathedral de-
picts Old and New Testament stories and a parable.

The purpose of the sculptural schemes was to convey a message that the Christian believer
should recognize wrongdoing, repent and be redeemed. The Last Judgement reminds the believer
to repent. The carved or painted Crucifix, displayed prominently within the church, reminds the
sinner of redemption. The Tympanum of the central west portal of Amiens Cathedral shows Christ
in Majesty presiding over the Day of Judgement while being supported by an array of saints,
reminding the populace of their destiny and the consequences of their actions as they pass into the
church.

Gothic art was a style of medieval art that developed in Northern

France out of Romanesque art in the 12th century AD. Led by the
concurrent development of Gothic architecture, it spread to all of
Western Europe, and much of Southern and Central Europe, never
quite effacing more classical styles in Italy. In the late 14th century,
the sophisticated court style of International Gothic developed,
which continued to evolve until the late 15th century. In many areas,
especially Germany, Late Gothic art continued well into the 16th
century, before being subsumed into Renaissance art. Primary
media in the Gothic period included sculpture, panel painting,
stained glass fresco and illuminated manuscripts. The easily
recognizable shifts in architecture from Romanesque to Gothic, and
Gothic to Renaissance styles, are typically used to define the periods in art in all media, although in
many ways figurative art developed at a different pace.
By the end of the Middle Ages works of considerable artistic interest could be found in significant
numbers of bourgeois homes in towns, and their production was in many places an important local
industry, with artists from the clergy now the exception, as shown in these scenes of courtly love on
a lady's ivory mirror-case of 1300–1330.
 The earliest Gothic art was monumental
sculpture, on the walls of Cathedrals and
abbeys. Christian art was often typological in
nature showing the stories of the New Test-
ament and the Old Testament side by side. The
lives of the Saints were often depicted. Images
of the Virgin Mary changed from the Byzantine
iconic form to a more human and affectionate
mother, cuddling her infant, swaying from her
hip, and showing the refined manners of a well-
born aristocratic courtly lady.

The development of greater naturalism can be seen on the portal sculptures of Chartres
Cathedral. The Western (Royal) Portal (c.1145) are the earliest Gothic sculptures and were a
revolution in style and the model for a generation of sculptors; while the Martyrs from the South
Portal (c.1220) show that the best High Gothic sculpture had largely rediscovered the art of
naturalistic figure representation.
Gothic architecture is usually considered to begin with the design of
the choir at the Abbey of Saint-Denise, north of Paris, by the Abbot
Suger, consecrated in 1144. The beginning of Gothic sculpture is
usually dated a little later, with the carving of the figures around the
Royal Portal at Chartres Cathedral, France, 1150–1155. The style of
sculpture spread rapidly from Chartres, overtaking the new Gothic
architecture. In fact, many churches of the late Romanesque period
post-date the building at Saint-Denis. The sculptural style based more
upon observation and naturalism than on formalised design developed
rapidly. It is thought that one reason for the rapid development of
naturalistic form was a growing awareness of Classical remains in
places where they were most numerous and a deliberate imitation of
their style. The consequence is that there are doorways which are
Romanesque in form, and yet show a naturalism associated with Early
Gothic sculpture.
The Pórtico da Gloria dating from 1180, at
Santiago de Compostela shows a high
degree of naturalism of the sculpture within a
Romanesque architectural setting. As this
portal is internal it is particularly well
preserved, retaining colour on the figures
and indicating the gaudy appearance of
much architectural decoration which is now
perceived as monochrome. Around the
doorway are figures who are integrated with
the colonnettes that make the mouldings of
the doors. They are three-dimensional, but
slightly flattened. They are highly indiv-
idualised, not only in appearance but also in
expression, and bear quite a strong
resemblance to those around the north porch of the Abbey of St. Denis, dating from 1170. Beneath
the tympanum there is a realistically carved row of figures playing a range of different and easily
identifiable musical instruments.
Salisbury Cathedral, is regarded as one of the leading ex-
amples of Early English architecture. Its main body was
completed in 38 years, from 1220 to 1258. At 404 feet (123m)
its spire, constructed in 1549, is the tallest church spire in the
United Kingdom.
The west front, deriving from that at Wells Cathedral, is of the
screen-type composed of a stair turret at each extremity, with
two niched buttresses nearer the centre line supporting the
large central triple window. The stair turrets are topped with
spire-lets, and the central section is topped by a gable which
contains four lancet windows topped by two round quatrefoil
windows surmounted by a mandorla containing Christ in
Majesty. At ground level there is a principal door flanked by
two smaller doors.
The whole is highly decorated with quatrefoil motifs, columns, trefoil motifs and bands of diapering
– the decorative treatment of a surface with a repeat pattern of squares, rectangles, or lozenges.
The front accommodates over 130 shallow niches of
varying sizes, 73 of which contain a statue. The maj-
ority of the statues were placed during the middle of
the 19th century, however seven are from the 14th
century and several have been installed within the last
decade. The Victorian statuary has been described as
"poor and insipid". Salisbury Cathedral is unusual for
its tall and narrow nave, which has visual accentuation
from the use of light grey Chilmark stone for the walls
and dark polished Purbeck marble for the columns. It
has three levels: a tall pointed arcade, an open gallery
and a small clerestory. Between the pillars are notable
tombs such as that of William Longspée, half brother
of King John and the illegitimate son of Henry II, who
was the first person to be buried in the cathedral.
An unusual feature of the nave is an unconventional modern font, installed in September 2008.
Designed by the water sculptor William Pye it is the largest working font in any British cathedral,
and replaced an earlier portable neo-Gothic Victorian font. The font is cruciform in shape, and has
a 10-foot-wide vessel filled to its brim with water, designed so that the water overflows in filaments
through each corner into bronze gratings embedded in the cathedral's stone floor.
The Gothic period coincided with a greatly increased emphasis on and portrayal of the Virgin Mary,
and it was in this period that the Virgin and Child became such a hallmark of Catholic art. Saints
were also portrayed far more often, and a range of attributes first appeared to identify them visually
for a still largely illiterate public. During this period panel painting for altarpieces, often polyptychs
and smaller works became of growing importance.

