Ge104 Chapter4 Module

Reference No: KLL-FO-ACAD-000 | Effectivity Date: August 3, 2020 | Revisions No.
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MODULE
FIRST Semester, AY 2020-2021
I. COURSE : GE 104 – Mathematics in the Modern World
II. SUBJECT MATTER

SUBJECT MATTER Time-Frame
Chapter 4. Data Management November 3, 2021 – December 3, 2021
A. Measures of Central Tendency
B. Measures of Dispersion
C. Measure of Relative Position
D. Normal Distribution
E. Linear Regression and Correlation
III. COURSE OUTCOME

At the end of the course, the students should be able to:
A. To understand the nature of statistics.
B. To gain deeper insights on the different levels of measurements.
C. To clarify the meaning of some important key concepts.
D. To explore the strengths and limitations of garphical representation.
IV. ENGAGEMENT
General Fields of Statistics: Descriptive Statistics and Inferential Statistics
Descriptive Statistics. If statistics, in general, basically deals with analysis of data, then descriptive
statistics part of the general field is about “describing” data in symbolic forms and abbreviated fashions.
Sometimes we dealing with a large amount of data and that it is impossible to describe it as it is being a
large amount of data but descriptive statistics will provide us certain tools to make the data manageable to
handle and conveniently neat to describe.
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To explore the characteristics of descriptive statistics, let us create a fictitious situation. What does it
mean if someone tells you that majority of workers earn approximately P20,000.00 in a month? Were you
able to dissect the idea behind the plain statement? Does it trigger your mind to question further?
This statement is a piece of information that described a particular trait or characteristic of a group of
workers. Supplied with this singular information but armed with statistical inquisitiveness, descriptive
statistics can further describe the given information to the extent of its depth and breadth.
Inferential Statistics. We could probably argue that descriptive statistics, with its characteristic to
describe, is sufficient to depict any given information. While it is effective to describe a manageable size of
data, it can hardly engulf a sizeable amount of data. Thus, for this kind of situation, inferential statistics is
the alternative technique that can be used. Inferential statistics has the ability to “infer” and to generalize
and it offers the right tool to predict values that are not really known.
Let us consider the fictitious situation we made under descriptive statistics, but this time instead of
reporting the approximate monthly earning of some workers, we want to determine the estimated monthly
earnings of all the workers in a certain region. By attempting to apply descriptive statistics, it would be
impossible to ask all the workers in the entire region about their monthly income. But by using inferential
statistics, we would instead practically decide to select just a small number of workers and ask them of
their monthly income. From there, we can predict or approximate in a “more or less” fashion the monthly
income of all workers in the entire region.
Of course, inference or generalization is a risky process that is why we need to ensure that the small
group of workers we selected are the approximate representative of the workers in the entire region. But
nevertheless, this inference or prediction is better than chance accuracy.
Measurement
It essentially means quantifying an observation according to a certain rule. For instance, the presence of
fever can be quantified by using a thermometer. Body weight can be determined by using a weighing
scale. Or the mental ability can be quantified by using written examination that can generate scores. The
quantification sometimes can be done is simply counting. In quantifying an observation, there are two
types of quantitative informations: variable and constant. A variable is something that can be measured
and observed to vary. While a constant is something that does not vary, and it only maintains a single
value.
Scales of Measurement
- Nominal Scale : Categorical Data
- Ordinal Scale : Ranked Data
- Interval/Ratio Scale : Measurement Data

To quantify an observation, it is necessary to identify its scale of measurement, it is known as level of
measurement. Scale of measurement is the gateway to the fascinating world of statistics. Without
sufficient knowledge of it, all our statistical learnings lead to nowhere.
Nominal Scale. It concerns with categorical data. It simply means using numbers to label categories. This
is done by counting the occurrence of frequency within categories. One condition is that the categories
must be independent or mutually exclusive. This implies that once something is identified under a certain
category, then that something cannot be reassigned at the same time to another category.
An example for this, if we want to measure a group of people according to marital status. We can
categorize marital status by simply assigning a number. For instance “1” for single and “2” for married.
Marital Status: Single (1) and Married (2)

(1) (2)
Obviously, those numbers only serve as labels and they do not contain any numerical weight. Thus, we
cannot say that married people (having been labelled 2) have more marital status than single people
(having been labelled 1).
Ordinal Scale: It concerns with ranked data. There are instances wherein comparison is necessary and
cannot be avoided. Ordinal scale provides ranking of the observation in order to generate information to
the extent of “greater than” or “less than;”. But the ranked data generated is limited also the extent of
“greater than” or “less than;”. It is not capable of telling information about how much greater or how much
less.
Ordinal scale can be best illustrated in sports activities like fun run. Finding the order finish among the
participants in a fun run always come up with a ranking. However, ranked data cannot provide information
as to the difference in time between 1 st placer and 2nd placer. Relative to this, reading reports with ordinal
information is also tricky. For example, a TV commercial extol a certain brand for being the number one
product in the country. This may seem acceptable, but if you learned that there is no other product then
definitely the message of the commercial will be swallowed with an smirking face.
Interval Scale: It deals with measurement data. In the nominal scale, we use numbers to label categories
while in the ordinal scale we use numbers to merely provide information regarding greater than or less
than. However, in interval scale we assign numbers in such a way that there is meaning and weight on the
value of points between intervals. This scale of measurement provides more information about the data.
Consider the comparative illustration below:

Academic performance of five students in a certain class
Student A Student B Student C Student D Student E
Interval Data 99 74 73 70 70
Ordinal Data 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
Nominal Data Passed Failed Failed Failed Failed
As you may have noticed, the interval scale provides substantial information about the grades of students.
Student A earned a grade of 99, and so on and so forth. Now look at the information given by ordinal data.
It is simply about ranking. With this of information, Student B can proudly and rightfully claim the 2 nd place
in the ranking. Ordinal scale is a trusted friend to keep a secret, that the grade of student B though
claiming 2nd place is actually 74. Let us analyze the nominal data in our example. With this scale, it is also
alright for the school sadly to announce that only one student passed and four students failed. Nominal
data cannot provide more information specifically provide brighter limelight to student A. Audience may
assume that Student A just got passing grade a little bit higher than the passing mark but student A grade
of 99 will remain hidden forever.
Ratio Scale. This is an extension of an interval scale. It also pertains with measurement data but ratio’s
point of view is about absolute value. Because of this, we oftentimes cannot utilize ratio scale in the social
sciences. We cannot justify an absolute value to gauge intelligence. We cannot say that our student A
with a grade of 99 has an intelligence several points superior than student E who hardly but successfully
achieved a grade of 70.
Key Concepts in Statistics
Population. A population can be defined as an entire group people, things, or events having at least one
trait in common (Sprinthall, 1994). A common trait is the binding factor in order to group a cluster and call
it a population. Merely having a clustering of people, things or events cannot be considered as a
population. At least one common trait must be established to make a population. But, on the other hand,
adding too many common traits can also limit the size of the population. In the illustration below, notice
how a trait can severely reduce the size or membership in the population.
A group of students (this is a population, since the common trait is “students”)

A group of male students.
A group of male students attending the Statistics class
A group of male students attending the Statistics class with iPhone
A group of male students attending the Statistics class with iPhone and Earphone
As we read the list, we can mentally visualize that the size of the population is dramatically becoming
smaller and as we add more traits we may wonder if anyone still qualifies. The more common traits we
add, the more we reduce the designated population.

Parameter. In gauging the entire population, any measure obtained is called a parameter. Situationally, if
someone asks you as to what is the parameter of the study, then bear in mind that he is referring to the
size of the entire population. In some situations where the actual size of the population is difficult to obtain;
the parameters are in the form of estimate or inference.
Sample. The small number of observation taken from the total number making up a population is called a
sample. As long as the observation or data is not the totality of the entire population, then it is always
considered a sample. For instance, in a population of 100, then 1 is considered as a sample. 30 is clearly
a sample. It may seem absurd but 99 taken from 100 is still considered a sample. Not until we include that
last number (making it 100) could we claim that it is already a population and no longer a sample.
Statistic. In gauging the sample, any measure obtained from the sample is called a statistic. Whenever
we describe the sample, then it is called statistics. Since a sample is easier to observe or gather than the
population, then statistics are simpler to gather than the parameter.
Graphical representation
Graphs. It is another way to visually show the behavior of data. To create a graph, distribution of scores
must be organized. For instance, in the scores provided below, presenting the scores in an unorganized
manner can provide confusing or no information at all; Reporting raw can even hide some significant
scores to be noticed.
120, 65, 110, 75, 105, 80, 105,
85, 100, 85, 100, 90, 95, 90, 90
But when we arrange the scores from highest to lowest, which is a form of score distribution, some
pieces of information can gradually brought forth and exposed.
Distribution of Scores
120
110
105
105
100
100
95
90
90
90
85
85
80
75

65
The score distribution can still be organized in a form of a frequency distribution. Frequency distribution
provides information about raw scores, and the frequency of occurrences. Frequency distribution provides
clearer insights about the behavior of scores.
X f
(Raw score) (Frequency of Occurrence)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
120 1
110 1
105 2
100 2
95 1
90 3
85 2
80 1
75 1
65 1
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Another alternative way of presenting data in frequency distribution is to present them in a tabular form. A
tabular form has the advantage of showing the visual representation of the data. This kind of presentation
is more appealing to the general audience.
Frequency of Occurrence
0 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Raw scores
Another way of showing the data in graphical form is by using Microsoft Excel, as also illustrated in the
graphs below. It is the frequency polygon of the scores in our cited example above.

