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Jasmine Munk Masters ThesisPaper 05/2009

Examining Spinal Osteoarthritis at The Engelbert Site

Introduction
I examined vertebral osteoarthritis (OA) in a Late Woodland cemetery population at the Engelbert site. The collection is currently housed at the New York State Museum in the Native American Graves Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) lab under curator Lisa Anderson. The collection contains 135 burials, some interments containing more than one individual. I examined 35 well preserved adult skeletons (22 males and 13 females), assessing their vertebrae for the presence and severity of osteophytosis, sclerosis, eburnation, and facet apophyseal remodeling. I

compared young and old individuals within each age category, and across age categories. I also compared younger skeletons with older spinal columns within each sex category. Overall, my data did not show any clear, consistent pattern of OA between males and females at Engelbert. Although I did find many significant differences in osteophytosis and facet remodeling between males and females when examining entire vertebral segments, my sample sizes might have been too small overall. Although many of my findings were interesting and thought provoking, it is important to keep in mind that more research must be conducted to make any conclusions about the relationship between osteoarthritis and physical activity.

Settlement and Subsistence at the Engelbert Site

The Engelbert site, located northeast of Nichols New York, situated on a large gravel hill, was owned by the Engelbert family before the cemetery was partially disturbed in 1967 and 1968, when gravel was removed from the top of the knoll to aid in construction of the Southern Tier Expressway. However, during gravel removal, the Perini Corporation realized that the knoll was overflowing with valuable archaeological remains and artifacts. Thus, construction was postponed, and archaeologists were called to the site for immediate salvage excavation. Over the course of the project, archaeologists unearthed 135 Native American burials, approximately 600 pit features, refuse pits, as well as thousands of pot sherds and stone tools (Elliot et al. 1970). The Engelbert site was occupied as early as 2000 B.C. (Elliott et al. 1970) (Figures1, 2 &3). Archaeologists surmised that Engelbert was first occupied by archaic semi-nomadic

peoples closely related to the Lamoka (described below), around 2,000 B.C. Excavation yielded stone net-weights and projectile points suggesting that archaic Native Americans at the site were engaged in both hunting and fishing. Dolores Elliott and William D. Lipe, head archaeologists of the Engelbert project, hypothesized that groups moved between different campsites throughout the area utilizing seasonal resources such as fish, deer, nuts, berries, and other periodic flora and fauna. Crude stone choppers, pestles, hammerstones, milling stones, polished stone celts and adzes were also found, suggesting that groups at the site were processing plant materials (Elliot et al. 1970). Judging by soil striation and artifact assemblages, Engelbert was abandoned and then reoccupied during the Late Woodland (1100-1500 AD). For a while

following the reoccupation, villages occupying the knoll maintained an Owasco culture (described below). Later occupants to the site were probably Susquehannock, based on diagnostic pottery and other artifacts. Late Woodland groups occupied the site year round, as is

evidenced by post molds similar to those left behind from traditional Iroquoian longhouses. Pottery, as well as maize, beans, charcoal, hearths, animal bones, flint chips, and refuse pits all suggest that people at Engelbert were farming and relatively sedentary during this time period (Elliot et al. 1970). The Engelbert hummock was almost certainly a strategically convenient

location; as the site was located on an elevated knoll, ancient peoples may have been able to view intruders and herds of game from a distance, and this probably drew many different groups over time.

Burial Practices at the Engelbert Site

The 135 Owasco and Late Woodland burials excavated around the site were strewn about the knoll without any clear pattern (Elliot et al. 1970). A majority of the interments were placed in deep circular pits with individuals legs flexed tightly against their chests. A smaller

percentage of the interments were in more shallow pits, and less tightly flexed. Few grave goods were found among the burials. However, researchers were able to roughly date the entombments using pottery and other diagnostic artifacts. Most burials were dated from between 1110 -1350 A.D., falling within the Owasco period, and a handful of burials dated to the ProtoSusquehannock, spanning from the early 1500s through the 1600s. These individuals were dated by the diagnostic shell-tempered pottery accompanying them in their graves- a style of ceramic characteristic of the early historic Susquehannock Indians. Some of the Proto-

Susquehannock burials also contained artifacts made from sheet copper, which was probably obtained through trade with Europeans along the Atlantic coastline during the 1500s (Elliott et al. 1970). Several interesting grave goods were unearthed at Engelbert including six clay pipes buried with six mature adult males who were each interred separately (Owasco period) (Image

4). Another burial of interest was a double burial containing a youth aged approximately 18 years and an adult male (Owasco-phase, burial #96A&B). They were interred with two sets of antlers crossed across their upper bodies (Image 5) (Elliott et al. 1970). Although it remains uncertain, many academics have theorized that the Owasco and Late Woodland individuals at Engelbert who dated to roughly before 1350 A.D., were ancestral to the Lamoka (described below), based on their location, settlements, and associated artifacts.

The Lamoka and Owasco Phases

The Late Archaic period in western New York represents one of the first manifestations of Native American peoples adapting to regional ecological conditions, and forming distinctive cultural traits and recognizable characteristics (Ritchie 1980). During this period, settlement patterns indicate large population increases as well as an increase in immigration from neighboring areas. Overall, Late Archaic settlements ranged from diminutive sites characterized by sparse surface scatters to larger, more substantive sites, that were likely occupied throughout the year (Ritchie 1980). Many sites from this time period were situated adjacent to lakes, rivers, and marshes, where groups could readily have access to aquatic resources (Ritchie 1980). Most Late Archaic sites in western and central New York fall within the Laurentian Tradition. The most well know of these is the Lamoka phase (Ritchie 1980). The Lamoka

Phase, best known for the Lamoka Lake Site (4999 B.C.-3000 B.C.), located near Tyrone in Schuyler County, New York, was the first identifiable Archaic hunting and gathering culture in the northeastern United States (Fenton 1998: 124). The Lamoka also hold an important role in Northeastern archaeology as the first archaeologically distinguishable culture to occur after the

