HEAT EXCHANGER

Important Concept – Requesting Everyone to Read Once

Heat exchangers are devices designed to transfer heat between two or more fluids—i.e.,
liquids, vapors, or gases—of different temperatures. Depending on the type of heat
exchanger employed, the heat transferring process can be gas-to-gas, liquid-to-gas, or liquid-
to-liquid and occur through a solid separator, which prevents mixing of the fluids, or direct
fluid contact. Other design characteristics, including construction materials and components,
heat transfer mechanisms, and flow configurations, also help to classify and categorize the
types of heat exchangers available. Finding application across a wide range of industries, a
diverse selection of these heat exchanging devices are designed and manufactured for use in
both heating and cooling processes.

The design of a heat exchanger is an exercise in thermodynamics, which is the science that
deals with heat energy flow, temperature, and the relationships to other forms of energy.
To understand heat exchanger thermodynamics, a good starting point is to learn about the
three ways in which heat can be transferred – conduction, convection, and radiation. In the
sections below, a review of each of these heat transfer modes is presented.

Conduction
Conduction is the passing of thermal energy between materials that are in contact with one
another. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of molecules in a material
– warmer objects (that are at a higher temperature) are exhibiting more molecular motion.
When a warmer object is brought in contact with a cooler object (one that is at a lower
temperature), there is a thermal energy transfer between the two materials, with the cooler
object becoming more energized and the warmer object becoming less energized. This
process will continue until thermal equilibrium has been achieved.

The rate at which heat energy is transferred in a material by thermal conduction is given by
the following expression:
Q represents the amount of heat transferred through the material in time t, ΔT is the
temperature difference between one side of the material and the other (the thermal
gradient), A is the cross-sectional area of the material, and d is the thickness of the
material. The constant k is known as the thermal conductivity of the material and is a
function of the material’s intrinsic properties and its structure. Air and other gases generally
have low thermal conductivities.

Convection
Convection is the transfer of thermal energy from a surface by way of the motion of a fluid
such as air or water that has been heated. Most fluids expand when heated and therefore
will become less dense and rise relative to other parts of the fluid that are cooler. So, when
the air in a room is heated, it rises to the ceiling because it is warmer and less dense, and
transfers heat energy as it collides with the cooler air in the room, then becoming denser
and falling again towards the floor. This process creates a natural or free convection current.
Convection can also occur through what is termed forced or assisted convection, such as
when heated water is pumped through a pipe such as in a hydronic heating system.

For free convection, the rate of transfer of heat is expressed by Newton’s law of cooling:

Where Q-dot is the rate of transfer of heat, hc is the convective heat transfer
coefficient, A is the surface area over which the convection process is occurring, and ΔT is
the temperature differential between the surface and the fluid. The convective heat transfer
coefficient hc is a function of the properties of the fluid, similar to the thermal conductivity
of the material.

Radiation
Thermal radiation is a mechanism of heat energy transfer that involves the emission of
electromagnetic waves from a heated surface or object. Unlike conduction and convection,
thermal radiation does not require an intermediate medium to carry the wave energy. All
objects whose temperature is above absolute zero (-273.15oC) emit thermal radiation in a
typically broad spectral range.
Basic Principles Underlying Heat Exchangers
Regardless of the type and design, all heat exchangers operate under the same fundamental
principles—namely the Zeroth, First, and Second Laws of Thermodynamics—which describe
and dictate the transference or “exchange” of heat from one fluid to another.

• The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that thermodynamic systems that are in
thermal equilibrium have the same temperature. Furthermore, if two systems are each
in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then the two former systems must be in
equilibrium with each other; thus, all three systems are of the same temperature. This
law, preceding the three other Laws of Thermodynamics in order but not in
development, not only expresses thermal equilibrium as a transitive property but also
defines the concept of temperature and establishes it as a measurable property of
thermodynamic systems.