Notice in the illustration of the frequency polygon, the two graphs may appear different but they are
actually the same and they disclose the similar information. This illustration will allow you realize that
unless you see things with a critical eye, a graph can create a false impression of what the data really
reveal. This is an obvious situation showing how graphs can be used to distort reality if you are not
equipped with a critical statistical mind. This type of deceitful cleverness in distorting graphs is common in
some corporations devising the tinsel to camouflage and also to portray some gigantic leaps in sales in
order to attract more clients or buyers.
(Do Activity 1)
A. Measures of Central Tendency
Specific Objectives :
A. To know the different measures of central tendency.
B. To comprehend the limitations of the three measures.
C. To realize the effect of the measures in the distribution.
D. To critically know how to select appropriate measure to describe a certain distribution.
Discussion
As we venture into the realm of descriptive statistics, let us now focus in describing the nature of a
quantitative data. By using an appropriate descriptive technique, we can organize and neatly summarize
small amounts and large amounts of data distribution. The procedure, utilizing measures of central
tendency, allows us to precisely describe the centrality of data distribution.

Measures of central tendency are methods that can used to determine information regarding average,
ranking, and category of any data distribution. Mean, median and mode are the three tools in obtaining
the measures of central tendency. But only by knowing and using the appropriate tool that most accurate
estimation of centrality can be achieved. The objective of the measures of central tendency is to describe
the centrality of the distribution into a single numerical unit. This single numerical unit must provide clear
description about the common trait being observed in the distribution of scores.
The Mean
The most widely used measure of the central tendency is the mean ( ). It is the arithmetic average
of all the scores. The mean can be determined by adding all the scores together and then by dividing by
the total number of scores. The basic formula for the mean is as follows:
The operational term “summation” The raw scores

indicating to add all measures of𝑥
∑𝑥
= 𝑁 The entire number of
observations being dealt with
Mean
In the example below concerning the annual income of 12 workers, the mean can be found by calculating
the average score of the distribution.
X
===========================
Php 200,000.00
200,000.00
195,000.00
194,000.00
194,000.00
194,000.00
193,000.00
190,000.00
185,000.00
180,000.00
180,000.00
176,000.00
=========================== ∑ 𝑥 =
Php 2, 281,000.00

∑𝑥 2,281,000.00
= = =Php 190,083.00
𝑁 12
In this example, the mean is an appropriate measure of central tendency because the distribution is fairly
well-balanced. This means that there are no extremely high or extremely low scores in either direction that
can unusually influence the average of the scores. Thus, the mean value of 190,083.00 represents the
total picture of the distribution (i.e. annual incomes). This means that in a “more or less” or approximate
fashion it describes the entire distribution.
Mean of Skewed Distribution. There are situations wherein the mean cannot be trusted to provide a
measure of central tendency because it portrays an extremely distorted picture of the average value of a
distribution of scores. For instance, let us still consider our example of annual incomes but this time with
some adjustment. Let us introduce another score. The annual income of an affluent new neighbor who
happened to move to this town just recently. This new neighbor has a frugal high annual income so
extremely far above the others.
New neighbor
===========================
Php2,500,000.00
200,000.00
200,000.00
195,000.00
194,000.00
194,000.00
194,000.00
193,000.00
190,000.00
185,000.00
180,000.00
180,000.00
176,000.00
===========================
∑ 𝑥 = Php 4, 481,000.00
∑𝑥 4,281,000.00
Php 367,769.00

As you may have noticed, the mean income of Php 367,769.00 this time provides a highly misleading
picture of great prosperity for this neighborhood. The distribution was unbalanced by an extreme score of
the new affluent neighbor. This is what we call an skewed distribution.
Here are some graphic illustration of a skewed distribution:
When the tail goes to the right, the curve is positively skewed; when it goes to the left, it is negatively
skewed. The skew is in the direction of the tail-off of scores, not of the majority of scores. The mean is
always pulled toward the extreme score in a skewed distribution. When the extreme score is at the low
end, then the mean is too low to reflect centrality. When the extreme score is at the high end, the mean is
too high.
The Median
The median is the point that separates the upper half from the lower half of the distribution. It is the
middle point or midpoint of any distribution. If the distribution is made up of an even number of scores, the
median can be found by determining the point that lies halfway between the two middlemost scores.
193,000.00
190,000.00
Median=
185,000.00
180,000.00
Arranging scores to form a distribution means listing them sequentially either highest to lowest or lowest to
highest. Unlike the mean, the median is not affected by skewed distribution. Whenever the mean cannot
provide centrality because of extreme scores present, the median can be used to provide a more accurate
representation.

Calculation of the Median
X
===========================
➔➔➔ Php 2,
500,000.00
200,000.00
200,000.00
195,000.00
194,000.00
194,000.00
194,000.00 ----- 194,000.00 Median
193,000.00
190,000.00
185,000.00
180,000.00
180,000.00
176,000.00
===========================
As you observed, even with the presence of extreme score at the high end of the distribution- the value of
the median is still undisturbed.
The Mode
Another measure of central tendency is called the mode. It is the most frequently occurring score in a
distribution. In a histogram, the mode is always located beneath the tallest bar.

Finding the mode of a distribution of raw scores (Annual Income)
X
===========================
Php 2, 500,000.00
200,000.00
200,000.00
195,000.00
194,000.00
194,000.00 Mode
194,000.00
193,000.00
190,000.00
185,000.00
180,000.00
180,000.00
176,000.00
===========================
The mode provides an extremely fast way of knowing the centrality of the distribution. You can
immediately spot the mode by simply looking at the data and find the dominant constant. It is the
frequently occurring scores.
Appropriate Use of the Mean, Median and Mode
The best way to illustrate the comparative applicability of the mean, median and mode is to look again at
the skewed distribution.
10,000
Frequency of Occurrence
Mode
100,000
Mean
20,000
Median
Distribution of monthly income per household in a certain municipality.

Most income is always skewed to the right because the low end has a fixed limit of zero while the high end
has no limit. If we consider that the area of the curve is 100 percent, then the median is the exact midpoint
of the distribution. The area below and above the median is both equal to 50 percent. Thus, if the median
income is P20,000.00 this means that 50% of the households have an income below P20,000.00 and 50%
of the households have an income above P20,000.00. On the other hand, the mean in our figure above
indicates a high income of P 100,000. This makes the curve positively skewed. The value of the mean
gives a distorted picture of reality. The value of the mean is being unduly influenced by few affluent
income earners at the high end of the curve whose monthly income is almost around P 500,000.00.
Looking at the modal income, which is P 10,000 per month, seemed also to distort the reality towards the
low side. The mode is always the highest point of the curve. In this example, the mode represents the
most frequently-earned income; it is far lower than the median income of P 20,000.00. Both the mean and
the mode give a false portrait of distribution typicality and the truth lies somewhere in between.
Effects of the Scale of Measurement Used
The scale of measurement in which the data are based oftentimes dictates the measures of central
tendency to be used. The interval data can entertain the calculations of all three measures of central
tendency. The modal and ordinal data cannot be used to calculate for the mean. Ordinal mean can
provide an extremely confusing wrong result. Since median is about ranking, a rank above the score falls
and a rank below a score falls; the ordinal arrangement is necessary in finding the median. For the
nominal data, however, neither the mean nor the median can be used. Nominal data are restricted by
simply using a number as a label for a category and the only measure of central tendency permissible for
nominal data is the mode.
In summary, if the interval data distribution is fairly well balanced, it is appropriate to use the mean to
measure the central tendency. If the distribution of the interval data is skewed, you may either remove the
outlier or adopt the median. If the interval data distribution manifests a significant clustering of scores,
then consider to visually analyze the scores and find the presence of dominant constant which is the
Mode.
(Do Activity 2)
B. Measures of Dispersion
Specific Objectives
A. To know the different measures of variability.