Paleo-Indian period, but before Woodland cultures that utilized and manufactured pottery (Fiedel 1992: 89). Characteristic artifacts found at Lamoka sites include bone antler tools for use in flint knapping, flutes, whistles, food processing tools such as mortars, mullers, hammerstones, pestles, beveled adzes, and celts (Fenton 1998: 124). Distinctive Lamoka projectile points have also been found around the northeast. Lamoka projectile points are generally small, narrow, thick points with weak to moderately pronounced side notches, or straight stemmed with slight, usually sloping shoulders (Ritchie 1971: 29). Lamoka points were likely used on spears, javelins, daggers, and other throwing implements. Lamoka artifacts suggest that subsistence consisted primarily of hunting and gathering as opposed to horticulture or agriculture (Ritchie 1971: 30). White tailed deer, wild turkey, passenger pigeons, squirrels, acorns, hickory, turtles, frogs, mussels, as well as other aquaculture were staple food sources (Fiedel 1992: 89). The Lamoka Lake site contained net weights, fishhooks, and other fishing implements, yet interestingly fish bones at the site were rare. Burial remains at Lamoka settlements are also sparse, usually flexed, and without grave goods (Ritchie 1980). Judging by diagnostic pottery sherds, Engelberts cemetery likely contained Archaic phase individuals ancestral to the Lamoka as well as peoples with an Owasco-like culture (Fiedel 1992: 89). The transitional period (1500 B.C. to 1000 B.C), between the Lamoka phase and the Owasco phase is characterized by a gradual shift in material culture, which in turn spurred significant lifestyle and subsistence strategy shifts throughout the northeast (Ritchie et al. 1973). William A. Ritchie (1944) distinguished Lamoka culture from later Owasco based on Owasco pottery (known for its cord on cord technique), and the emergence of agriculture

(Fenton 1998: 124). The emergence of pottery was also coupled with ceremonial objects such as pendants, ornaments, pipes, gorgets, and large triangular projectile points known as Levanna style (Image 6). Levanna points were eventually replaced by smaller Madison points for more efficient use of the bow and arrow (Tuck 1971). The shift also coincides with the transition from round dwellings to larger Iroquoian longhouses (Tuck 1971). Besides changing subsistence strategies and architecture, burials also became increasingly complex with the addition of ceremonial grave goods (Ritchie et al. 1973). Owasco cultures were known for their strategically positioned camps, commonly located on high ground, near river deltas, and marshes in order to ambush prey during the hunt. They were also one of the first Northeastern Indian groups to begin farming the three sisters, corn, beans, and squash (Tuck 1978). Although much is known

about this time period in comparison to proceeding phases, archaeologists still have many questions about the Owascos interrelationship with the Iroquois (Ritchie 1980).

The Susquehannock
After occupation by groups with relations to the Lamoka and Owasco, Englebert was likely occupied by Susquehannock peoples as is evidenced by many of the distinctive artifacts and shell-tempered pottery unearthed at the site (Dolores et al. 1970). The Susquehannock people, archaeological distinguishable from the Iroquois Five Nations around A.D. 1550, were indigenous to the Susquehanna River Valley. Archaeologists and cultural anthropologists

believe that their homeland extended from Southern New York and Pennsylvania, to the beginning stretch of the Susquehanna River in Maryland, reaching northwards as far as the end of the Chesapeake Bay (Kent 1984: 13). During the mid 1500s, the Susquehannock peoples

were living in disjointed hamlets between Binghamton and the Wyoming Valley (Jennings 1978: 362). Settlement records show that the Susquehannock abandoned this area before 1570 A.D. and established a new home in Lancaster, Pennsylvania. Historians question whether the

Susquehannock were driven out of the Binghamton area by hostile relations with the Iroquois Five Nations, or whether they relocated to Pennsylvannia to take advantage of trading opportunities with Europeans and other Native Americans (Jennings 1984: 362). The Susquehannocks link to the Iroquois Nations has been ambiguous at best, but researchers have posited several scenarios based on both cultural and archaeological evidence (Gillette et al. 1993). English Captain John Smiths 1608 account calls the Susquehannock the Sasquesahanaough, as they were referred to by one of Smiths native informants (Gillette et al. 1993). Smiths map of the Chesapeake Bay in 1612 showed six Indian villages along the Susquehanna River attributed to the Susquehannock. However, many modern archaeologists claim that Smiths native information may have been incorrect, since there has only been one archaeologically confirmed Susquehannock village found in the Chesapeake Bay dating to the 17th century (Gillette et al. 1993). The Susquehannocks were later identified by Champlain as the Carantouannais in the mid 1950s- a New French version of the Iroquoian word Skahentawaneh, translated as big grassy flat (Jennings 1978: 362). Although, scholars

dispute that the Carantouan were actually the Susquehannocks. Later French traders referred to the Susquehannock by their Iroquoian name, Gandastogue or the Huron Andaste (Jennings 1978: 362). In addition, some researchers suggest that the Susquehannock may have been referred to by the early French traders as the Carantouannais- the same people as the Atrakwaeronnon, who the Iroquois are documented as overpowering in 1652 (Jennings 1978: 362). Overall, many archaeologists disagree with this theory, instead arguing that the 1652

skirmish was likely between the Iroquois Five Nations and allies of the Susquehannock further south. European diseases (smallpox and measles), internal and external conflict, as well as migration eventually took its toll on the Susquehannock, and many speculate that some Susquehannocks assimilated into the Iroquois Five Nations (Gillette et al. 1978). By all accounts, the Susquehannock population was diminished significantly by 1698 when only fifty men remained (Jennings 1978: 363). Unfortunately, the scarcity of Susquehannock sites makes it difficult for researchers to draw concrete conclusions about Susquehannock chronology and interrelationships with other tribes in the region (Gillette et al. 1993). On the whole, the Susquehannock are characterized as culturally very similar to the Iroquois, utilizing gendered divisions of labor and engaging in maize horticulture. Susquehannock women likely tended to the fields and corn production, while men hunted, traded, fished, and served as warriors (Jennings 1978: 364). The majority of ethnographic accounts about gendered divisions of labor from the seventeenth century come from male European missionaries (Amott et al. 1996: 34). Many European sources describe Native

American women as beasts of burden that were made to endure terribly long and strenuous days out in the fields harvesting maize, beans, and squash. Many Europeans

saw Native American mens tasks as more leisurely and light-weight, since fishing, fighting, and hunting were all regarded as enjoyable upper-class pastimes (Amott et al. 1996: 34). One interesting account was taken by a young woman who was adopted by the Seneca Iroquois after her family had been killed by a warring group of Natives (Amott et al. 1996: 34). She wrote that in the summer season, all of the women planted and tended to the maize harvest together (Amott et al. 1996: 34).