Although heavily influenced by Byzantine models, Cimabue 

(c.1240 – 1302) is generally regarded as one of the first great
Italian painters to break from the Byzantine style. While forms and
figures in medieval art appeared relatively flat and highly stylized,
Cimabue's figures with more lifelike proportions and with the
introduction of shading were the first tentative advances in realistic
depictions of the Virgin and Christ.

In this Crucifixion of 1287-8, on a wooden panel 3.9 metres high,

hanging in the choir of the Florence Cathedral, Christ is repre-
sented here for the first time not as a remote, hieratic god-like
figure, but as a human being, slumped on the cross in the death
throws of his agony.
 In this small panel (24.7 cm x 20 cm,) painted c. 1280, depicting
the Flagellation of Christ the greater realism and solidity through
shading is here somewhat perfunctory. It is said that Cimabue
developed these techniques through the example of the younger
artist and possible pupil, Giotto. The conventional use of gold for
the background or sky, is a symbolic representation of Heaven.

The use of valuable materials is a constant throughout medieval

art; typically far more expense was made on manufacturing and
buying them than on paying the artists, even if these were laymen
- not monks performing a religious duty. Gold was used for objects
for churches and palaces, personal jewellery and the fittings of
clothes, and - fixed to the back of glass tesserae - as a solid
background for mosaics, or applied as gold leaf to miniatures in
manuscripts and panel paintings. Many objects using precious metals were made in the knowledge
that their bullion value might be realized at a future point.

The even more expensive pigment, ultramarine, made from ground lapis lazuli obtainable only from
Afghanistan, was used lavishly in the Gothic period, more often for the traditional blue outer mantle
of the Virgin Mary than for skies.

A striking feature of Cimabue's Santa Trinita Maestà (c.1290–1300) is

the wide opening at the base of the throne, depicting in half bust view
framed by arches Abraham and David in the centre below the throne
recalling that Jesus descended from their lineage; with Jeremiah and
Isiah to the sides gazing up towards the child as if to confirm the
prophecies written in their documents on the miraculous virgin birth of
Jesus. The Christian meaning of the work, is appropriate to a church
dedicated to the Holy Trinity, focused on the threefold nature of the Virgin
surrounded by the Holy Spirit.
The conventional flatness of the figures and stylised folds in the drapery
is a hangover from Byzantine art but in the use of shading and the
angling of the heads we see the beginnings of a greater naturalism.