B. To comprehend the strengths of the three measures
C. To realize the effect of the measures in the distribution
D. To critically an select appropriate tool for a certain situation

The measures of central tendency only provide information about the similarity or typicality of scores. But
to fully describe the distribution, we need to gain information about how scores differ or vary. The
description of the distribution can only be complete if some information of its variability is known. To
substantiate the information provided by the measures of centrality, some degree of dispersion must also
be brought into the light.
Discussion
Measures of Variability
There are three measures of variability: the range, the standard deviation and the variance. These
three measures give information about the spread of the scores in a distribution. Metaphorically, variability
assert that a glass half-full is also half empty. Being half-full is about centrality and being half-empty is
about variability.
The Range. The range, symbolized by R, describes the variability of scores by merely providing the width
of the entire distribution. The range can be found by simply determining the difference between the
highest score and the lowest score. This difference always has a single value answer.
The example below shows the calculation of the range from a distribution of annual incomes:
X
===========================
Php 200,000.00 Highest Score

200,000.00
195,000.00
194,000.00
194,000.00
194,000.00 HS-LS =Range 200,000
193,000.00 –176,000 = 24,000
190,000.00
185,000.00
180,000.00
180,000.00
176,000.00 Lowest Score

===========================
The capability of the range is to give information about the scattering of the scores by merely using two
extreme points. But one the hand, capability of range to report score deviation poses a severe limitation. If
you add new scores within the distribution, the range can never report any changes in the deviation. Also,
just by adding one extreme score amidst normal distribution can definitely increase or decrease in range

even if there are no other deviations that transpired within the distribution. The range is not stable enough
to indicate variability. But nevertheless it is still a method in finding the variability of any given distribution.
The Standard Deviation. The standard deviation (SD) is the life-blood of the variability concept. It
provides measurement about how much all of the scores in the distribution normally differ from the mean
of the distribution. Unlike the range, which utilizes only two extreme scores, SD employs every score in
the distribution. It is computed with reference to the mean (not the median or the mode) and it requires
that the scores must be in interval form.
A distribution with small standard deviation shows that the trait being measured is homogenous. While a
distribution with a large standard deviation is indicative that the trait being measured is heterogeneous. A
distribution with zero standard deviation implies that scores are all the same (i.e. 10, 10, 10, 10, 10).
Although it may seem like stating the obvious, it is important to note that if all the scores are the same,
there is no dispersion, no deviation, and no scattering of scores in the distribution --- so much so that
there can never be less than zero variability.
In calculating the standard deviation, we can either use the computational method or the deviation
method. Both methods provide the same answer. However, in this lesson, we will use the computational
method because it is designed for electronic calculators.
The formula for computational method is provided below:
X
The raw score in a distribution is symbolized as
തതതത
𝑋
The mean of a distribution is symbolized as
N
The number of scores in a distribution is symbolized as
The formula simply states that the standard deviation (SD) is equal to the square root of the difference
between the sum of raw score squared, which is divided by the number of cases, and the mean squared
(Sprinthall, 1994). Below is an example on how to obtain the standard deviation using the computational
method.

434 .283,000,000
𝑆𝐷 = √ 12
− (190,083)2
𝑺𝑫 = 𝟕𝟔𝟓𝟑. 𝟓𝟐𝟏
Computer Note: Exploring MS Excel to find the value of SD
The concept of standard deviation can further be clarified by using an illustration of score distribution of
students in Section A and in Section B, assuming that both distributions (Section A scores and Section B
scores) have precisely the same measures of central tendency and the same range. The only unusual
things about these two distributions is that they differ in terms of their standard deviations, Section A
having a value that is greater than the value of Section B. The data are clearly shown in the figure below.

Section A Section A
Math Quiz Scores Scores
Mean 100 100
Median 100 100
Mode 100 100
N 30 30
HS, LS, 130, 70, 60 130, 70, 60
Range
SD 10 2
Frequency of occurrence
Frequency of occurrence
----------------------------- ----------------------------
0 70 100 130 0 70 100 130
Section A Section B
Two Frequency Distributions of Scores
As can be noticed in the figure above, there is just a slight bulge in the middle of the distribution of Section
A. This means that it has many scores deviating widely from the mean (100) and this is the result of
having a large standard deviation (10). However, Section B having a smaller standard deviation (2), most
of the scores gathers closely around the mean (100) thereby creating a towering lump. These two
distributions being compared reveals the disparity in the values of standard deviation between the two
sections. The section A having a large standard deviation, is behaving in a heterogenous manner while
the section B having small standard deviation acting in a homogenous way.
The Variance. Variance is another technique for assessing disparity in a distribution. In the simplest
sense, variance is the square of the standard deviation. The formula is illustrated below:
𝑿is any raw score in 𝒙it is the deviation score. It is equal to the raw𝑿,score,
the distribution minus the mean,𝑋ത: 𝑥 = 𝑋 −𝑋ത
2 2
𝑉= 2
𝑆𝐷 = Σ𝑋 − 𝑋ത2 = Σ𝑥
𝑁 𝑁

Conceptually, variance is the same as standard deviation. If both standard deviation and variance
manifest large values then it means heterogenous distribution and when they both manifest small values,
they provide similar outcomes about the homogeneity of the distribution.
While standard deviation finds out how to spread out the distribution scores from the mean by exploring
the square root of the variance, the variance, on the other hand, calculates the average degree by which
each score differs from the mean -
i.e. the average of all the scores in the distribution. It may appear to be unnecessary to study variance
where, in fact, standard deviation seems complete. But there are situations wherein it is more efficient to
work directly with variances than to frequently make courtesy appearances to the standard deviation. In
fact, F Ratio takes full utilization of this special property of variability.
(Do Activity 3)
C. Measure of Relative Position
Specific Objectives
1. To gain deeper understanding about the Z-score

2. To realize the important role of percentile, and quartile in a distribution
3. To interpret the analysis reported by box-and-whisker plots
In the previous lesson, we have demonstrated two separate but related measures that can show the
characteristics of the scores in a distribution. These are the measures of central tendency and the
measures of variability. In this lesson, we can further explore all the possibilities that might occur in the
relationship of centrality and variability (i.e., mean and standard deviation). Let us consider having two
sets of distribution and different case scenarios that might occur in comparing their respective means and
standard deviations.
Discussion
The z- Score
Case A
𝜇1 = 𝜇2 𝜎1 = 𝜎2
As shown in Case A, it is possible that two distributions can generate almost the same means (𝜇) and
almost the same standard deviations (𝜎).
Case B

𝜇1 ≠ 𝜇2
𝜎1 = 𝜎2
𝜇1 ≠ 𝜇2
𝜎1 = 𝜎2
It is also possible that two distributions have different means (𝜇) but similar standard deviations (𝜎).
Case C
𝜇1 = 𝜇2
𝜎1 ≠ 𝜎2
Here in Case C, the two distributions have the same means (𝜇) but they differ in standard deviation
(𝜎).
Case D
𝜇1 ≠ 𝜇2
𝜎1 ≠ 𝜎2
In Case D, the distributions differ in terms of means (𝜇) and in terms of standard deviations (𝜎).
This preliminary discussion basically shows that comparing two distributions is complex. Case scenarios
must be considered. Sometimes two distributions differ in terms of means and sometimes they differs in
terms of standard deviations. The groups usually differ in terms of centrality as well as in terms of
disparity. Thus, in order to compare two different groups, there must be a common scale that can
reconcile both means and standard deviation in a single standard form. It is only when we convert scores

from different distributions to common scores that direct comparison is possible. This common score
being referred to is called the z-score. Below is the formula in finding the z-score.
𝑋−𝜇 𝑋−𝑥̅ 𝑧 = 𝑧=
𝜎 𝑠
𝑋refers to the raw scores from the population. 𝑋refers to raw score from the sample
𝜇 pertains to the mean of the population 𝑥ത pertains to the
mean of the sample
𝜎population standard deviation 𝑠 estimated standard deviation
Both formulas indicate the same relationship shared by the raw score, mean and standard deviation. The
only distinction between the two formulas is that whether the distribution was generated from the
population or from the sample. The formula in the left refers to the z-scores from the population while the
formula in the right refers to the z-scores from the sample.
𝑋−𝜇
𝑧=
𝜎
The formula explains that values generated by the mean and standard deviation can be integrated to
transform a raw score (𝑋) into a standard score (𝑧). The z-
𝑋−𝜇 score equation, 𝑧 = , can convert the raw score of any group into a
common
𝜎
value and it enables comparison between scores coming from different group distributions. The below is
an illustration of a standardized scale. As you may have noticed in this z-scaling, the mean is always zero
and the standard deviation is always one unit.
𝜇=0
𝜎=1