Likewise, in southeastern North America, historians purport that European missionaries and colonists substantially underestimated the role of womens labor in Native society. They claim that the invisibility of womens work lead many European accounts to characterize American Indian populations in northern Florida, Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi, as primarily hunters and gatherers, even though Native populations relied heavily on maize agriculture (Scarry et al. 2005: 260). As in the northeast, womens work consisted of preparing fields, harvesting, weeding, and creating storage. Men would sometimes assist in these duties, but mostly focused on hunting, fishing, warrior duties, and often burning stumps and underbrush from the fields, or trenching plots for planting (Scarry et al. 2005: 260). Although different Native American societies during the Late Woodland and early historic period were similar in terms of gendered divisions of labor, there were also undoubtedly regional differences (Amott et al. 1996: 35) Archaeologically, the Susquehannock have been characterized and described based on only a handful of sites with distinctive pottery and other artifacts. In 1936 Donald Cadow began a culture history chronology on Susquehannock pottery, drawing interrelationships between the Susquehannocks and the Iroquois. In the late 1950s, John Witthoft revised Cadows

chronologies incorporating additional research and collections. One of the most distinctive Susquehannock pottery types is Schutlz Incised (Image 8), named after the Schultz site located in Lancaster Pa. Another diagnostic artifact commonly found at Susquehannock sites in context with shell-tempered Susquehannock pottery are native clay pipes used for smoking tobacco. Early Susquehannock pipes are almost indistinguishable from those of the Iroquois, but after 1650 they become more differentiated. The earliest pipes have an Owasco base and are known as trumpet pipes without incised or impressed designs (Image 9). The next evolutionary stage is

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the addition of the ring bowl, which is believed to have developed independently from the Owasco base alongside the trumpet style (Kent 1978: 145). The last motif in the Susquehannock sequence is the tulip bowl, which evolved from ring bowls (Image 10) (Kent 1978: 145). Later adult male burials at the Engelbert site were found with both ring bowl and trumpet bowl pipes (Image 4). Susquehannock sites such as Washington Boro (Washington Boro, Pa.), Schultz, and Strickler (Strickler, Pa.) also have steatite pipes, many of which were adorned with animal and human motifs (Image 11). One particular pipe, unearthed at the Strickler site in the northeast cemetery with a sub adult interment, had a human-form complete with an anus that was drilled through the pipe, allowing a smoker to cover the lit bowl and blow smoke through the orifice (Kent 1978: 153). Kalolen pipes used to smoke calumet have also been found at Susquehannock sites, likely imported from Midwestern Indians. Interestingly, Susquehannock native pipe

production comes to an abrupt halt after the groups military and political upheaval in 1675 (Kent 1978: 157). Other archaeological artifacts characteristic of Susquehannocks sites include a variety of lithics, and items made from bone and antler (Kent 1978: 150- 300). Kent notes that triangular projectile points with isosceles to equilateral outlines are common at Susquehannock sites between 1500 AD -1600 AD. Raw materials were usually cherts derived from local quarries with exotic materials such as jasper, chalcedony, rhyolite and quartzite rarely seen (Kent 1978: 157). Refined scrapers are also rare at Susquehannock sites, and the ones found have been rather crude. An extensive list of bone and antler tools have also been found at Susquehannock sites including turtle-shell cups and rattles, fishhooks, awls, knife handles, pressure-flaking tools, chisels made of beaver teeth, harpoons, conical arrow points, smoking pipes, scraping tools,

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spoons, and needles (Kent 1978: 176). Some of the most artistically impressive Susquehannock artifacts, however, have been their intricately detailed bone and antler combs donning turtles, bears, wolves, humans, and geometric patterns (Image 11). Wray (1963: 45) suggests that these combs may represent legends or clan affiliations (Kent 1978: 177). Overall, Susquehannock culture is little understood and researchers are still striving to find out more about their relationship with the Iroquois and their interaction with European traders. Ethnographic information and historical documentation is important not only for

understanding subsistence strategies and settlement patterns, but for reconstructing social values, norms, and gendered divisions of labor (Derevenski 2000). Bioarchaeologists commonly turn to ethnographic resources to reconstruct the activity patterns and life ways of past cultures and populations. For example, small circular notches between the teeth may mean little until a biological anthropologist learns that individuals from that particular culture habitually smoked from pipes with long spherical stems. Likewise, biological anthropologists are able to use historical data to interpret osteological markers on bone. Many researchers believe that OA is a specifically good indicator of physical activity over an individuals lifetime. While many researchers strongly believe that the patterning and distribution of OA can help to reconstruct activity patterns, many other researchers disagree with this correlation (Knsel et al. 1997: 481). While researchers may disagree on the exact causes of OA, there is no doubt that the condition is both highly prevalent and debilitating.

The Paleopathological Identification and Assessment of Osteoarthritis

Periodontal disease and OA are the two most prevalent pathological conditions observed by physical anthropologists who examine ancient skeletal remains (Larsen 1997:163).

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Osteoarthritis, also known as degenerative joint disease (DJD), is a common condition that affects the synovial joints (Roberts et al. 2005: 136). Clinicians and physical anthropologists assess four major criteria for the presence and severity of OA: osteophytosis (bone spurs on the joint margin), sclerosis (new bone growth on the joint surface), eburnation (shininess and luster of the joint facet caused by constant rubbing), porosity of the joint surface, and plastic remodeling of the apophyseal facets (reshaping and warping of the joint facets caused by compression and load-bearing) (Waldron 1995: 386). OA can affect many parts of the body including hips, knees, spine, elbows, hands, feet, temporomandibular joints, and more (Waldron 1995: 386). OA is often regarded as a unique pathology because it is one of the only diseases that has operational criteria for its diagnosis and evaluation, meaning that OA can be accessed through a demonstrated process using a set of validation tests, while other pathologies are often more elusive, and difficult to conclusively diagnose (Waldron 1995: 385). Paleopathologists note that the disease is often complicated, as there are several etiologies and it can be confounded by the presence of other arthritic conditions like rheumatoid arthritis (RA) (described below) (Roberts et al. 2005: 133). However, compared to other pathologies that can be recognized through bony indicators and markers, OA is relatively straightforward to diagnose and identify. OA is caused by the deterioration of the soft porous cartilage that coats and pads the synovial joint surface. When cartilage breaks down, the synovial joint becomes inflamed and creates friction between bony surfaces (Bridges 1992: 67-68). Often, complete destruction of the joint impedes the production of synovial fluid that lubricates the joint surface, further increasing apophyseal friction (i.e. friction at the articulations located between the joint facets of vertebrae), tenderness, and joint pain (Bridges 1992: 67-68). Traditional OA indicators on bony remains are

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peripheral osteophytes, sclerosis, eburnation and pitting. Osteophytes (or marginal lipping), are bone spurs or outgrowths that erupt around the margins of joint surfaces due to friction and compression. To increase the load distribution on apophyseal joints, apophyseal joints often form osteophytes in an attempt to compensate for excess stress (Roberts et al. 2005: 135). Osteophytes may occur on the vertebral body, the joint facets, or at the insertion sites of ligaments and tendons (Roberts et al. 2005: 135). However, it remains unclear whether osteophytosis occurs concurrently with cartilage deterioration (Dequeker et al. 1997: 358). Once OA has destroyed joint cartilage, the underlying bone may become sclerotic (hard), and eburnated (shiny and polished from friction and rubbing). As the cartilage deteriorates further, the surrounding bones often becomes porous and pitted, allowing synovial joint fluid to flow into the pitted bone beneath the destabilized cartilage, forming subchondral cysts that may further complicate the condition (Roberts et al. 2005: 136).