This painting of The Last Supper, disputably attributed

to Cimabue, shows Christ at the top and his disciples
seated around a circular table with Judas opposite, and
with his back to the spectator, set against a gold back-
ground. It is painted from a multiple of viewpoints with
the figures depicted the same size as though
individually on the same eye level as the spectator; the
table as if looked down on from above and the food
bowls as if seen from from slightly above and the base
of each foot drawn with a straight line as in a diagram.
This has the effect of flattening the pictorial space and
giving equal status to each of the elements, much as
artists in the 20th century, following on from Cubism,
would do. The perfunctory trees suggest a further space
beyond the wall, and perhaps a hint of Golgotha.
The Rucellai Madonna (1285) by Duccio (c.1255/60 – c.13/19) meas-
uring 4.5 by 2.9 meters, may be the largest surviving painting from
Italian 13th century art.

The Virgin is shown looking directly out to viewers, as the Christ Child
is seen sitting on her lap, giving a blessing. The Madonna is large in
scale, taking up the majority of the frame. Her robe is finely modelled
and her gold halo incised as if to illuminate her presence. Duccio's use
of gold represents the family's holiness and the unearthly realm they
inhabit. Six angels are seen holding the ornate throne, and are painted
in shades of green, pink, lilac and blue. Their positions in front and
behind the throne suggest they are either lifting it up, or bringing it
down to earth. The frame is decorated with thirty roundels containing
portraits of Apostles, prophets, saints and patriarchs. It is clear from the
attention to detail that Duccio was highly concerned with idealism and
beauty, rendering each figure softly, with delicate features and ador-
ation.

The Rucellai Madonna has spatial complexity, emotion, intimacy and a refined choice of color,
unprecedented in the Italian art of its time. Duccio had refined Byzantine art, characterised by two-
dimensionality and hard contours, with a softening of the forms and greater naturalism in the facial
features. Duccio's humanization of the holy family, not apparent in Byzantine art, heralds a new
way of representing the Christian story and has come to be regarded as one of the earliest works
of the Renaissance. Although the Virgin and Child maintain their formal qualities, the level of
intimacy and inclusion of the viewer into the painting is innovative.

The Maestà, Duccio's most famous work is an

altarpiece composed of many individual paintings
commissioned by the city of Siena in 1308 -
completed by 1311. The front panels make up a large
enthroned Madonna and Child with saints and angels,
and a predella showing the Childhood of Christ with
prophets. Though it took a generation for its effect
truly to be felt, Duccio's Maestà set Italian painting on
a course leading away from the hieratic repres-
entations of Byzantine art towards more direct pres-
entations of reality.

The painting is of a traditional Christian subject, rep-

resenting the Virgin Mary and the Christ Child seated
on her lap, with saints and angels surrounding them
on all sides. This popular representation of the Virgin
is called a Maestá.
The painting was installed in the cathedral of Sienna on 9 June 1312 after a procession of the work
in a loop around the city. One person who witnessed this event wrote:
And on that day when it was brought into the cathedral, all workshops remained closed, and the
bishop commanded a great host of devoted priests and monks to file past in solemn procession.
This was accompanied by all the high officers of the Commune and by all the people; all
honourable citizens of Siena surrounded said panel with candles held in their hands, and
women and children followed humbly behind. They accompanied the panel amidst the glorious
pealing of bells after a solemn procession on the Piazza del Campo into the very cathedral; and
all this out of reverence for the costly panel… The poor received many alms, and we prayed to
the Holy Mother of God, our patron saint, that she might in her infinite mercy preserve this our
city of Siena from every misfortune, traitor or enemy.
The reverse has a combined cycle of the Life of the
Virgin and the Life of Christ in a total of forty-three
small scenes; several panels are now dispersed or
lost. The base of the panel has an inscription that
reads (in translation): "Holy Mother of God, be thou
the cause of peace for Siena and life to Duccio
because he painted thee thus."

In1711 The five-metre high construction was dismantled and

sawn up, and some of the paintings damaged in the process.
Partial restoration took place in 1956. The dismantling also
led to pieces going astray, either being sold, or simply
unaccounted for. Extant remains of the altarpiece not at
Siena are divided among several other museums in Europe
and the United States.This panel showing the Annunciation
to the Virgin is now in the National Gallery, London.

Three panels from the Maestá showing the Flight into Egypt, the Calling of Peter and Andrew
and the Raising of Lazarus.