To further clarify the concept of z-score, let us assume that you are taking physics and biology courses.
In your final examinations, you earned a grade of 95 in physics and 85 in biology. Now the question is:
In which exam did you do better?
It seems obvious based on the face value of the scores, that you did better in physics than in biology. But
to come up with a serious comparison about your scores between the two tests, we must take into
consideration the question about how well your classmates perform as a whole group. This requires
additional information about the mean and standard deviation values of both physics and biology groups.
But let us assume that we can right away get those needed information. As such:
𝜇 𝜎
(population (population
mean) SD)
Physics 85 10
Biology 75 5
Now, let us substitute that information into the z-score formula and compute for the z score values
Physics Biology
𝑋𝑝 − 𝜇𝑝 𝑋𝑏 − 𝜇𝑏
𝑍𝑝 = 𝑍𝑏 =
𝜎𝑝 𝜎𝑏
𝑍𝑝 = = 1.0 𝑍𝑏 = = 2.0
Finally, let us place these z-score values into a z-scale to clearly illustrate the measures.
𝒁𝒑=1.0 𝒁𝒃=2.0
|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|______|_____|_____|
𝒁 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4
Physics 45 45 55 65 75 85 95 105 115 125
Biology 55 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
Notice that in the illustration, we can clearly compare the relative position of scores in one standardized
scale. Notice also that the means of both subjects reconcile to adopt a common mean of 0 (𝜇 = 0).
Likewise, both subjects agree to calibrate their standard deviations into a unit of one (𝜎 = 1). Thus,
comparison can now be made on your final examination scores. As displayed, your score of 95 in physics
falls directly below 1.0 on the z-scale. Your score of 85 in biology falls directly below 2.0 on the z-scale. It

is clear that you did much better in the biology exam (𝑍𝑏 = 2.0) than what we previously thought that you
did better in physics. This example is only a glimpse to show that standardized scores are the building
blocks that provide the foundation to inferential statistics.
Percentile
To locate a specific point in any distribution, percentiles, quartiles and deciles are the tools that can be
used. The relative position of the raw score can be described precisely by converting it into a percentile. A
percentile refers to a point in the distribution below which a given percentage of scores fall.
3rd percentile 97th percentile
Based on the figure above, a score at the 97th percentile (P97) is at the very high end of the distribution
because an enormous number (97%) of scores are below that point. A score at the 3rdpercentile (P3),
however, is an extremely low score because only 3% of the scores are below that point. The figure above
also show that the 50th percentile divides the distribution exactly in half. The position of the 50th percentile
is also the location of the median.
To provide a better understanding on the role of the percentile, let us assume that your College Admission
Test Result reflected the 97th percentile score. This does not indicate that out of 100 items of questions,
you just made around three mistakes. Instead, it means that 97% of those who took the exam did not
perform better than you. However, a significant 3% did perform better than you.
The percentile of any given data value score (x) can be determined by dividing the number of data values
less than x with total number of data values, and then multiplying the obtained result by 100. For
instance, consider a College Admission Test administered to 5000 students, and your score of 800 was

higher than the scores of 4000 examinees. With this information , we can determine the percentile of your
score by using the formula the:
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑜 𝑑𝑖𝑑 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑦𝑜𝑢 (4000)

Percentile Score (x) = x 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 5000
= 80
Your score of 800 places you at the 80th percentile.
Quartiles. As the name implies, quartiles divide the distribution into quarters.
3rd percentile 97th percentile
Q1 Q2 Q3
The first quartile, Q1, is actually on the 25thpercentile. The second quartile, Q2, coincides with the median,
which is on the 50th percentile. The 3rd Quartile, Q3, is on the 75th percentile. The Q can be determined by
using the following procedures:
For Q1. : The value of x is in the position .25 (n+1)

For Q2: The value of x is in the position .50 (n +1) For Q3:
The value of x is in the position .75 (n+1)

Let us consider this example and determine Q1, Q2, and Q3.
X
===========================
Php 200,000.00
200,000.00
195,000.00
194,000.00
193,000.00
192,000.00
191,000.00
190,000.00
185,000.00
181,000.00
180,000.00
176,000.00
===========================
First, make sure that the scores are arranged from highest to lowest.
1. Calculating for the 1st quartile (Q1) or the 25th percentile

The x score is in the position of Q1 =.25 (n+1)
Q1 =.25 (n+1)
Q1 =.25 (12+1)
Q1 = 3.25
Q1=182,000
The value of x corresponding to the position is 181,000 + .25 (185,000-181,000). Thus, Q1 = 182.000
2. Calculating for the 2nd quartile (Q2) or the 50th percentile


Q2 =.50 (n+1) Q2=191,500
Q2 =.50 (12+1)
Q2 = 6.5
The value of x corresponding to the position is 191,000 + .50 (192,000-191,000). Thus, Q2 =191,500
3. Calculating for the 3rd quartile (Q3) or the 75th percentile

Q3 =.75 (n+1) Q3=194,750

Q3 =.75 (12+1)
Q3 = 9.75
The value of x corresponding to the position is 194,000

+ .75 (195,000-194,000). Thus, Q3 = 194,750
Box-and-Whisker Plots
A box and whisker plot displays a graphical summary of a set of data. It provides information about the
minimum and the maximum scores in the distribution, the 1 st Quartile and 3rdQuartile as well as the 2nd
quartile or the median. Observe the figure below.

Now, let us find the five-point summary of our previous example.
X
===============
Php 200,000.00 HS
200,000.00
195,000.00 Q2
194,000.00
193,000.00
192,000.00 Median
191,000.00
190,000.00
185,000.00 Q1
181,000.00
180,000.00
176,000.00 HS
================
Box-and-Whisker plots are easy to construct and they outrightly show important information about the
distribution of scores in a simple diagram. Also, it is not necessary to label the final product.
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(Do Activity 4)
D. The Normal Distributions

Specific Objective
A. To understand the concept of normal distribution

B. To gain knowledge on how use the z-table efficiently
C. To identify and classify some situation pertaining normal distribution
D. To understand the applicability of normal distribution in real life.

If mean and standard deviation are heart and brain of descriptive statistics then perhaps the normal curve
is its lifeblood. In the preceding section, we discussed in passing the z-scores, wherein the mean is
always zero and the standard deviation is fixed to 1. In this section, it is now proper to finally introduce the
normal curve. The normal curve is actually a theoretical distribution. It is a unimodal frequency distribution
curve. The scores are scattered on the X axis while the frequency of occurrence is defined by the Y axis.
Discussions
Here are some key characteristics of the normal curve.
1. Majority of the scores cluster around the middle of the distribution and fewer scores scattered
in both extreme sides or tail ends of the curve.
2. It is always symmetrical and perfectly balanced.
3. Being a theoretical distribution, the mean, median and the mode are all equal.
4. It uses standard deviation along the x-axis.
5. The normal curve is asymptotic to the abscissa and the total area under the curve is
approximating 1.0 or 100%
6. The normal curve has a mean of zero and standard deviation of 1 unit.
The Empirical Rule for a normal distribution
68% of data within 1 sd
95% of data within 2 sd
99.7% of data within 3 sd

z Scores. The z scores are enormously beneficial in interpreting of relative position of the raw score
taking into account the centrality of the distribution and the amount of variability. With the z-score, we can
gain understanding of an individual relative performance compared to the performance of the entire group
being measured. But before we delve deeper into the concepts of the z score, it is imperative to learn how
to use the z-score table. A copy of the z-table can be accessed at this website address:
https://www.calculator.net/z-score-calculator.html https://www.calculator.net/z-
score-calculator.html
https://www.calculator.net/z-score-calculator.html
The table we will be using is a right tail z-table. This table is used to find the area between z=0 and any
positive value and reference the area to the right side of the standard deviation curve. The z-score table
gives only the percentage for the half of the curve. But since the normal curve is symmetrical, a z-score
that is given to the right of the mean yields the same percentage as a z score to the left of the mean
Mean line
For example, to look up a z-score of .68 using the z-score table, look for 0.6 in the far left of the column
then look for the second decimal 0.08 in the top row. The table value is 0.25175. It represents a
percentage of 25.17 %. It is the percentage of cases falling between the z score and the mean.

25.17 % is the area between the
z-score and the mean
Mean 0.68
Z score
25.17% is the percentage of cases falling between the z score (0.68) and the mean.
Now, let us consider some situations that might possibly occur in using the z-table
Case 1. Finding percentage of cases falling between z-score and the mean.
This area is 24.215%
- Z score Mean Mean + Z score

As example for Case 1, the z-score of +0.75 will generate a z-table value of

0.24215 or 24.215%. In the same way, the z-score of -0.75 will generate the same value-table value of
0.24215 or 24.215%. Notice that the value is always a positive number since percentage area is always
positive.
Case 2. Finding the percentage of cases above the given z-score. It is important to remember for this
case that the total area of the normal curve is 1.0 or 100%. It is also essential to keep in mind that the
right half of the normal curve is 50% as well as the left half (50%). You also need to consider that the z-
table always provide a percentage value in relation to the mean.
This area is 24.215% This area is 50%
+0.75 -0.75
Mean
++
Z score - Z score Mean
(a) (b)
For Case 2(a), To find the area above the given z-score, the equivalent z-table value must be determined
then subtract it from the total area of the right half which is 50%. For example, to find the percentage of
cases above the z-score of +0.75. Find the z-table value of +.75 which is 0.24215 (24.215%) then
subtract it from the total area of the right half of the normal curve which is 50%. This is 50% - 24.214% =
25.785%
For Case 2(b), in order the determine the area above the given z-score (the z-score here is a negative
number because it is situated in the left side of the normal curve)
, simply find the equivalent z-table value then add 50%. Again, always keep in mind that the z-table only
provide a percentage of cases between the z-score the mean and not the entire right side of the curve. To
cite another example, let us find the percentage of cases above the z-score of -0.75. The z-table value of
-0.75 is 0.24215. This is equivalent to 24.215%. With this number just add the percentage area of the
entire right side which is 50%. So this is 24.215% + 50% =74.215%.
Case 3. Finding the percentage of cases below the given z-score. The principle we made in Case 2 is the
same principle that can be applied in Case 3.