The Etiology of Osteoarthritis

Today, paleopathological data is widely considered to be the most reliable and concrete indication that ancient populations suffered from specific ailments. Although historical and ethnographic documentation may focus on the diseases of past peoples, it is common for these sources to focus on dramatic, highly visible conditions, while more ordinary commonplace ailments of OA are overlooked (Roberts et al. 2005: 1). In past decades, biological

anthropologists have come to realize that bioarchaeological data has the potential to uncover past activity patterns, lifestyles, diets, and population structures. In addition, physical anthropologists now know more about human pathologies than ever. For example, researchers can now identify

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myriad human diseases that manifest in bone including Pagets disease, dental defects such as periodontal disease, porotic hyperostosis, tuberculosis, developmental disorders, osteoporosis, OA and many others (Roberts et al. 2005: 5). Over the decades, researchers have come to accept that OA has a complex and multifaceted etiology that may be caused by a multitude of factors (Lieverse et al. 2006: 1). Some researchers believe that occupational stresses and other daily activities are probable causes of most types of OA. However, age, sex, body build, nutrition, and heredity may also be contributing factors to varying degrees (Lieverse et al. 2006: 1). Epidemiologists have found that certain ethnic groups, age groups, and sexes experience higher incidences of specific types of OA, indicating they may be predisposed to cartilage deterioration (Lieverse et al. 2006: 1). Overall, it has been found that as individuals age, their probability of developing OA increases as biomechanical stress and diminished durability of joint tissues are compounded (Larsen 1997: 163). Recent clinical studies show that 1-5 percent of US citizens under age 45 have some degree of either OA or rheumatoid arthritis (RA) (Roberts et al. 2005: 133). RA is a chronic inflammatory disease affecting the lining and synovium of the joints. The synovial lining first becomes inflamed and swollen, which may cause pain and stiffness. Next, rapid division of cells causes the synovium to thicken (Arthritis Foundation 2009). Eventually inflamed cell enzymes destroy bone and cartilage causing joints to become misaligned, malformed and non-functioning (Arthritis Foundation 2009). Rather than being related to physical activity, RA is believed to be a disorder of the immune system. It is also a systemic disease, which means it has the capacity to affect other organs in the body as well (Arthritis Foundation 2009). Thus, although the etiologies of RA and OA are both quite However,

different, the two diseases may manifest in bone quite similarly (Larsen 1997: 163).

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RA usually affects many different joints bilaterally, such as the hands, wrists, feet, knees, and neck. This is unlike OA, where individuals often have symptoms in fewer areas, and often unilaterally, depending on activity patterns (Larsen 1997: 160-165). Although studies show that age is a contributing factor for OA specifically, the degeneration of joint tissues may be seen at any age if extreme stressors are present (Lowell 1994). Studies show that it is uncommon for individuals below the age of 30 to experience OA in developed societies. However, in rural populations, where children and teens are more likely to take on strenuous labor, even young adults may have elevated rates of OA (Lowell 1994). Although this research shows that age is a contributing factor for OA, the degeneration of joint tissues may be seen at any age if extreme stressors are present (Lowell 1994). Sex is another factor that may greatly influence the development and severity of OA. Many studies show that woman likely have a predisposition towards developing OA compared to men (Oliveria et al. 1995: 1134). Studies show that the prevalence of OA in women remains steady until the age of 50, and which point the incidence of OA skyrockets. Interestingly, men have a higher prevalence of OA before the age of 50, at which point new cases drop off sharply (Oliveria et al. 1995: 1134). Furthermore, women are more likely than men to have OA in multiple joints (Oliveria et al. 1995: 1134). Many researchers believe that female hormones, specifically estrogen and progesterone may play a role in a womans increased chance of developing OA (Zhang et al. 1998:1867). Doctors often refer to menopausal arthritis, which is characterized by rapidly progressing OA of the hands during menopause suggesting that estrogen deficiency at middle age may play an important role in female OA (Zhang et al. 1998:1867). In Zhang et al.s 1998 study Estrogen Replacement Therapy and Worsening of

Radiographic Knee Osteoarthritis, they found that the use of postmenopausal estrogen

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replacement therapy may protect women against post menopausal OA progression (Zhang et al. 1998: 1972). Likewise, Okma-Keuleun et al. 2001 preformed a qualitative study in the

Netherlands, examining the onset of generalized OA in older women. They found that all of the participants in their study group with generalized OA had previous gynecologic problems ranging from miscarriages, difficulty becoming pregnant, giving birth to one or multiple disabled children, having hysterectomies, or having to become sterilized due to high blood pressure (Okma-Keuleun et al. 2001: 187). However, other studies refute that that sex hormones have any specific effect on the presence, or progression of OA (Cauley 1993; HL MA 2007). However, other researchers argue that serum sex hormones have little to no effect on OA. In Cauley et al.s (1993) study, they found no association between endogenous estrogen or androgen levels and severity of hand osteoarthritis, even when other factors such as obesity were taken into account (Cauley 1993: 1172). Furthermore, H.L Ma et al. (2007), found that when examining sex hormones in relation to mouse knee histology, researchers found that ovarian hormones seemed to decrease the severity of OA in female mice, yet testosterone exacerbated OA in males (H.L. Ma et al. 2007: 695). Physical build and nutrition also play a pivotal role in an individuals susceptibility to developing OA. Physical anthropologists agree that an individuals unique anatomical traits may significantly affect the onset of OA and other degenerative ailments like osteoporosis. It is also generally agreed upon that some individuals may be more prone to OA due to their body physiques. Kalichman et al. (2005) examined the correlation between skeletal aging traits in the hand, and physical characteristics including weight, skeleton size, and muscle development. They found that ectomorphy (measures of longitudinal body characteristic), endomorphy

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(measures of fatness), mesomorphy (measures of muscular development), and other physical characteristics were significantly influential in assessing skeletal aging characteristics such as osteoarthritis and osteoporosis (Kalichman et al. 2005: 894). Body mass also has a significant effect on OA, especially for females. Studies also show that obesity causes greater concentrations of leptin in cartilage, which may in turn encourage osteophyte formation in females who have smaller joints than males (Weiss 2007: 441). Researchers such as Sharma et al. (2000) have also found that obesity increases the severity of certain kinds of OA. Sharma et al. (2000) found that obesity was strongly linked to OA of the knee in patients with varus knees (knees pointing outwards), but not individuals with valgus knees (knees pointing inwards) (Sharma et al. 2000: 568). Thus, obesity combined with certain physical characteristics might exacerbate OA. However, many researchers argue that high body mass is a modern phenomenon, rarely seen in prehistory (Bridges 1992). Nutritional stress, such as vitamin C and D deficiency is also thought to increase the progression of OA. Vitamin D is an important factor in normal bone growth and studies show that high D levels offer some protective effect against hip and knee OA (Cimmino et al. 2005: 33). McAlindon et al. (1996) also found that vitamin C intake reduced the progression of knee OA in patients studied by 3fold (McAlindon et al. 1996: 353). Four dietary deficiencies have conclusively been identified in the progression of OA: selenium deficiency, iodine deficiency, water pollution with organic material and fulvic acid, and grain contamination with mycotoxin-producing fungi (Cimmino et al. 2005: 33). Genetic factors are also thought to contribute to the severity and onset of OA in both sexes. Holderbaum et al. (1999), claim that non-trauma initiated and idiopathic (arising

spontaneously or from an unknown cause) OA has been clearly observed to appear in familial