In some respects Duccio's style was similar to Byzantine art, with its gold backgrounds and familiar
religious scenes, however it also broke new ground and was more experimental. Duccio began to
break down the sharp lines of Byzantine art, and soften the figures. He used modelling (playing
with light and dark colours) to reveal the figures underneath the heavy drapery; hands, faces, and
feet became more rounded and three-dimensional. Duccio's paintings are inviting and warm with
colour. His pieces consisted of many delicate details and were sometimes inlaid with jewels or
ornamental fabrics.
Duccio was also one of the first painters to put figures in architectural settings, as he began to
explore and investigate depth and space. He also had a refined attention to emotion not seen in
other painters at this time. The characters interact tenderly with each other; it is no longer Christ
and the Virgin, it is mother and child. He flirts with naturalism, but his paintings are still awe
inspiring. Duccio's figures seem to be otherworldly or heavenly, consisting of beautiful colours, soft
hair, gracefulness and fabrics not available to mere humans.
He influenced many other painters, most notably Simone Martini , and the brothers Ambrogio and
Pietro Lorenzetti.
Painted c. 1310 Giotto's Ognissanti Madonna, is 3.25 metres in
hight. It stands now in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence, alongside
Cimabue's Santa Trinita Maestà and the Rucellai Madonna by
Duccio, allowing a clear comparison of the development of
naturalism in the portrayal of the Virgin and Child. It is often
celebrated as the first painting of the Renaissance due to its
newfound naturalism and escape from the constraints of Gothic art.

The Madonna Enthroned shows the numerous styles of art that

influenced Giotto. In both the gold colouring used throughout the
artwork and the flattened gold background, Giotto's art continued
the traditional Italo-Byzantine style so popular in the pre-
Renaissance time period. The altarpiece represents a formalized
representation of an icon, still retaining something of the stiffness of
Byzantine art, and retaining the hierarchy of scale, making the
centralized Madonna and the Christ Child much larger in size than
the surrounding saints and religious figures.

Giotto's figures, however, escape the bounds of Byzantine art. His

figures are weighty and are reminiscent of three-dimensional
sculptures, such as those in classical Roman sculpture, as we see
here in his Rimini Crucifixion (1310-17). The Madonna's intricately
decorated throne, which itself is an Italian Gothic design, has a very
specific use of coloured marble as a surface decoration. This
method of decoration, based on a style called Cosmatesque or
Cosmati, was popular in Rome since the Early Christian period and
in Tuscany in the Late Middle Ages.

According to Italian painter and historian Vasari, Cimabue was the

teacher of Giotto, the first great artist of the Italian Proto-
Renaissance. However, many scholars today tend to discount
Vasari's claim by citing earlier sources that suggest otherwise.

Giotto  (c.1267–1337) was the first artist in western European art to depict three-dimensional
figures. Additionally, he enlarged the figures in his paintings, filling the space more and further
emphasizing their importance in the artwork. Giotto did away with many aspects of Byzantine art
that would flatten the painting. Within Cimabue's Virgin and Child Enthroned there is the use of
gold tracing to delineate the folds of the fabric. In contrast to this, Giotto's fabric folds are more
realistic, and instead of lines he used light, shadow, and colour to create the appearance of fabric.
Contours of the body underneath these fabric folds are also visible, specifically in the Virgin's
knees and also around her breasts.
Giotto used a value scale, a distinct range of light and
darks, (chiaroscuro) to create a sense of volume in his
figures, giving them the slight smokiness that is usually
characteristic of Leonardo da Vinci and later Renaissance
artists.
Around 1305, Giotto executed his most influential work, the
interior frescoes of the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua.
The theme of the decoration is Salvation, with an emphasis
on the Virgin Mary, as the chapel is dedicated to the
Annunciation and to the Virgin of Charity. As was common
in church decoration of medieval Italy, the west wall is
dominated by the Last Judgement. The scene is incorp-
orated into the cycles of The Life of the Blessed Virgin
Mary and The Life of Christ.
The cycle is divided into 37 scenes, arranged around the lateral walls in three tiers.
Giotto's inspiration for The Life of the Virgin cycle was
probably taken from The Golden Legend by Jacobo da
Voragine. The Life of Christ draws upon the Meditations on
the Life of Christ and the Bible. The frescoes are more than
mere illustrations of familiar texts, however, and scholars
have found numerous sources for Giotto's interpretations of
sacred stories.
Much of the blue in the frescoes has been worn away by
time. The expense of the ultramarine blue pigment used
required it to be painted on top of the already-dry fresco
(fresco secco) to preserve its brilliance. That is why it has
disintegrated faster than the other colours, which were
painted on wet plaster and have bonded with the wall. An
example of the decay can clearly be seen in the sky and on
the robe of the Virgin, in the fresco of the Nativity.

