Saint Joseph School

Cornet Chahwan
Chemistry Department

Chemistry Lab Manual

First & Second Secondary

 Preface
The aim behind preparing this laboratory manual is
mainly to improve students’ skills in laboratory work
and to increase their understanding of the material
studied in class.

The experiments in this lab manual do not replace the

activities in the Chemistry textbooks. On the contrary,
these experiments intend to help the student have a
wider scope of how to work in a laboratory.

In addition, students will enjoy lab sessions when they

see things concretely.

The experiments in the lab manual are for the first,

second and third secondary classes (scientific sections).

It is hoped that this manual will stimulate students’

interest to better discover chemical concepts through
practical work.

Michel Shbeir
 Table of Contents
Laboratory Safety Measures …………………………………………………… 4

Laboratory Glassware and other apparatus ………………………………………5

Laboratory Procedures… Experiment I ……………………………………….…9

The Busen Burner
Handling Solids
Measuring Liquids

Conductivity: Ionization Theory……… Experiment II …………………………11

Reactants in stoichiometric and

non-stoichiometric ratios Experiment III ……………………………….…12

Concentration of Solutions/Dilution… Experiment IV …………………………13

Volumetric Analysis………………… Experiment V………………………….16

Acid-Base Titration using Indicators

Identification of Ions in Solutions…… Experiment VI……………………..…18

Identification of Negative Ions
Identification of Positive Ions

Volumetric Titration in Redox Reactions… Experiment VII …………………21

Titration of Iron II sulfate with permanganate Solution
Titration of Iodine with a Sodium Thiosulfate Solution

Acid –Base pH-Metry…………………………………………….

Determine the Percentage of NaOH in a Household Product .
Experiment VIII…23
Determine the Percentage by Mass of Ascorbic
Acid in a Vitamin C Tablet ………………………………Experiment IX ……….. 24
Determine the degree of acidity of Commercial Vinegar… Experiment .….25
 Laboratory Safety Measures
General Procedures
1. Think while you are working. Be aware of what you are doing at each stage in an experiment.
2.
Read the experimental procedure before you carry out any experiment, and follow the directions
meticulously. This will not only increase your understanding of the experiment, but it helps you
save laboratory time by organizing your work efficiently.
3.
Follow the supplementary directions announced by your teacher.
4.
You are individually responsible for the cleanliness of your own equipment and bench area which
you are supposed to clean and keep in order after you finish your work.
5.
The following are never permitted in the laboratory:

a. loud or boisterous behavior.

b. running
c. smoking
d. eating or drinking.
e. unauthorized experiments.
f. removal of chemicals or equipment from the laboratory.
g. leave Bunsen burners unattended when lighted.
6.
7.
Wear safety goggles at all times while in the laboratory.

8. Wear laboratory coats. Do not wear shorts, short skirts, and bare-midriff shirts in the laboratory.
9. Girls must tie their long hair at the back of their head.

10. Do not wear scarves and neckties in the lab, as they may be ignited accidentally in the burner
flame.

It is advisable to remove any valuable jewelry before entering the laboratory.

1. Reagents

Before using any reagent, check the label carefully to confirm that you have the correct material.
2.
There are two principal concerns to recognize whenever you use chemical reagents: safety and
contamination. It is best to presume that all chemicals are potentially hazardous when inhaled or
allowed to come into contact with the skin. With this in mind manipulate all chemicals with the
proper equipment.
3.
4. Never pour a liquid into a vessel held above the eye level.

Reagent bottle stoppers or caps should be placed on a clean piece of paper towel while the
reagent is being removed from the bottle. Return the stopper or cap immediately after use, each
5. to its own bottle (don’t mix caps with bottle).

6. Do not return unused chemicals to reagent bottles.

Acids and bases are located is specially designated reagent bottles. Particular care must be
exercised when using these corrosive chemicals. Never add water to a concentrated reagent
when diluting the reagent. Always add the reagent to the water. If water is added to a
concentrated reagent, local heating and density effects may cause the water to be splashed back.

4
 Laboratory Glassware

5
6
7
8
 Experiment I Laboratory Procedures
Objectives

 Observe proper safety techniques with laboratory equipment.

 Use laboratory apparatus skillfully and efficiently .