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clusters, meaning that the incidence of OA is likely a complex combination of both genetics and common environmental factors such as physical activity, diet, and nutrition (Holderbaum et al. 1999: 397). According to Holderbaum and colleagues, the first clue that OA might have a strong genetic link was the discovery of type II collagen (COL2A1) in association with early onset OA accompanied with mild spondylepiphyseal dysplasia (SED) in a Michigan family (Holderbaum et al. 1999: 398). Interestingly, other families were also identified with the same unique

mutation (Holderbaum et al. 1999: 399). All of the families found to contain the mutation shared a common Celtic ancestry, and were probably all related to a single founder (Holderbaum et al. 1999: 400). A similar mutation was also discovered in a family located in the Chiloe Islands off the coast of South America. Overall, Holderbaum et al. believes that these findings are powerful evidence that OA is hereditary to some degree. However, they note that OA does not seem to have any clear or straightforward cause. Rather it is likely the result of many different factors working together, with genetics playing a major role (Holderbaum et al. 1999: 403). Holderbaum et al. (1999) also believe that twin studies are a valid form of identifying hereditary traits. Recent studies have compared monozygous (identical) and dizygous (non-

identical) twins in an attempt to locate a genetic component for OA. Holderbaum et al. (1999) writes that twin studies show an increased correlation of radiographic OA of the hands and knees among monozygotic twins at a rate of 35% to 65%. This means that 35-65% of identical twins show similar rates of hand OA compared to their twin suggesting a genetic factor (or the interplay of genetics and environment). They also note that in recent studies of hand and knee OA in parents and adult children, genetic modeling demonstrated that the traits were likely explained by a Mendelian recessive trait with significant polygenic or environmental factors (Holderbaum et al. 1999: 402). Holderbaum et al. notes that considering the many different

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protein-protein, protein-glycoprotein, and protein-cell interactions that occur within cartilage, it would be highly unusual if all the mutations that caused OA were genetic (Holderbaum et al. 1999: 402). In addition, a study conducted in Iceland found that Icelandic patients who had hip OA that eventually led to hip replacement surgery were more related to one another than matched controls drawn at random from a population-wide scan (Ingvarsson et al. 2000: 2785). Ingvarsson et al. noted that it is unlikely that common environmental factors affected familial clusters since the correlations ran over many generations and branched out from nuclear families (Ingvarsson et al. 2000: 2791). Overall, nine genetic loci have been found that influence specific parts of different joint systems. Some loci incite osteophyte development, while others seem to influence cartilage loss (Ingvarsson et al. 2000: 2791). In addition, a specific nucleotide mutation in the Cartilage Intermediate Layer Protein (CILP) locus is thought by many researchers to have a noteworthy effect on an individuals risk of developing OA of the lumbar region of the spine (Weiss 2007: 440). Genetic susceptibility is also thought to be a greater issue for females than males, because estrogen receptor genes may intensify the effects of the CILP polymorphism. While many researchers stand by twin studies, which claim a large genetic influence for certain types of OA, other researchers argue that the aforementioned experiments grossly overestimate heredity (Weiss 2007: 440). Many researchers claim that twin studies may well produce inflated heritability values since environmental factors may be more significant for both identical and fraternal twins (Weiss 2007: 440). Samsbrook et al. (1999) conducted a study in which they examined OA through MRI examining the cervical and lumbar spine of 172 monozygotic and 154 dizygotic twins selected at random. They found that overall heritability was 74% at the lumbar spine, and 73% at the

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cervical spine. Even though they adjusted results to account for age, weight, height, smoking, occupational manual work, and exercise they still note that twin studies may produce biased results because subjects with a given disease self-select themselves for the study (Samsbrook et al. 1999: 370). Other osteolotists claim that while cervical and lumbar disc morphology (disc

height and bulge), and lumbar osteophyte growth, seem to be heritable, twin studies simply fail to control for all of the various environmental factors shared by participants in such studies (Sambrook et al. 1999: 366). Many researchers also stress that while genetics may certainly have an important link to OA, it is more likely that genetics affects the severity of OA when present and not simply the presence or absence of OA (Weiss 2007: 440).

Osteoarthritis of the Spine

Spinal column OA is universal among past populations, but the diseases extent and severity differ widely across different cultures (Roberts 2005: 141). Because of the spines S shaped curvature, some segments experience more biomechanical stress than other sections during normal bipedalism (Brown et al. 2008). The human spine is convex posteriorly in the thoracic region, and concave posteriorly in the lumbar and cervical sections. Because of this pattern of curvature, the fifth cervical, eighth thoracic, and fourth lumbar vertebrae are the most stressed during daily activities and over ones lifetime (Roberts 2005: 139). This occurs because these vertebrae are located furthest from the bodys center of gravity, thus the transfer of weight resting upon them is greater (Derevenski et al. 2000:350). Between each vertebral body is an intervertebral disc, composed of a fibrous capsule called the annulus fibrous, which is filled with gelatinous fluid known as the nucleus pulposus (Roberts 2005:140). In cases of spinal OA, continuous stress causes the nucleus pulposus to infiltrate the annulus fibrous, causing the capsule to fracture and rupture. This trauma causes

21

osteophytes to erupt around the margins of the vertebral body in an attempt to form a wider platform to handle physical stress- a process known as osteophytosis (Roberts 2005: 140). As the gelatinous fluid continues to break through the fibrous capsule, bony growth around the vertebral body continues, forming a lip. In particularly severe cases of spinal OA, the vertebrae may fuse together in a condition known as ankylosis. This occurs when bony outgrowths between vertebral bodies join (Roberts 2005: 140). In addition to osteophytosis, cartilage

between vertebral bodies may also deteriorate, causing the fibrous bone to become pitted, porous and weakened (Roberts 2005: 140). Many researchers argue that apophyseal facet remodeling may be an even better gauge of mechanical stressors than other traditional criteria such as osteophytosis, sclerosis, eburnation and pitting (Derevenski et al. 2000: 338). Facet remodeling occurs when the inferior and superior facets of the apophyseal joint become buttressed up against the margin of the adjoining facets, becoming warped and misshapen. The superior and inferior facets then form a lock and and key, or puzzle piece effect suggesting that the facets were shaped and deformed by biomechanical stresses and compression placed on the spine (Derevenski et al. 2000: 338). Derevenski et al. (2000) notes that articular facet remodeling is the bones response to excess stress when vertebral slipping occurs because of disc compression, collapse, or general deterioration (Derevenski et al. 2000: 338). Derevenski et al. (2000) argues that many biological anthropologists have had a tendency to focus exclusively on osteophyte growth, sclerosis, and eburnation as their main criteria for diagnosing and assessing OA, because these traditional markers are convenient and allow ease of identification (Derevenski et al. 2000: 338). Nevertheless, Derevenki and her colleagues argue that facet remodeling should be added to the

22

list of commonly used OA markers, adding that it may be used as a more sensitive early indicator of activity related OA (Derevenski et al. 2000: 338).