Giotto's style drew on the solid and classicizing sculpture of

Arnolfo di Cambio who's monumental work has left its mark
on the appearance of Florence. Unlike those by Cimabue
and Duccio, Giotto's figures are not stylized or elongated
and do not follow Byzantine models. They are solidly three-
dimensional, have faces and gestures that are based on
close observation, and are clothed, not in swirling form-
alized drapery, but in garments that hang naturally and
have form and weight. He also took bold steps in
foreshortening and with having characters face inwards,
with their backs towards the observer, creating the illusion
of space.
Famous narratives in the series include the Adoration of the
Maji, in which a comet-like Star of Bethlehem streaks
across the sky. Giotto is thought to have been inspired by
the 1301 appearance of Halley's comet, which led to the
name Giotto being given to a 1986 space probe to the
comet.

Giotto's depiction of the human face and emotion sets his

work apart from that of his contemporaries. When the
disgraced Joachim returns sadly to the hillside, the two
young shepherds look sideways at each other. The soldier
who drags a baby from its screaming mother in the
Massacre of the Innocents does so with his head hunched
into his shoulders and a look of shame on his face. The
people on the road to Egypt gossip about Mary and Joseph
as they go.
Of Giotto's realism, the 19th-century English critic John
Ruskin said, "He painted the Madonna and St. Joseph and
the Christ, yes, by all means... but essentially Mamma,
Papa and Baby".
Comparison between Giotto's Raising of Lazarus, and
that of Duccio shows remarkable similarities in the
arrangement of the figures, the landscape setting and
the 'symbolic' representation of the rocks and trees; it is
almost as though Giotto is taking the older artist's
painting as a model. However, the greater naturalism of
the figures: their faces and gestures, the folds of the
robes and the substitution of blue for the sky, instead of
the traditional gold, is notable and brings the story much
more into our time and worldly space.

In the Kiss of Judas Giotto arranges the figures like a

procession across the bottom half of the picture. The
relentless movement from right to left of the soldiers
following in the wake of Judas is interrupted by the clash
and disorderly array of the followers of Christ on the left.
The atmosphere of conflict is further intensified by the
disordered array of clubs, spears and torches against the
blue sky. Judas engulfs Christ in his robe, a look of ang-
uish on his face while Jesus responds with an uncon-
cerned gaze of acknowledgement. All the faces
demonstrate individual expressions with psychological
engagement in the drama.

In the scene of the Crucifixion we can feel the agony of

the human Christ as he slumps on the cross. The
inward cry of Mary, as she feints into the arms of the
disciples, seems to echo throughout the picture, calling
on the angels to manifest the gravity and deep
significance for mankind of this moment. They emerge
from the background sky as if wrenched by this act from
the invisible and eternal realm of heaven into the world
of humankind, while Mary Magdalene kneels and kisses
the feet of the Saviour. Looking at this moment, so
simply portrayed but with such emotionally charged
drama, we can feel that this is a turning point in the
history of the world. Blue, the most expensive colour, is
reserved for the heavenly sky and the robe of the
Madonna.
Giotto's figures occupy compressed settings with
naturalistic elements, often using forced perspective
devices so that they resemble stage sets. This similarity
is increased by his careful arrangement of the figures in
such a way that the viewer appears to have a particular
place and involvement in many of the scenes, as can be
seen most markedly in the arrangement of the figures in
the Mocking of Christ and here in the Lamentation in
which the viewer is bidden by the composition to become
mocker in one and mourner in the other. The dramatic
intensity is enhanced by the diagonal line of the rock
sweeping down from the right to the heads of Christ and
his mother as she nurses his dead body in her lap.
At the age of 64 in 1334, Giotto was appointed chief architect to
Florence Cathedral, following the death in 1302 of Arnolfo di
Cambio, the first Master of the Works, and after an interruption of
more than thirty years. He designed the bell tower, known as
Giotto's Campanile, having become an eminent architect, thanks to
the growing autonomy of the architect-designer in relation to the
craftsmen since the first half of the 13th century. After his death in
1337 Giotto was succeeded as Master of the Works in 1343 by
Andrea Pisano, famous already for the South Doors of the
Baptistery. He continued the construction of the bell tower,
scrupulously following Giotto's design. Pisano was replaced in his
turn by Francesco Talenti who built the top three levels, with the
large windows, completing the bell tower in 1359, but without the
spire designed by Giotto, thus lowering the designed height of 122
metres to 84.7