• The First Law of Thermodynamics builds upon the Zeroth Law, establishing internal
energy (U) as another property of thermodynamic systems and indicating the influence
of heat and work on a system’s internal energy and the surrounding environment’s
energy. Additionally, the first law—also referred to as the Law of Conversation of
Energy—essentially states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred to
another thermodynamic system or converted to another form (e.g., heat or work).

For example, if heat flows into the system from its surroundings, there is a
corresponding increase in the internal energy of the system and a decrease in the energy
of the surrounding environment. This principle can be illustrated by the following
equation, where ΔUsystem represents the internal energy of the system,
and ΔUenvironment represents the internal energy of the surrounding environment:

• The Second Law of Thermodynamics establishes entropy (S) as an additional property

of thermodynamic systems and describes the natural and invariable tendency of the
universe, and any other closed thermodynamic system, to increase in entropy over
time. This principle can be illustrated by the following equation where ΔS represents
the change in entropy, ΔQ represents the change in the heat added to the system,
and T represents the absolute temperature:
It is also used to explain the tendency of two isolated systems—when allowed to interact
and free from all other influences—to move towards thermodynamic equilibrium. As
established by the Second Law, entropy can only increase, never decrease; consequently,
each system, as the entropy increases, invariably moves towards the highest value
achievable for said system. At this value, the system reaches a state of equilibrium where
entropy can no longer increase (as it is at the maximum), nor decrease, as that action would
violate the Second Law.

Altogether, these principles dictate the underlying mechanisms and operations of

heat exchangers; the Zeroth law establishes temperature as a measurable property of
thermodynamic systems, the First Law describes the inverse relationship between a
system’s internal energy (and its converted forms) and that of its surrounding
environment, and the Second Law expresses the tendency for two interacting systems
to move towards thermal equilibrium. Thus, heat exchangers function by allowing a
fluid of higher temperature (F1) to interact—either directly or indirectly—with a fluid
of a lower temperature (F2), which enables heat to transfer from F1 to F2 to move
towards equilibrium. This transfer of heat results in a decrease in temperature
for F1 and an increase in temperature for F2. Depending on whether the application is
aimed towards heating or cooling a fluid, this process (and devices that employ it) can
be used to direct heat towards or away from a system, respectively.

Heat Exchanger Design Characteristics

As outlined above, all heat exchangers operate under the same basic principles. However,
these devices can be classified and categorized in several different ways based on their
design characteristics. The main characteristics by which heat exchangers can be
categorized include:

• Flow configuration
• Construction method (NO NEED)
• Heat transfer mechanism

Flow Configuration

The flow configuration, also referred to as the flow arrangement, of a heat exchanger refers
to the direction of movement of the fluids within the heat exchanger in relation to each
other. There are four principal flow configurations employed by heat exchangers:

• Cocurrent flow (or) Parallel Flow

• Countercurrent flow (or) Counter Flow
• Crossflow
Cocurrent Flow

Cocurrent flow heat exchangers, also referred to as parallel flow heat exchangers, are heat
exchanging devices in which the fluids move parallel to and in the same direction as each
other. Although this configuration typically results in lower efficiencies than a counter flow
arrangement, it also allows for the greatest thermal uniformity across the walls of the heat
exchanger.

Countercurrent Flow

Countercurrent flow heat exchangers, also known as counter flow heat exchangers, are
designed such that the fluids move antiparallel (i.e., parallel but in opposite directions) to
each other within the heat exchanger. The most commonly employed of the flow
configurations, a counter flow arrangement typically exhibits the highest efficiencies as it
allows for the greatest amount of heat transference between fluids and, consequently, the
greatest change in temperature.

Crossflow

In crossflow heat exchangers, fluids flow perpendicularly to one another. The efficiencies of
heat exchangers which employ this flow configuration fall between that of countercurrent
and cocurrent heat exchangers.