This area is 25.785% This area is 50% This area is 24.215%
Mean + Z score
-0.75
+0.75
Mean
-Z score
(a) (b)
For case 3(a), try to determine the percentage of cases below the z-score of -0.75. Using similar analysis
made in case 2(a), the total area of the left side must be subtracted. If your computation is correct, your
answer is 25.785%.
For case 3(b), to determine the percentage of cases below the z-score of +0.75. The z-table value will
only cover the percentage of cases between the z-score and the mean, so you need to add 50% which is
the l percentage of cases of the left side of the normal curve. Your computation must generate an answer
of 74.215%.
Case 4. Finding the percentage of cases between the two z-scores.
This area is 24.215% This area is 24.215%
-0.75 +0.75
Mean
-Z score +Z score
To illustrate Case 4, let us try to determine the percentage of cases between the two z-scores. The -
0.75 Z-score and +0.75 z-score. The -0.75 z-score generates a z-table value of 24.215%. Also +0.75 z-
score generates the same z-table value of 24.215%. Thus, the percentage of cases between -0.75 and
+0.75 is simply to add the two percentage of cases and that is (24.215% + 24.215%) 48.43%.
Translating the raw score into the z-score.
We are now familiar with the z-score concepts and having a knowledge about percentages of area above,
below and between z-scores. Likewise, we are also equipped with certain knowledge regarding the z-

score formula that if the mean and standard deviation are known, we can subtract the mean from the raw
score, divide by standard deviation, and obtain the z score.
𝑥−𝑥̅
𝑧=
𝑆𝐷
The z-score reveals the location of the raw score from the mean in the standard deviation units. The z
score accounts both the mean of the distribution and the amount of variability. Now, let us determine the
practical use z-score in the context of normal distribution of raw scores.
Case A. When the percentage of cases is between the raw score and the mean. The normal
distribution of physics scores has mean of 85 and a standard deviation of 10. What percentage of scores
will fall between the physics score of 95 and the mean?
Initially, we need to convert the raw score of 95 into its equivalent z-score.
𝑥−𝑥̅ 95−85
𝑧= = = 1.0
𝑆𝐷 10
Then draw the normal curve as shown below;

34.13
%
85 95
𝑋ത (1.00)
Next is to look up the z-score value in the table ( https://www.calculator.net/zscore-calculator.html ). The

z-table value is 0.34134 or 34.13%. That is the percentage of scores that falling between the physics
score of 95 and the mean. This means that around 1 in 3 students (34.13%) fall between the score of 95
and the mean.
Case B. When the percentage of cases fall below a raw score. Using the same example, on a normal
distribution of scores in physics class, with a mean of 85 and a standard deviation of 10, what percentage
of physics scores fall below a score of 95?
First, convert the raw score of 95 into its equivalent z-score.

𝑥−𝑥̅ 95−85
𝑧= = = 1.0
𝑆𝐷 10
Next is to draw the normal curve as already shown below;
34.13
%
%
50
85 95
𝑋ത (1.00)
Finally, look up the z-score in the z- table ( https://www.calculator.net/z-scorecalculator.html )take the right
value. It is 0.34134 or 34.13%. Lastly, add the 50% to 34.13% to get the sum 84.13%. The percentage of
physics scores fall below a score of 95 is 84.13%. This means that if 100 students took the examination
and your score is 95. Then your physics grade surpassed the grade of 84 students.
Case C. When the percentage of cases is above a raw score. On a normal distribution of scores in
physics class, with a mean of 85 and a standard deviation of 10, what percentage of physics scores
above a score of 95?
Again, we need to convert the raw score of 95 into its equivalent z-score.
𝑥−𝑥̅ 95−85
𝑧= = = 1.0
𝑆𝐷 10
The draw the normal curve as already shown below;

This area is 15.87%
34.13
%
85 95
𝑋ത
(1.00)
We look up the z-score in the table ( https://www.calculator.net/z-scorecalculator.html )take the correct
value. It is 0.34134 or 34.13%. Then subtract 34.13% from 50%. The answer is 15.87%. This is the
percentage of cases above the score of 95. This means that if 100 students took the examination and
your score is
95. Then around 15 students surpassed your physics grade of 95.
Case D. When the percentage of cases is between raw scores. On a normal distribution of physics
scores, the mean is 85 and the standard deviation is 10. Your physics score is 95 and your friends score
is 80. You wanted to determine how many students got a score between your friend’s score of 80 and
your score of 95.
Again, convert the raw score of 95 and the raw score of 80 into its equivalent zscores.
𝑥−𝑥̅ 95−85 𝑥−𝑥̅ 80−85
𝑧= = = 1.0 𝑧= = = - 0.5
𝑆𝐷 10 𝑆𝐷 10
The draw the normal curve as already shown below;

34.13
19.15
%
%
80 85 95
(-0.5) 𝑋ത (1.00)

We look up the z-score in the table ( https://www.calculator.net/z-scorecalculator.html ) and look for z
percentage of cases for the z-value 1.0. Also look for the percentage of cases for the z-value -0.5. The
percentage of cases is 34.13% and
19.15% respectively. Add the two values to get the percentage of cases between the raw score of 95 and
80. The answer is 53.28%. This means that 1 in 2 students got a score between 95 and 85 (i.e. between
your score and your friend’s score).
At this point, we already made a significantly long journey. From the measures of central tendency to the
measures of variability and finally to measures of relative position. We are now in the position no longer
seeking answers to questions but seeking questions beyond the conventions established by the answers.
(Do Activiy 5)
Linear Correlation: Pearson r
Specific Objective
1. To know the characteristics of Pearson r

2. To solve problems dealing with linear correlations
3. To understand the limitations of linear correlations
At the beginning of this course, we defined mathematics as the science of patterns. We realized that
nature follows a certain kind of mathematical structure as we observed some patterns and irregularities
and whenever we see patterns, irregularity also beg also to be noticed. Also, whenever we see
irregularities, some patterns suddenly waving for attention.
The linear correlation is not about patterns, but it is about looking on irregularities and patiently waiting for
the patterns to manifest. This lesson deals with determining the connections of the things seemed
unrelated and to declare whether some correlations are indeed significant .
Discussions
The Pearson R Linear Correlation.
The Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient or Pearson r is an statistical tool that can determine the linear
association between two distributions or groups. This tool can only establish the strength of association or
correlation but it can never justify any causal relation that may appear or seemed obvious.

The formula below is the computational method for calculating the Pearson r
The number of
subjects Means
Σ 𝑋𝑌
𝑁
−(𝑥̅ )(𝑦ത)
𝑟= 𝑆𝐷𝑥 𝑆𝐷𝑦
Standard Deviations
The pearson r value may provide three possible scenarios. If the value of 𝑟 is + then it is a positive
correlation. If it is - then it is a negative correlation. If 𝑟’s value is around “0” then it means that almost no
linear correlation found.
𝒓 = +𝟏 𝒓 = −𝟏 𝒓=𝟎
An example of positive correlation is height and weight of a person. Under normal circumstances
whenever a person gain height it means also a gain in weight. An example of negative correlation is the
relationship between length of employment and degree of attractiveness. As you may observe physically
attractiveness of an employee is affected by the chronologically advancement of his or her age. An
example of zero correlation might be relationship between grade of student living in high land areas and
the study habits of students living in the low land areas. You should also remember that Pearson 𝑟 does
not generate a value less than -1 or more than +1. Any answer outside below -1 and above +1 can be
attributed to a wrong computation made.
We will explain the nature of linear correlation by using an example. Assuming that we want to determine
if there is a correlation between hours of study and grades of students last semester. Initially, we
need to randomly select students (let say 10) and ask them about their averaged grade last semester as
well as the number of hours they spent in studying per week in that semester. Let us presume that right
away they provided us these two informations.

===============================================
Student Hours of Study (x) Grade (Y)
===============================================
A 15 2.75
B 35 1.25
C 05 3.00
D 20 2.50
E 30 1.50
F 40 1.00
G 20 2.25
H 25 1.75
I 25 2.00
J 08 3.00
But before we can immediately use the Pearson r formula, we need to ensure that this is the correct
statistical tool in determining the correlation between hours of study and grades. Let us check some basic
Pearson r requirements:
1. Random selection of participants.