The lower floor is decorated on three sides with bas-reliefs in hexagonal

panels, seven on each side. The number "seven" has a special meaning in
Biblical sense, symbolizing human perfectibility.

On the next level on each side there are four statues in niches, made between
1334 and 1435 by different sculptors: notably by Andrea Pisano (1290–1348)
and Donatello (c.1386–1466). Lo Zuccone (which translates from Italian as
"idiot" or "dimwit") is the popular name given to the Statue of the Prophet
Habakkuk, by Donatello completed between 1423 and 1425. The statue is
known for its realism and naturalism,which differed from most statuary
commissioned at the time. Zuccone is reported to have been Donatello's
favourite work, and he has been claimed to swear by the sculpture, "By the
faith I place in my zuccone." He is said to have shouted "speak, damn you,
speak!" at the marble as he was carving it, and it has been described as the
most important marble sculpture of the fifteenth century.

International Gothic is a period of Gothic art which began in

Burgundy, France, and northern Italy in the late 14th and early
15th century. It then spread very widely across Western Europe,
hence the name for the period, which was introduced at the end of
the 19th century.

Artists and portable works, such as illuminated manuscripts,

travelled widely around the continent, leading to a common
aesthetic among the royalty and higher nobility and considerably
reducing the variation in national styles among works produced for
the courtly elites. The main influences were northern France, the
Netherlands, the Duchy of Burgundy, the Imperial court in Prague,
and Italy. Royal marriages such as that between Richard II of
England and Anne of Bohemia helped to spread the style and
bring it to England. An example of the soft,elegance of the style
may be seen in this polychrome terracotta Bust of the Virgin from
Bohemia, c.1390–95.
It was initially a style of courtly sophistication, but somewhat more robust versions spread to art
commissioned by the emerging mercantile classes and the smaller nobility. In Northern Europe
"Late Gothic" continuations of the style, especially in its decorative elements, could still be found
until the early 16th century, as no alternative decorative vocabulary emerged locally to replace it
before the Renaissance revival of Classicism.
Much of the development of the style occurred in Italy, and it probably spread north of the Alps to
influence France partly through the colony of Italian artists attached to the Papal Court at Avignon,
and the works displayed there in the 1330s and 1340s of Simone Martini, a Sienese precursor of
the style. The Republic of Siena had a large influence on the development of the style, but kept to
its own dignified Gothic style throughout the period. and afterwards, while the As the style
developed in Northern Europe, it in turn influenced Italian artists.

The Annunciation with St. Margaret and St.

Ansanus by Simone Martini and Lippo Memmi,
signed and dated 1333, was painted for the altar of
St. Ansanus in the Duomo of Siena, from where it
was removed in the late 16th century. St. Maxima,
the godmother of St. Ansanus, is attributed to
Memmi, Simone's brother-in-law and fellow artist in
the workshop. Here the elegance of the gothic
linearity, which distinguishes the artistic expression
of painting in late medieval court society, reaches
one of its most refined and exquisite expressions.
The prophets' scrolls allude to the mystery of the
Incarnation. The work, in both size and style, has no
similarities with any other contemporary painting in
Italy. It can be compared instead to French illum-
inated manuscripts of that time, as well as to paintings from Germany or England. It has been in
the Uffizi since 1799.