Activity 1 The Bunsen Burner

Materials

Bunsen burner, wire gause, iron ring (tripod), beaker 100 ml.
Before you use the burner, learn the parts and their function. Examine your Bunsen burner
and identify the parts. Follow the instructions of your teacher. A Bunsen has a gas inlet
located in the base, a vertical tube or barrel in which the gas is mixed with air, and air ports
that admit air into the gas stream. The burner has an adjustable needle valve to regulate the
flow of gas.

Note: The burner is always turned off at the gas valve and never at the needle valve. Before you light
the burner, wear safety goggles and gloves. Tie long hair at the back of the head and away
from the front of the face.
Roll up long sleeves away from wrists. You should also know the locations of fire extinguishers.

Procedure
Light the Bunsen burner. Turn the air ports tight and left.
Record your observations each time you do it.

Put around 50 ml of water in a beaker. Then put the beaker on a wire gauze on top of tripod.
Heat the water.

Activity 2 Handling solids

Materials

 Filter paper or watch glass.

 Spatula, sodium chloride.
 Test tube.
 Balance.

Procedure

Using a spatula, remove a quantity of sodium chloride from its reagent bottle and weigh,
using a filter paper, 1 gram of sodium chloride on a balance.
In order to transfer the sodium chloride to a test tube, roll the filter paper into a cylinder and
slide it into a test tube holding the test tube in a vertical position

9
 Activity 3 Measuring Liquids

Materials

 50 ml beaker
 25 ml or 50 ml graduated cylinder
 20 ml volumetric pipet.
 Pipet filler
 Graduated pipet. 5 ml, 10 ml

Procedure

For approximate measurements of liquids, a graduated cylinder is used.

Fill the beaker with some water.
Measure 20 ml of water in a graduated cylinder and observe the meniscus. The reading should
be at the bottom of the meniscus.

A pipet is used for more accurate volume measurements.

Measure 20 ml of water using a volumetric pipet (Learn how to use the pipet filler)
Observe the meniscus.

In which of the above two cases is it easier to measure volumes accurately? Why?

Note the difference between graduated pipet and volumetric pipet.

Burets are used for delivering any desired quantiy of liquid up to the capacity of the buret.

 Clamp the buret to a stand.

 Put some water in a 50 ml beaker.
 Transfer the water into the buret till the zero mark using a funnel. Notice the meniscus
(For
clear reading, it is advised to hold a white sheet of paper behind the buret to avoid the
reflection of light).
 Put a 250 ml beaker under the buret opening.
 Open the stopcock of the buret till the level of the water reaches 8 ml. (Note that the
bottom of the meniscus must be at the 8 ml reading). Record the volume taken.
 Open the stopcock till the level of the water reaches 15 ml. Record the volume taken.

In each measurement the volume is equal to the difference of the meniscus levels.
V  VL2  VL1

10
 Experiment II Ionization Theory

Objectives

To determine whether a substance in an electrolyte or a non electrolyte.

Materials
 Beaker 400 ml
 1.5 – 3 volts light bulbs
 6 – 12 volt dry cells
 Electric wires
 Distilled water-sugar. Sodium chloride crystals-potassium chlorate crystrals.
 HCl solution 0.1 M
 Acetic acid solution 0.1 M

Procedure

Connect the electric wires to the light bulbs and the dry cell. The bulb lights up. Disconnect
the wires in a way to have two bare ends.

Dip the bare ends in a beaker half full of distilled water. Does the bulb light up?

Dissolve a few grams of sugar in the water found in the beaker. Does the bulb light up?

Replace the sugar solution by an NaCL solution. Does the bulb light up?

Repeat the same thing with HCl and acetic acid, CH3COOH solution.

Compare the intensity of light in each case the bulb lights up.
Discuss according to the activity, why in certain case the bulb lit up while in others it did not.
Back up your discussion with equations when possible.

Indicate which of the above reagents used is an electrolyte or a non-electrolyte. In case of

electrolyte, indicate which is strong and which is weak.

11
Experiment III Reactants in Stoichiometric and
Non-Stoichiometric Ratios
Objectives

Determine if reactants react completely or if any is in excess.

Materials
 Iron filings
 HCl solution, 1 M
 3 test tubes
 Test tube racks
 Test tube holders
 10 ml graduated pipet
 50 ml beaker
 Litmus paper
 Spatula
 Watch-glass
 Balance

Procedure

o Label the test-tubes A, B, C respectively.

o Using a spatula and a watch-glass weigh 0.8 g of iron filings and transfer the sample
into test tube A.
o Using a graduated pipet add 5 ml of HCl solution which contains 0.01 mol of HCL
into test
o tube A containing the iron filings.
o Record your observations and leave the test tube in the rack.