2. Traits being measured must not depart significantly from normality
3. The measurements on both distributions must be in the form of interval data.
4. Comparing only two groups.
5. And the goal is to determine the linear correlation between two groups.
The formula in solving the Pearson 𝑟 is…

Σ𝑋𝑌
−(𝑥̅)(𝑦ത)
𝑟=𝑁
𝑆𝐷𝑥𝑆𝐷𝑦
𝑋 refers to one variable and the 𝑌 refers to another variable

𝑋ത 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑌ത refers to the mean of 𝑋 and the mean of 𝑌
𝑆𝐷𝑥 and 𝑆𝐷𝑦 refers to the standard deviation of 𝑋 and 𝑌 respectively
𝑁 refers to the numbers of variables
Σ It is the symbol for summation

Now let us take into account the data below as our example to illustrate the formula.
================================================================================
Student Hours of Study (𝑥) 𝑥2 Grade (𝑦) 𝑦2 𝑥𝑦
================================================================================
A 15 225 2.75 7.56 41.25
B 35 1225 1.25 1.56 43.75
C 05 25 3.00 9.00 15.00
D 20 400 2.50 6.25 50.00
E 30 900 1.50 2.25 45.00
F 40 1600 1.00 1.00 40.00
G 20 400 2.25 5.06 45.00
H 25 625 1.75 3.06 43.75
I 25 625 2.00 4.00 50.00
J 08 64 3.00 9.00 24.00
================================================================================
𝚺𝒙=223 𝚺𝒙𝟐=6089 𝚺𝐲=21 𝚺 𝒚𝟐 = 48.75 𝚺𝒙𝒚=397.75
Σ𝑥 223 Σy 21
𝑥̅ = = = 22.3 𝑦ത = = = 2.1
𝑁 10 𝑁 10
𝑆𝐷𝑥 ̅ 𝑆𝐷𝑦

Σ𝑋𝑌
−(𝑥̅)(𝑦ത)
𝑟=𝑁
𝑆𝐷𝑥𝑆𝐷𝑦
397.75
𝑟= 10 − (22.3)(2.1)
(10.56)(0.682)
𝒓= -0.979
Point to Ponder: Why do you think we generated a negative r value?
Thus, we could say that the correlation between hours of study and grades of students achieved a
Pearson r value of -0.979. Do not be confused by the that there is a negative sign in our final answer. This
sign provides an idea of the direction of correlation line. You should take into consideration that a grade of
1.0 has a strong academic weight in our grading system but once plug in into the computation it is
interpreted by formula as a small number. Nevertheless, with full knowledge of the concept you can
always come up with the right interpretation.
Since the distribution exclusively concerns the 10 students and it is not a population sample, then
Guilford’s suggested interpretation for the values of r can be used without hindrance.
Guilford’s Interpretation for the values of r

r value Interpretation
===============================================================
Less than .20 Almost negligible relationship
.20-.40 Definite but small relationship
.40-.70 Substantial relationship
.70-.90 Marked relationship
.90-1.00 Very dependable relationship
===============================================================
And based on Guilford’s suggested interpretation, there is a very dependable relationship

between hours of study and grade of students.
Does it mean that better grades can be achieved by spending more time studying?
Does it mean that spending more time studying is a by-product of better grades? Does it mean
that another factor influenced better grades and study habits?
All three of these questions are possible. But the point is that correlation alone is not enough to
identify which is the real explanation. Pearson r is not a tool for establishing causation. It can only a
tool describe linear correlation between to observed traits.

(Do Activity 6)
The Least-Squares Regression Line
Specific Objective
: 1. Define Linear Regression

2. Define Scatter plot
3. Compute for Least Square Regression Line
In the previous lesson, we discussed Pearson r as a powerful tool in determining linear correlation. It is an
important tool to investigate associations considering that different mathematical patterns are all around
us. Such as, the connection of high tide and low tide in human behavior, the association between height
and weight. And the correlation between the metaphoric flap of butterfly in Japan to a weather disturbance
in South America a year after.
But correlation entrapped and cloistered us within the parameter of merely associating. Correlation in and
by itself cannot establish causation to warrant prediction. But in this lesson of regression analysis, not only
that we can connect and associate some observable patterns, it also permits us finally make basic
predictions.
Discussion
Bivariate Scatter Plot
A bivariate simply means that we can graphically represent two variables (x and y) in a scatter plot
wherein each point in a scatter plot represent a pair of scores. Scatter plot is necessary in order to
determine the regression line. The regression line a generated straight line that lies closest to all the point
in the scatter plot.
Our example below illustrates the construction of scatter plot based on some data information regarding
the association of our previous example on hours of study and grade.

𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3 𝑑4 𝑑5 𝑑6 𝑑7 𝑑8 𝑑9 𝑑10
As shown in the scatter plot above, the straight line is called the least-squares regression line. This
generated line minimizes the sum of the squares of the vertical deviation from each data point to the line.
This means that of all the possible lines that can suggest the correlation line strength of all the points, the
equation of this generated line has the best fit. The 𝑑𝑛 represents the distance from point (x,y) to the line.
𝑑12 + 𝑑22 + 𝑑32 + 𝑑42 + 𝑑52 + 𝑑62 + 𝑑72 + 𝑑82 + 𝑑92 + 𝑑102
In the least-squares line, this correlation that can be established around the regression line is the basis for
resulting prediction. But in order to make predictions, three important ingredients must be on hand: 1. The
equation of the best fit line.
2. Slope of the line, and 3. The y-intercept of the line.
To apply this formula to our given data, we need to find the value of each summation.

The Formula for the Least
-Squares Regression Line
There must be𝑛 ordered pairs: (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ), (𝑥3 , 𝑦3), … , (𝑥𝑛 , 𝑦𝑛 )
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
𝑛(Σ𝑥𝑦)−(Σ𝑥)(Σ𝑦) (Σ𝑦)−𝑚(Σ𝑥)
𝑚= 𝑏=
2 2
𝑛(Σ𝑥 )−(Σ𝑥) 𝑛
In finding the value of 𝑚 :
𝑛(Σ𝑥𝑦)−(Σ𝑥)(Σ𝑦) 10(397.75)−(223)(21)
𝑚= 𝑛(Σ𝑥2)−(Σ𝑥)2 =
10(6089)−49729= -0.06321
In finding the value of 𝑏 :
(Σ𝑦)−𝑚(Σ𝑥) (21)−(−0.06321)(223)
𝑏= = =3.509
𝑛 10
Finally, substituting the values to the given formula:
𝒚𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒅 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒃
𝒚𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒅 = -0.06321x + 3.509

Slope( 𝒎) = -0.06321
𝒚 intercept (𝒃) = 3.509

In the preceding lesson, we were able to establish the strength of correlation of this example using
Pearson r. We found a very strong relationship between hours of study (𝑥) and grade (𝑦) (𝑖. 𝑒. 𝟎. 𝟗𝟕𝟗).
Now let us predict the grade of students who spent the following weekly study hours: 37, 22, and 8.
Since we have already determined the regression the line, let us just simply plug all the necessary values
then “𝑦”.
================================================================
𝒚𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒅 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒃
𝒚𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒅 = -0.06321x + 3.509
================================================================
𝒙 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟑𝟐𝟏𝒙 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟑𝟐𝟏𝒙 + 𝟑. 𝟓𝟎𝟗 = 𝒚𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒅
37 -2.33877 1.17023
22 -1.39062 2.11838
08 -0.50568 3.00332
================================================================
The predicted grade of students is around 1.17 for the student who spends 37 hours of study, 2.12 for the
one spending 22 hours of study, and just a passing grade of 3.0 for the one engaged for eight hours of
study.
(Do Activity 7)
V. ACTIVITIES
Activity 1:
Direction: Indicate which scale of measurement- nominal ordinal or interval is being used.
1. Both Globe and Smart phone number prefix 0917 and 0923 served 1 million and 2.5 subscribers,
respectively.
2. The Philippine Statistics Office announces that the average height of Filipino male is 156.41 cm tall.
3. Postal Office shows that 4,231 individuals have a zip code of 4231.
4. The Sportsfest committee posted the names of individuals with their order of finish for the first 50
runners to reach the finish line.