The work is composed of a large central panel depicting the Annunciation, and two side panels
with St. Ansanus (left), and with St. Maxima or St. Margaret, in the right, and four tondos in the
cusps: Jeremiah, Ezechiel, Isiah and Daniel. The Annunciation shows the archangel Gabriel
entering the house of the Virgin Mary to tell her that she will soon bear the child Jesus, whose
name means "saviour". Gabriel holds an olive branch in his hand, a traditional symbol of peace,
while pointing at the Holy Ghost's dove with the other. The dove is descending from heaven, from
the centre of the mandorla of eight angels above, about to enter the Virgin's right ear. Along the
path of the dove, Gabriel's utterance is inscribed: ave gratia plena dominvs tecvm ("Hail, full of
grace, the Lord is with thee.") Mary, sitting on a throne, is portrayed at the moment that she is
startled out of her reading, reacting with a graceful and composed reluctance, looking with surprise
at the celestial messenger. Her dress has an arabesque-like pattern. The gilt background has a
vase of lilies, an allegory of purity often associated to the Virgin Mary.
The sweeping Gothic line, the realistic elements such as the book, the vase, the throne, the
pavement in perspective, and the natural action of the two figures and their subtle nuances of
character, are a substantial departure from the bi-dimensionality typical of Byzantine art.

The Wilton Diptych ( 1395–1399) is a small

portable diptych of two hinged panels, painted on
both sides, now in the National Gallery, London. It
is an extremely rare survival of a late Medieval
religious panel painting from England and an
outstanding example of the International Gothic
style. The diptych, a donor portrait, was painted
for King Richard II of England, who is depicted
kneeling before the Virgin and Child. He is
presented to them by (right to left) his patron
saint, John the Baptist carrying a lamb, and by
the English saints King Edward the Confessor
and King Edmund the Martyr.

Although thematically linked, the composition of the two pictures is quite different in feeling. The
scene of Richard and his patrons is sedate, but full of rich contrasts in colour and texture. The
scene of the Virgin and Child is full of energetic movement created by the angels who encircle the
mother and child. The predominant brilliant blue gives a precious quality, symbolising the heavenly
nature of this apparition. The flowery ground also symbolises the gardens of Paradise. The strong
tonal contrast of the angel's wings throw the figures into relief against the background.

The identity of the kneeling king is certain because he and the angels surrounding the Virgin are
wearing badges with Richard's livery, the White Hart, which also appears in the brocade of the left
panel and the outside of the diptych. As Richard kneels, the Christ Child reaches towards him in
benediction and also reaches towards the pennant held by an angel, and significantly placed
between them. This pennant is the symbol of Richard's kingship and of the Kingdom of England as
a whole. It bears the Cross of St. George, the symbol of England, and surmounting the staff is an
orb on which is a tiny map of England.

The number of angels (eleven) is unusual and has still not been satisfactorily explained. It is in
contradiction with the iconography of the heavenly court of the Virgin, because in medieval
iconography the number eleven has extremely negative symbolism. Considering the Biblical
exegesis and medieval number symbolism, a possible interpretation of the enigmatic number of
angels can be found in the Biblical motif of the second dream of young Joseph (Genesis 37:9) in
which the number eleven exceptionally has a positive meaning because it implicates the celestial
twelve. The sun, the moon and eleven stars that in Joseph's dream are bowing down to him are
completed by Joseph himself, who according to medieval exegesis is to be taken for a twelfth star.

The painting is indicative of both Richard's belief in his divine right to rule and his genuine Christian
devotion. It also importantly symbolises (in the form of the Pennant), Richard II giving his kingdom
into the hands of the Holy Virgin, thereby continuing a long tradition by which England was known
as "Our Lady's Dowry" and was thought to be specially under her protection. Another painting, now
lost, showed Richard and Anne offering the Virgin an orb representing England, with the inscription
"This is your dowry, O Holy Virgin, wherefore, O Mary, may you rule over it".

The Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry is the most famous and
possibly the best surviving example of manuscript illumination in the
late phase of the International Gothic style. It is a book of hours: a
collection of prayers to be said at the canonical hours. It was created
between 1412 and 1416 for the extravagant royal bibliophile and
patron John, Duke of Berry, by the three Limbourg Brothers.

This month is illustrated by the traditional May 1 cavalcade: young

people go on horseback, preceded by trumpet players. They are on
their way to the forest to find twigs which they will carry on their heads
or around their necks. On this occasion, the ladies wear a long green
dress, as is the case here with three of them. Several characters wear
leaves in their hairstyles. The buildings in the background have been
given different interpretations. It could be the Palais de la Cité in Paris
with the Châtelet on the left, the Conciergerie and the Clock Tower.