Osteoarthritis as a Biomechanical Indicator of Past Activities

It has been argued that sexual dimorphism in OA patterning and distribution may demonstrate gendered divisions of labor within a given population. Past anthropologists have pointed out that at hunter gatherer Native American sites such as Indian Knoll, Mobridge, and Grasshopper Pueblo, males tended to have more appendicular arthritis, while females exhibited more temporomandibular OA, likely from softening hide and other materials using their teeth (Bridges 1992: 75). In contrast, studies of several California hunter-gatherer groups have shown that males showed more OA of the hand, shoulder, and elbow, while women exhibited more arthritis of the knee and vertebrae, suggesting gendered divisions of labor. Bridges (1994) also examined spinal OA in a prehistoric group from northwestern Alabama. She found that

patterning and distribution of OA mostly followed the natural curvature of the spine, with most osteophytosis occurring in the lumbar region. However, she also found a large amount of cervical OA, suggesting tumpline use and burden carrying using the head and upper neck. Thus, she concludes that while most OA is likely caused by natural bipedalism, it can be modified by habitual behavior (Bridges 1994: 92). Moreover, many groups such as several hunter-gather groups from Alabama, and prehistoric Illinois groups (for example, Dixon Mounds) have shown little sexual dimorphism in OA patterning and distribution, suggesting more egalitarian workloads, and less division of tasks (Bridges 1992: 75). Many researchers argue that biomechanical pathologies like OA may be used in conjunction with ethnographic information and known gendered divisions of labor to evaluate

23

the impact of daily activities and lifestyles on synovial joints (Leiverse et al. 2006: 1). For example, some claim that by examining the distribution and patterning of OA, anthropologists can gain a more thorough understanding of the subsistence strategies and daily activities of past populations (Derevenski 2000: 334). Physical anthropologists like Lieverse et al. (2007) argue that OA and activity are clearly related. Lieverse and colleagues note that human populations that have historically high levels of activity also have correspondingly high levels of OA. In addition, they claim that patterning and distribution of OA may reflect specific biomechanical activities over time (Lieverse et al. 2007: 1). However, some researchers disagree about whether traditional OA criteria such as osteophytosis, sclerosis, and eburnation of the vertebral bodies and apophyseal joints are actually valuable indicators of activity related stresses (Rojas-Seplveda et al. 2008; Derevenski et al. 2000: 334). Many studies claim that activity related stresses do not leave diagnostic signs on the spine, but instead manifest in predictable patterning of OA in accordance with the curvature of the vertebral column (Bridges 1992 & 1994; Knsel et al. 1997). Consequently, many physical anthropologists reject the activity-related findings of past OA studies, which rely exclusively on traditional markers. Patricia Bridges (1992 & 1994), and Knsel et al. (1997), argue that many times these observations cannot be directly linked to specific activities. Several scholars claim that degeneration of the apophyseal facets are a more effective gauge of lifestyle stresses than traditional markers of OA such as osteophytosis, sclerosis and eburnation. Derevenski et al. (2000) points out that plastic change of the apophyseal facets may be the first signs of OA, occurring before traditional markers. During plastic remodeling of the vertebral facets joint surfaces become modified in response to biomechanical stress. Thus, she claims that facet

24

remodeling may represent a precursor to more well-known indicators of OA (Derevenski et al. 200: 338). Derevenski et al. compared spinal OA in two populations in England: the 16 th-19th century site of Ensay, and a skeletal collection from the medieval site of Wharram Percy (Derevenski et al. 2000: 333). Fortunately, Derevenski and colleagues had access to informative ethnographic documentation, which allowed them to explore possible causes of the spinal OA observed in each group. Overall, Derevenski et al. (2000) found that two populations she studied had predictable patterning and distribution of osteophytosis on the vertebral bodies in accordance with the spines natural curvature, but differences in facet remodeling. She found that the sample from Ensay had more facet remodeling than the skeletons from Wharram Percy. In the Ensay population, women and men had distinct gendered divisions of labor, and the differences in OA distribution and patterning between the sexes was marked (Derevenski 2000: 352). In comparison, men and women from Wharram Percy were more similar in their distribution of facet remodeling, and showed less variation between the sexes. These results matched

ethnographic documents reporting that the population did not have gendered divisions of labor as distinct as those existing in Ensay (Derevenski 2000: 352). Derevenski et al. found that remodeling was a more effective gauge of activity related stress for both populations in their study than traditional markers of OA (Derevenski 2000: 352). Derevenski et al.s study showed that both populations showed biomechanically normal osseous changes of the spine as would be expected from normal vertebral curvature. However, they found significant differences between the two populations and between men and women within each group by examining apophyseal facet remodeling (Derevenski 2000: 351). For example, Ensay females had a block of vertebrae situated around T1 that showed statistically

25

significant amounts of facet remodeling, and facet sclerosis and eburnation. This was likely due to carrying creels, which transforms the normal curvature of the spine from an S shape, to a more hooked position, putting pressure on the upper thoracic region, and taking pressure off the lumbar. Interestingly, females from Ensay also showed less vertebral body OA in the lumbar region than other groups in the study (Derevenski et al. 2000: 351). Thus, they argue that osseous remodeling of the apophyseal facets might therefore be a better indicator of activity related stress in humans than traditional markers that focus primarily on the vertebral bodies (Derevenski et al. 2000: 337). Brown et al. examined this assertion in their 2008 article, where they used cadaver spines to test the hypothesis that degenerative changes in human apophyseal joints are related to high levels of compressive load-bearing. Brown et al. exposed 36 thoracic-lumbar segments aged 64-92 years to a high impact compressive force of 1.5 knots (kN). The distribution of the compressive force was then measured within each segment through a pressure transducer, and these sums were calculated independently from the initial 1.5 kN force to obtain total compressive load-bearing by the apophyseal joints alone (Brown et al. 2008: 318). Brown and colleagues found that in elderly individuals, apophyseal joint-bearing was positively linked to severe DJD in both spinal cartilage and bone half of the time. From these findings, Brown et al. concluded that activities involving significant amounts of compressive load bearing may indeed produce pathological indicators that can assist in investigations of sex or age related lifestyle differences (Brown et al. 2008: 324) Despite these findings, some researchers claim that even apophyseal facet remodeling is a poor indicator of occupational stress, often citing genetic research (especially twin studies) in their arguments. For example, Knsel et al. (1997) claims that degenerative changes in the