5. The University Admission Office posted the names and scores of student applicants who took the
entrance examination.
Activity 2:
Direction: Answer the following question.
1. A class of 13 students takes a 20-item quiz on Science 101. Their scores were as follows: 11, 11, 13, 14,
15, 18, 19, 9, 6, 4, 1, 2, 2.
a. Find the mean. b. Find the median c. Find the mode.
2. A day after, the of 13 students mentioned in problem 1 takes the same test a second time. This time
their scores were: 10, 10, 10, 10, 11, 13, 19, 9, 9, 8, 1, 7, 8.

d. Was there a difference in their performance when taking the test a second time?
3. For the set of scores: 1000, 50, 120, 170, 120, 90, 30, 120.

d. Which measure of central tendency is the most appropriate, and why?
Activity 3:
Direction: Analyze and answer the questions below.
1. At ABC University, a group of students was selected and asked how much of their weekly
allowance they spent in buying mobile phone load. The following is the list of amounts spent: Php
120, 110, 100, 200, 10, 90, 100, 100. Calculate the mean, the range, and the standard deviation.
2. At XYZ University, another group of students was selected and asked how much of their weekly
allowance they spent in buying mobile phone load. The following is the list of amounts spent: Php
200, 180, 30, 20, 10, 160, 150, 80. Calculate the mean, the range, and the standard deviation.
3. Consider the data in problems 1 and 2, in what way do the two distribution differ? Which group is
more homogeneous?
Activity 4:

Direction: Analyze and solve of what is being ask.
1. You have taken final exams. Your score in science 101 was 80. Your score in math 101 was 95
n Σ𝑥 Σ𝑥2
Science 101 120 7120 2800
Math 101 75 2275 325
a. Compute for the means of both classes.

b. Compute for standard deviations of both classes
c. Convert the final score into z-scores
d. Plot the standard scores on a z-scale, include the appropriate raw score scale values for the
two classes.
e. In which class did you do better? Explain how did you analyze it.
2. The score of all students at ABC school were obtained. The highest score was 140, and the lowest
score was 110. The following scores were identified as to their percentile:
__________________________
X Percentile
--------------------------------------------------
112 10th
119 25th
123 50th
127 75th
134 90th
a. What is the range of the distribution?

b. What is the median?
c. What is the 1st quartile, 2nd quartile, 3rd quartile? Figure out---What is the interquartile range?
d. What is the interdecile range?
3. The data given are the calories per 200 milliliters of popular sodas.
21,18,21,20,26,31,18,16,25,27,13,27,36,24,25
a. Find the 25th percentile.

b. Find the median

c. Find the 75th percentile
d. Construct a box plot for these data.
Activity 5:
Direction: Choose the correct letter of the question.
1. Road test of MG5 Sedan compact car show a fuel mean rating of 20 kilometers per liter in
highways, with a standard deviation of 1.5 kilometers per liter. What percentage of these cars
(MG5) will achieve results of
a. More than 25 kilometers per liter?

b. Less than 17 kilometers per liter?
c. Between 15 and 24 kilometers per liter?
d. Between 21 and 24 kilometers per liter?
2. On a normal distribution, at what percentage must

a. The mean fall?
b. The median fall?
c. The mode fall?
Activity 6:
Seven randomly selected participants were given both math and music tests. Their scores are as follows:
====================
Math Music
====================
16 14
6 7
17 15
11 14

12 12
4 6
13 11
Is there math ability related to their music ability?
Activity 7:
The research office is interested in the possible relationship anxiety and aptitude scores of randomly
selected eight students; they are given both the anxiety test and aptitude test. Their weighted, scaled
scores are as follows:
============================================
Subjects Aptitude Test Anxiety Test
============================================
A 10 12
B 7 9
C 13 14
D 8 7
E 11 11
F 6 7
G 10 12
H 11 10
============================================
a. What is the correlation between anxiety and aptitude scores.

b. If one of the students receives a score of 12 on the aptitude test, what is your best estimate of the
score that student will on anxiety?
VI. OUTPUT
Submit your output through LMS or send it to the following email address of your respective instructor.
Mam Kim Soruila – [email protected]

Mam Berlyn Famillaran – [email protected]
Prof. Pedro Katigbak - [email protected]

VII. EVALUATION
Project Proposal Requirement
For this culminating requirement in Module Five, you need to work together in groups of 3 or 4.
1. Your task is to prepare a proposal study that can contribute to a solution to any social problem.
2. You must use statistical methods for your data processing and analyses.
3. Your final output must be no more than 8 pages that details your project proposal.
4. Please follow the outline provided below:
a. Title page (not included in the page count)
-An example of problem to be addressed: In this COVID-19 pandemic, how can we
reduce human traffic in wet market places.
b. Background and Statement of the Problem
c. Literature Review
d. Proposed Study with emphasis on how statistics will be used
i. Data to be collected
ii. Methods of data collection and data gathering instrument
iii. Data gathering procedure iv. Method of Analyses
e. Discussion of how your project proposal can address the identified problem.
f. References (APA or MLA)
5. Below is the format guideline:

Paper Fon Fon All Page
Substan Pape t t Line Numb
Margi Orientati
ce r Typ Siz Spacin er
n on
(if Size e e g
printed)
20 Norma Portrait 8.5 x Aria 12 1.5 Page
l 13 l x of x
Justifie
d
Your project proposal will be graded based on these criteria:
1. Soundness of the proposal (1/3)

2. Appropriate use of statistical method (1/3)
3. Coherence (1/3)

Chapter Test
Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the correct answer and write it on the blank provided at the
left side of the test paper.
==================================================================
__________ 1. It is a branch of statistics that deals with data analysis and one of its
technique is to “describe” data in symbolic form and abbreviated fashion.
a. Inferential Statistics c. Descriptive Statistics

b. Statistics and Probability d. Probability
__________ 2. It is a branch of statistics that has the ability to “infer” and to generalize.
It is also the right tool to predict values that are not really known.
a. Inferential Statistics c. Descriptive Statistics

b. Statistics and Probability d. Probability
__________ 3. It is an essential quantifying an observation according to a certain rule. It

is also assigning numbers in a prescribed way.
a. Variable c. Data
b. Measurement d. Constant
__________ 4. If the data are labelled 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and so on, in what kind of scale does
it falls?
a. Nominal Scale c. Categorical Data

b. Interval Scale d. Ordinal Scale
__________ 5. Personal Biodata falls in what kind of scale?
a. Nominal Scale c. Categorical Data

b. Interval Scale d. Ordinal Scale
__________ 6. It can be used as tools that provide information regarding average,

ranking, and category of scores of a large number of scores.
a. Measures of Central Tendency c. Measures of Dispersion

b. Measures of Variability d. Measurement

__________ 7. Mean is the arithmetic average of all scores. In the data: 34, 56, 75, 43,
and 67, what is the mean?
a. 53 c. 55
b. 54 d. 56
__________ 8. It is the middle point or midpoint of any distributions. It separates the upper
half from the lower half of distribution.
a. Mean c. Mode
b. Median d. Range
__________ 9. The following is a list of retirement ages for the workers in production
plant: 65, 64, 65, 61, 62, 64, 65, 63, 63, 65, 64. What is the median?
a. 64 c. 63
b. 65 d. 62
__________ 10. It is the most frequently occurring score in the distribution.
a. Mean c. Mode
b. Median d. Range
__________ 11. These three measures can provide the information about spread of the
scores in the distribution.
a. Mean, median and mode c. Range, standard deviation and variance

b. Mean, range, and variance d. Range, median and mode
The grade-point average for the selected university students were computed. The data are
as follows:
Student GPA
1 3.75
2 3.00
3 3.00
4 1.75
5 2.00
6 2.25
7 3.25
__________ 12. What is the range?
a. 1.00 c. 1.75
b. 2.25 d. 2.00

__________ 13. What is the mean (in nearest hundredths)?
a. 2.70 c. 2.72
b. 2.71 d. 2.74
__________ 14. What is the median?
a. 3. 00 c. 1.75
b. 2.25 d. 2.00
__________ 15. If the standard deviation in a distribution is 4, what is the variance?
a. 8 c. 32
b. 16 d. 64
__________ 16. In comparing different groups, there must be a standard scale that can
reconcile both means and standard deviation in single standard form. It is only then that
direct comparison is possible because transformed scores from different distributions will
share common scores and these common scores are called ____.
a. Percentile c. T-score
b. Quartile d. Z-score
__________ 17. Jerry took College Admission Test which reflected at 89th percentile,
what does it indicates?
a. 89% of those who took the exam did not get it right than Jerry.
b. Out of 100 items of questions, Jerry had 11 mistakes.
c. Jerry answered 89 questions correctly.
d. 89% of those who took the exam get it right than Jerry.
__________ 18. It divides the distribution into quarters.
a. Percentile c. T-score
b. Quartile d. Z-score
__________ 19. The third quartile Q3 is on what percentile rank?
a. 25th percentile c. 100th percentile

b. 50th percentile d. 75th percentile
__________ 20. In this box-whisker plot

What does the middle dot or point denote?
a. Q1 c. Q3
b. Median d. Maximum score
__________ 21. It is a unimodal frequency distribution where the scores are scattered on
the X-axis while the frequency of occurrence is defined by the Y-axis. a. Z-distribution
curve c. Normal curve
b. Distribution curve d. X-axis and Y-axis curve
__________ 22. This table only gives the percentage for the half curve but both the right
and the left of the mean yields the same percentage since the said curve is symmetrical.
a. Z-table c. T-table
b. Percentage Table d. Normal table
__________ 23. Scores on English Test have an average of 80 with a standard deviation
of 6. What is the z-score of the student who earned a 75 on test?
a. -0.97 c. -0.88
b. -0.76 d. -0.83
__________ 24. Group of children compared what they received while trick or treating. The average
number of pieces of candy received is 43 with a standard deviation of 2. What is the z-
score corresponding to 20 pieces of candy?
a. -11.5 c. -9.5
b. -10.5 d. -12.5
__________ 25. The mean growth of the thickness of tree in a forest is found to be 0.5
cm per year with a standard deviation of 0.1 cm per year. What is the z- score
corresponding to 1 cm per year?
a. 4 c. 6
b. 5 d. 7