Figure 1 – Heat Exchanger Flow Configurations

Heat Transfer Mechanism
There are two types of heat transfer mechanisms employed by heat exchangers—*single-
phase* or two-phase heat transfer.

In single-phase heat exchangers, the fluids do not undergo any phase change throughout
the heat transfer process, meaning that both the warmer and cooler fluids remain in the
same state of matter at which they entered the heat exchanger. For example, in water-to-
water heat transfer applications, the warmer water loses heat which is then transferred to
the cooler water and neither change to a gas or solid.

On the other hand, in two-phase heat exchangers, fluids do experience a phase change
during the heat transfer process. The phase change can occur in either or both of the fluids
involved resulting in a change from a liquid to a gas or a gas to a liquid. Typically, devices
that employ a two-phase heat transfer mechanism require more complex design
considerations than ones that employ a single-phase heat transfer mechanism. Some of the
types of two-phase heat exchangers available include boilers, condensers, and evaporators.

Types of Heat Exchangers

Based on the design characteristics indicated above, there are several different variants of
heat exchangers available. Some of the more common variants employed throughout
industry include:

• Shell and tube heat exchangers

• Double pipe heat exchangers
• Plate heat exchangers
• Condensers, evaporators, and boilers

Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers

The most common type of heat exchangers, shell and tube heat exchangers are constructed
of a single tube or series of parallel tubes (i.e., tube bundle) enclosed within a sealed,
cylindrical pressure vessel (i.e., shell). The design of these devices is such that one fluid
flows through the smaller tube(s), and the other fluid flows around its/their outside(s) and
between it/them within the sealed shell. Other design characteristics available for this type
of heat exchanger include finned tubes, single- or two-phase heat transfer, countercurrent
flow, cocurrent flow, or crossflow arrangements, and single, two, or multiple pass
configurations.

Some of the types of shell and tube heat exchangers available include helical coil heat
exchangers and double pipe heat exchangers, and some of the applications include
preheating, oil cooling, and steam generation.
Heat Exchanger Selection Considerations
While there are a wide variety of heat exchangers available, the suitability of each type (and
its design) in transferring heat between fluids is dependent on the specifications and
requirements of the application. Those factors largely determine the optimal design of the
desired heat exchanger and influence the corresponding rating and sizing calculations.

Some of the factors that industry professionals should keep in mind when designing and
choosing a heat exchanger include:

• The type of fluids, the fluid stream, and their properties

• The desired thermal outputs
• Size limitations
• Costs

Design Optimization
Designing the optimal heat exchanger for a given application (with particular specifications
and requirements as indicated above) involves determining the temperature change of the
fluids, the heat transfer coefficient, and the construction of the heat exchanger and relating
them to the rate of heat transfer. The two main problems which arise in pursuing this
objective are calculating the device’s rating and sizing.

The rating refers to the calculation of the thermal effectiveness (i.e., efficiency) of a heat
exchanger of a given design and size, including the rate of heat transfer, the amount of heat
transferred between fluids and their corresponding temperature change, and the total
pressure drop across the device. The sizing refers to the calculation of the required total
dimensions of the heat exchanger (i.e., the surface area available for use in the heat transfer
process), including the length, width, height, thickness, number of components, component
geometries and arrangements, etc., for an application with given process specifications and
requirements. The design characteristics of a heat exchanger—e.g., flow configuration,
material, construction components and geometry, etc.—affect both the rating and sizing
calculations. Ideally, the optimal heat exchanger design for an application finds a balance
(with factors optimized as specified by the designer) between the rating and sizing which
satisfies the process specifications and requirements at the minimum necessary cost.

#enough for this week… I will continue this process, I mean I’ll try to make u
understand and give u a brief knowledge about the Heat Exchanger… especially,
Shell & Tube Heat exchanger. I have collected contents from different source, also
added my own words to make u understand in simple language.
I will again send a pdf of moderate concepts… It is very basic.

So, be ready for the next one…