26

vertebral column are always the result of biomechanical stresses exerted on the spine by bipedalism: this difference was produced as a response to erect posture during bipedal locomotion, reflecting vertebral curvatures, rather than differing occupational stress (Knsel et al. 1997: 481). Thus, they posit that the stresses from most physical activities are likely

confounded by natural wear and tear due to natural locomotion. However, they do note that in cases of considerable biomechanical compressive force, such as in the case of the ancient Harappans who used their heads for weight bearing, substantial compression of the head and neck may lead to OA of the cervical spine (Knsel et al. 1997: 494). However, Knsel et al. (1997) argue that the pelvic girdle and upper limbs may be better areas to judge activity related stress through OA patterning and distribution compared to the spinal column (Knsel et al. 1997: 494). Overall, there remains marked disagreement among researchers over whether OA of the spine can be directly linked to activity related stresses. Furthermore, there have been relatively few OA studies carefully examining apophyseal facet remodeling. To contribute to ongoing research on OA, and particularly on plastic remodeling of the vertebral facets, I examined spinal OA in a Native American population, looking at traditional markers of OA on the vertebral bodies and facets, as well as apophyseal remodeling.

Research Introduction and Sample Selection

Using a cemetery collection from the Engelbert site, I examined OA of the spine, assessing osteophytosis, sclerosis, eburnation, and plastic remodeling of the facets. Given evidence (described above) that there was gendered division of labor in this population, my goal

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was to investigate the patterning and distribution of OA between men and women at the Engelbert site. My data sample consisted of adult members of the Englebert cemetery collection. One hundred and thirty five individuals were unearthed at Englebert. Of these bodies, I included 35 mature skeletons (22 male and 13 female) dating from between ~1350 B.C. -1000 B.C., with acceptable completeness and preservation. I did not include any burials that were theorized to be clearly Schultz (1525-1575) or Proto-Susquehannock (after 1350) because these burials were so much younger than the other interments, and may have represented different cultural practices. I separated both males and females into age categories: 18-35, and 35+. For aging and sexing my specimens, I relied on museum records from past analyses of the collection. As in Lieverse et al.s 2007 study, I only included vertebrae that exhibited acceptable preservation of the joint surfaces and margins (Lieverse et al. 2007). Many researchers, such as Derevenski et al. (2000), who examine spinal OA, only include individuals who have either complete segments of the spine (C1-C7, T1-T6, T7-T12, or L1-L5), or complete spines. However, I chose to emulate Rojas-Seplveda et al. (2008), and conduct my research vertebrae by vertebrae. All of my research was non-destructive, non-invasive, and macroscopic. I examined each vertebra for osteophytosis of the vertebral bodies and apophyseal joints, as well as sclerosis, eburnation, and plastic remodeling of the superior and inferior articular facets.

Data and Methodology

Each individual apophyseal facet was scored separately for the presence, absence, and severity of osteophytosis, sclerosis and eburnation (as one category), and plastic facet

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remodeling. Superior and inferior aspects and left and right facets were scored separately. For scoring severity, a scale of 0-4, was used (described below), with unobservable also being used as an option when the specific area was broken or poorly preserved (Rojas-Seplveda et al. 2008).

Assessing Osteophytosis Osteophytosis, as described by Sger (1969) are irregular beak-like formations of new bone on the joint surface. For assessing osteophyte growth on the vertebral body, I used a scale from 0-4, modeled on Rojas- Seplveda et al. 2008s study, which was originally derived from Sger (1969). For assessing osteophytosis of vertebral bodies and apophyseal facets, I followed Derevenski et al. (2000), and used Sgers 1969 system, using a scale of 0-4 (absence of fusion to complete fusion) of adjacent vertebrae. Grade 1 I is characterized by small scattered hyperostosis (Sger 1969: 58). Grade 2 II has protrusions of bone in a horizontal direction from the corpus vertebrae. Grade 3III shows the osteophytes with a characteristics birds beak shape where the bone has erupted from the edge of the vertebral body. These osteophytes may contact bone spurs on the other side of the discus (Sger 1969: 58). Grade 4IV is given when osteophytes from adjacent vertebrae fuse forming a bone ridge across both adjacent vertebrae (Sger 1969: 58).

Assessing Sclerosis and Eburnation I scored sclerosis and eburnation together, since eburnation usually follows sclerosis. Sclerosis is the formation of thickened bone on a bony surface caused by friction and

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compression (Sger 1969: 58). After bone has become sclerotic polishing and rubbing gives the bone a shiny, lustrous appearance. This polishing is known as eburnation. Sclerosis always precedes eburnation, but eburnation need not always follow sclerosis (Sger 1969: 58). I used a scale of 0-4 as follows: 0=absent, 1=sclerosis, 2=sclerosis with some eburnation visible 3=eburnation, more extensive than sclerosis and 4=extreme eburnation (Derevenski et al. 2000: 341). In practice, a score of 4 was never used.

Assessing Plastic Bone Remodeling Each individual apophyseal facet was scored separately for the presence, absence, and severity of articular facet remodeling. Superior and inferior aspects, and right and left facets, were scored separately. Scoring used a scale of 0-4, with unobservable also being used as an option when the specific area was broken or badly preserved (Rojas- Seplveda et al. 2008). I also used Derevenski et al.s (2008) study as a guide for my apophyseal joint scoring criteria. Score O was given when the inferior margin of the superior articular facet is sharp and distinct, and has no increased surface area extending onto the lamina, or downwards (RojasSeplveda et al. 2008). Score 1 was given when the inferior margin of the superior articular facet is
indistinct and slightly warped without a sharp margin. The facet has an increased surface area extending downwards onto the proceeding vertebras lamina (Rojas- Seplveda et al. 2008). For score 2, there is a newly formed small bony shelf on the lamina of the proceeding vertebrae, which acts to support the inferior articular process of the upper vertebra (Rojas- Seplveda et al. 2008). Score 3, as in stage 2, is characterized by a significantly larger bony shelf extending downwards into the laminal groove and outwards onto the transverse process of the proceeding vertebra. The superior margin of the superior articular process is rounded anteriorally. The inferior articular facet of the preceding vertebra has

30 indistinct margins and fits together with the articular facet of the proceeding vertebrae as a lock and key, or a puzzle piece. Lastly the facets of proceeding and preceding vertebrae are extremely warped

and fused together (Rojas- Seplveda et al. 2008). In addition, I used the score of unobservable for individual facets that were damaged, and a score of 4 for cases of extreme remodeling displaying fusion with adjacent vertebrae (Rojas- Seplveda et al. 2008). Joanna Derevenski was also kind enough to provide me with enlarged photographs of facet remodeling to assist with my veterbrae scoring (Images 13-16). These snapshots were invaluable to my research, as her 2000 study was the first of its kind to put forth specific criteria for evaluating plastic changes in the apophyseal facets of the spine.