__________ 26. It is a statistical tool that can be used to determine the linear association between two
distributions or groups. It can only establish the strength of association or correlation but it can never
justify any causal relation that may appear and seemed obvious.
a. Correlation c. Pearson R correlation

b. Pearson correlation d. Association
__________ 27. There is no linear correlation found if the value of r is ___.
a. -1 c. 2
b. +1 d. 0
__________ 28. The linear correlation is said to be substantial relationship if the value of
r is ___.
a. Less than 0.20 c. Between 0.70 and 0.90

b. Between 0.40 and 0.70 d. More than 1
Given the data chart of selected persons with their ages and daily incomes, calculate the
Pearson’s correlation coefficient.
Person Age(x) Income(y) xy x2 y2

1 20 150 3000 400 2250
2 30 300 90000 900 90000
3 40 500 20000 1600 250000
4 50 750 37500 2500 562500
Total 140 1700 69500 5400 925000
Mean of x = 35 Mean of y = 425

Standard Deviation of x = 11.18 Standard Deviation of y = 225
__________ 29. What is the value of r?
a. 1 c. 0.99
b. 0.89 d. 0
__________ 30. What is the interpretation for the r value?
a. Very dependable relationship c. Almost negligible relationship

b. Substantial relationship d. Marked relationship
__________ 31. It is used in making predictions between two variables.
a. Linear correlation c. Linear regression

b. Linear relationship d. Regression correlation

__________ 32. It uses dots to represent values for two different numeric values. It is also important in
determining the regression line.
a. Scatter plot c. Box-whisker plot

b. Scatter line d. Regression line
The data below pertains to the experience of some workers in a company (number of years)
and their performance rating. Estimate the performance rating for a worker with 20 years of
experience.
Worker Experience(x) Performance(y) xy x2

1 16 87 1392 256
2 12 88 1056 144
3 18 89 1602 324
4 4 68 272 16
5 3 78 234 9
6 10 80 800 100
7 5 75 375 25
8 12 83 996 144
Total 80 648 6727 1018
__________ 2. What is the value for slope of the line?
a. 1.13 c. 1.15
b. 1.14 d. 1.16
__________ 2. What is the value for y-intercept?
a. 69.6 c. 69.8
b. 69.7 d. 69.9
__________ 2. What is the value of regression line?
a. 92.0 c. 92.2
b. 92.1 d. 92.3

Answer: Chapter test
1. C
2. A
3. B
4. D
5. A
6. A
7. C
8. B
9. A
10. C 11. C
12. D
13. B 14. A
15. B
16. D
17. A
18. B
19. D
20. B
21. C
22. A
23. D
24. A
25. B
26. C
27. D
28. B
29. C
30. A
31. C
32. A 33. A
34. B 35. D

References
Akshay, A. (n.d.). 13 Reasons Why Math is Important. Https://Lifehacks.Io/. Retrieved from

https://lifehacks.io/reasons-why-math-is-important/
A. (2019, September 12). An Ode to Math, Mathematics in Nature. Https://Www.Minuteschool.Com/.

Retrieved from
https://www.minuteschool.com/2019/09/an-ode-to-math-mathematics-in-nature/
ASIASOCIETY.ORG. (n.d.). Understanding the World Through Math | Asia Society.

Https://Asiasociety.Org. Retrieved from https://asiasociety.org/education/understandingworld-
through-math
Coolman, R. (2015, June 5). What is Symmetry? | Live Science. Https://Www.Livescience.Com/. Retrieved
from https://www.livescience.com/51100-what-is-symmetry.html
Discovery Cube. (2018, February 2). Moment of Science: Patterns in Nature. Discoverycube.Org/Blog.
Retrieved from https://www.discoverycube.org/blog/momentscience-patterns-in-nature/
Fibonacci Number Patterns. (n.d.). Http://Gofiguremath.Org. Retrieved from

http://gofiguremath.org/natures-favorite-math/fibonacci-numbers/fibonacci-numberpatterns/
Grant, S. (2013, April 21). 10 Beautiful Examples of Symmetry In Nature. Https://Listverse.Com/.
Retrieved from https://listverse.com/2013/04/21/10-beautiful-examples-of-symmetry-innature/
H., E. J. (2013, August 16). What is Mathematics? Https://Www.Livescience.Com/. Retrieved from

https://www.livescience.com/38936-mathematics.html
Irish Times. (2018, October 18). Who Uses Maths? Almost Everyone! Https://Thatsmaths.Com/. Retrieved
from https://thatsmaths.com/2018/10/18/who-uses-maths-almost-everyone/
Natural Patterns. (n.d.). Ecstep.Com. Retrieved from https://ecstep.com/natural-patterns/
Symmetry- Reflection and Rotation. (n.d.). Https://Www.Mathsisfun.Com/Index.Htm. Retrieved from

https://www.mathsisfun.com/geometry/symmetry.html
The Franklin Institute. (n.d.-b). Math Patterns in Nature. Https://Www.Fi.Edu. Retrieved from
https://www.fi.edu/math-patterns-nature
The numbers of nature- the Fibonacci sequence - Eniscuola. (2016, June 27).
Http://Www.Eniscuola.Net/En/. Retrieved from
http://www.eniscuola.net/en/2016/06/27/the-numbers-of-nature-the-fibonacci-sequence/

Times Reporter. (2014, April 22). Mathematics is for Everyone. Https://Www.Newtimes.Co.Rw/.
Retrieved from https://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/read/74768
Sequence, Mathematics in the Modern World, 14th edition, Aufmann, R, N Et. Al
Golden ratio, Math is Fun Retrieved from: https://www.mathsisfun.com/numbers/golden-ratio.html

Golden rectangle pictures, Retrieved and adapted from:
https://www.google.com/search?q=golden+rectangle&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahU
KEwjtwuCWjJrrAhWuyosBHbQqD7cQ_AUoAXoECBMQAw&biw=1366&bih=657#imgrc=NUu89gD wOnuyNM
Basic Statistical Analysis, Sprinthall, Richard C, 4th Edition, Ally and Bacon 1992 Massachusetts
Guilford, J. P. (1956). Fundamental statistics in psychology and Education (3 rd. ed.). New York:
McGrawHill, p.145.
Yount, William R. Research Design & Statistical Analysis in Christian Ministry 4th Edition. (USA, 2006)
Mathematical Excurcions, Aufmann R, N retrieved from http://MATHEMATICALEXCURSIONS-

Richard-N.-Aufmann-Joanne-Lockwood-Richard-D.N.pdf
Mathematics in the Modern World (Calingasan, Martin & Yambao) C & E Publishing, Inc. 2018 (Quezon
City) https://www.calculator.net/z-score-calculator.html
Turing The chemical basis of morphogenesis Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B, 237 (1952), 3
p.
6

Prepared by:
KIMBERLY L. SORUILA
Instructor I
BERLYN A. FAMILARAN
Instructor I
PEDRO B. KATIGBAK
Associate Professor I
Checked by:
Department Module Editing Committee
Approved by:
BIBIANA JOCELYN D. CUASAY, Ph.D.

Module Editing Chair
AQUILINO D. ARELLANO, Ph.D., Ed.D.

Vice President for Academic Affairs and Research
Noted by:
MARIO CARMELO A. PESA, CPA

College Administrator

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Reference No: KLL-FO-ACAD-000 | Effectivity Date: August 3, 2020 | Revisions No.

I. COURSE : GE 104 – Mathematics in the Modern World

II. SUBJECT MATTER

III. COURSE OUTCOME

General Fields of Statistics: Descriptive Statistics and Inferential Statistics

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Marital Status: Single (1) and Married (2)

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Key Concepts in Statistics

A group of students (this is a population, since the common trait is “students”)

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0 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

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A. Measures of Central Tendency

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The operational term “summation” The raw scores

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Here are some graphic illustration of a skewed distribution:

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Appropriate Use of the Mean, Median and Mode

Distribution of monthly income per household in a certain municipality.

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Effects of the Scale of Measurement Used

A. To know the different measures of variability.

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Php 200,000.00 Highest Score

176,000.00 Lowest Score

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The formula for computational method is provided below:

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Computer Note: Exploring MS Excel to find the value of SD

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1. To gain deeper understanding about the Z-score

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3rd percentile 97th percentile

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𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑜 𝑑𝑖𝑑 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑦𝑜𝑢 (4000)

3rd percentile 97th percentile

For Q1. : The value of x is in the position .25 (n+1)

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1. Calculating for the 1st quartile (Q1) or the 25th percentile

2. Calculating for the 2nd quartile (Q2) or the 50th percentile

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3. Calculating for the 3rd quartile (Q3) or the 75th percentile

Q3 =.75 (n+1) Q3=194,750

The value of x corresponding to the position is 194,000

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D. The Normal Distributions

A. To understand the concept of normal distribution

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Here are some key characteristics of the normal curve.