Hypotheses
Given evidence that the population at Engelbert did have marked gendered divisions of labor (as described above), this paper tests the following hypotheses: 1). Null hypothesis: There are no consistent differences in facet remodeling between males and females. Alternate hypothesis: Males and females will show clear differences with respect to remodeling of the apophyseal facets.

Data Analysis
I created tables scoring burials by sex and age. All of my data tables are included in the appendix. I then arranged my data into sexed age groups, organized by each vertebra, vertebral aspect (e.g. superior right facet), and specific pathology (e.g. osteophytosis). For example, all data for males 18-35 with osteophytosis present on the superior vertebral body (SVB) of C1 were

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compiled into one score, and overall scores were created by counting all the C1s that were observable, and then summing all of the C1s whose SVB showed the presence of osteophytosis. For example, a score might look like: 1/5, with 1 as the number of C1 vertebrae with osteophytosis present on the SVB, and 5 as the number of observable C1 vertebrae, SVBs present within the 18-35 age male category. After these were completed, I compared the

frequencies of markers of OA between males and females using a Chi-square test, with a significance level of = 0.05, and a degree of freedom of 1. I then ran power calculations to determine whether the samples sizes were large enough to allow me to reject the null hypothesis. I also used adjusted Bonferroni comparionscomparisons to assess whether significance values obtained at = 0.05 were still significant once the alpha value was divided by the number of tests performed. Comparisons were only considered truly significant when they also remained significant after performing the Bonferroni adjustment. I combined categories to compare overall findings of osteophytosis, eburnation and sclerosis, as well as remodeling for each vertebra within age categories (Tables 1-6). I then combined data further, and compared overall segments (e.g. C1-C7, T1-T6, T7-T12, and L1-L5) (Tables 7-8). Lastly, I compared data that included each individual only once per each vertebral segment. For example, each individual in a certain gendered age group that had OA present on any vertebra within the segment C1-C7 received a score of present for the entire section (Tables 11-14). Lastly, I compared young and old individuals within each gendered category to examine whether older members of the collection showed substantially more OA than younger skeletons (Tables 9-10).

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Although I scored for severity in my initial analysis, when compiling my final data I decided to focus on presence and absence instead of the 0-4 gradation scores. However, all of my 0-4 scoring is available on the data charts in the appendix. It would be interesting to go back and analyze this data examining severity of vertebral OA between men and women at Engelbert. In addition, I did not perform either intra-observer analysis or inter-observer analysis. This is an important step for researchers compiling scoring data and should be incorporated as much as possible into studies of this nature. Unfortunately, my time with Engelbert was limited. I cannot go back and perform this additional step since the collection is in the process of being repatriated.

Results and Discussion

Although I found that males and females did show some significant differences in their patterning and distribution of OA, no clear, consistent patterns emerged. Overall, I found significant results when comparing males and females by entire vertebral segments (Tables 1011). Tables 10-11 examine each segment adding up values from previous charts, potentially counting some individuals more than once. However, Tables 10-14 count each individual only once, considering any presence scores for a vertebra within a segment as present for the entire segment. For most of the results that were not statistically significant, power calculations suggest that the corresponding sample sizes were too small to adequately test the hypothesis. Overall, I was able to reject my null hypothesis since I was able to find some difference between male and female facet remodeling. However, more research is needed to determine if these differences represent a consistent pattern of activity related stress.

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In Table 10, 18-36 year old males and females had significant differences in osteophytosis in both the T1-T6 and the T7-T12 segments. In addition, there was significant difference between facet remodeling in the C1-C7 and T7-T12 vertebrae. In Table 11, males and females showed significant differences in osteophytosis in the C1-C7, T7-T12, and the L1-L5 vertebral segments as well. I also found interesting results for the comparisons of younger and older individuals within each gendered group (Tables 9-10). I found that 35+-year-old men had more

osteophytosis than 18-35 year old individuals from C1 all the way down to T12. Older men also showed more sclerosis in the cervical region than young men. Comparing young and old females I had similar results, suggesting that OA is a disease that advances with age. However, like with my other data calculations, many of these sample sizes may not have been ideal to demonstrate consistent patterns.

Conclusion
Overall, my data allowed me to reject my null hypothesis. However, many of my results may have been skewed due to an insufficient sample size. Although my results did not

conclusively demonstrate that traditional markers of OA are valid markers of activity related stresses, my data did show that men and women had slightly different patterns and distributions of OA at Engelbert. More research is needed to evaluate whether this difference can be linked to a consistent, clear pattern of activity related stress. Thus, although my research did not reach any definite, solid conclusions about OA as a gauge of activity related stress, it has emphasized the need for more studies on both traditional markers of OA and facet remodeling. Spinal OA may well be a legitimate window window into the lifestyles of past peoples. More research in the

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fields of genetics, sex differences, cartilage studies, immunology, and environmental factors are all needed before scientists will be able to understand the interrelationship between OA and biomechanical habits in life.

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Weiss, E., and R. Jurmain 2007. Osteoarthritis Revisited: A Contemporary Review of Aetiology. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 17: 437-450. Zhang. Yuong; Timothy E. McAlindon; Marian T. Hannan; Christine E. Chaisson; Ray Klein; Peter W. F. Wilson and David T. Felson 1998. Estrogen Replacement Therapy and Worsening of Radiographic Knee Osteoarthrits: The Framingham Study. Arthritis & Rheumatism 41 (10) 1867-1873.

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Image 1

Volunteers excavating at the Engelbert Site (Elliot et al. 1969)

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Image 2

A view of excavations in progress June, 1968 (Elliot et al. 1969)

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Image 3

Visitors at the Engelbert Site (Elliot et al. 1969)

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Image 4- Adult male buried with clay pipe (Elliot et al. 1969)

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Image 5

Adult male buried with antlers (Elliot et al. 1969)

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Image 6

Levanna point http://www.lithicsnet.com/levanna.htm

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Image 7- Adult male buried with trumpet clay pipe (Elliot et al. 1969)

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Image 8

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Tulip clay bowls (Kent 1984)

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Image 9

Steatite pipe -Google Images

www.dargate.com/.../247_images/247sculp.htm

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Image 10

Google Images- www.pennarchaeologymonth.org