Using test tube B, repeat the above procedure, but this time weighing 0.2 g of iron filings and
adding 20 ml of HCl solution containing 0.02 mol of HCl. Record your observations and leave
the tube in the rack.

Using test tube C, repeat the above procedure, weighing 0.28 g of iron filings and adding 10
ml of HCl solution containing 0.01 mo HCl.
Record your observation and leave the test tube in the rack.

Hold test tube A and see if all the iron filings disappear.

Bend the test tube a little and dip a litmus paper. Record your observations.

What do you conclude? Support your conclusion by calculations.

Do the same for test tubes B and C.

12
 Experiment IV Concentrations of Solutions
Dilution
Objectives

Study the concentration of solutions and understand the principle of dilution of solutions.

Apparatus and Materials

 Volumetric flask: 50 ml, 100 ml, 250 ml

 Volumetric pipette: 20 ml
 Graduated pipette: 10 ml
 Pipette filler
 Balance, spatula, watch glass
 Funnel
 Beaker 400 ml
 Sodium chloride, hydrated copper sulfate, concentrated sulfuric acid

Procedures

Activity 1

Weigh, using a spatula and a watch glass, 11.7 g of sodium chloride crystals. Using a funnel
transfer the sample into a 100 ml volumetric flask half-filled with distilled water. Shake until all
the solid dissolves. Then add distilled water, a little at a time and with constant swirling till you
reach the mark line. A solution “S” is obtained.

a. What is the molarity of solution “S”?

b. Transfer 20 ml of solution “S”, using a volumetric pipette, into a 50 ml

volumetric flask. Then add distilled water till the mark line while swirling.
What is the molarity of the solution thus obtained?

c. Describe how you would prepare 20 ml, 0.05 M solution from solution S.

13
 Activity 2
a. Obtain 1.25 g of hydrated copper sulfate, CuSO 4. 5H2O and dissolve the
sample in a
50 ml distilled water in a 50 ml volumetric flask.

i) What is its concentration in gram per liter (g/L) of the obtained solution?

ii) Calculate the molar concentration of the solution obtained.

b. Obtain 2.5 g of the same hydrated copper sulfate crystals. Dissolve it with
water in a
250 ml volumetric flask. Calculate the molar concentration of the prepared solution.

c. Pour the solution obtained in parts (a) and (b) into a 400 ml beaker. Calculate
the molarity of the final solution thus obtained..

14
 Activity 3
Pour into a 100 ml beaker some of concentrated H 2SO4 labelled 5M. Using a graduated
pipette,carefuly transfer 5 ml of this acid into a 100 ml volumetric flask half-filled with water.
(Caution: concentrated acids cause sever and painful burns on the skin)

Add water till the mark line while swirling.

a. What is the molar concentration of the prepared solution? in gram per liter (g/L) of the
obtained solution?

b. What is its concentration in g/L?

c. Whhy did you transfer the concentrated H2SO4 into the volumetric flask already half-filled
with water instead of first transferring the acid and then adding the water?

d. Explain how you would prepare 50 ml, 1 M H 2SO4 solution from the given concentrated
H2SO4 solution.

15
 Experiment V Volumetric Analysis
Acid-Base Titration
Objectives

 Learn titration techniques.

 Recognize the end point of a titration.
Determine the molarity of a base or an acid.

Activity 1 Determination of the concentration of NaOH solution

Materials

 Buret (50 ml
 Funnel
 Volumetric pipet (20 ml)
 Stand - clamps
 0.1 M HCl solution – NaOH solution of unknown concentration
 Phenolphtalein
 E. meyer flask 250 ml
 Beaker 100 ml

Procedure

Fill the buret with HCl solution a little above the zero mark. Withdraw some of the solution to
remove any air from the buret tip bringing the liquid level to the zero mark. A white sheet of
paper could be held behind the buret to avoid the reflection of light.
Pour some of the NaOH solution into a beaker.
Transfer, using a 20 ml volumetric pipet, 20 ml of the NaOH from the beaker into an E.meyer
flask.
Add some distilled water to increase the volume.
Add 1-2 drops of phenolphthalein solution as an indicator.
Begin the titration by slowly adding HCl from the buret to the E.meyer flask while swirling.
When the pink color of the solution begins to disappear add the acid drop by drop. When the
last drop causes the color to disappear completely stop adding the acid. A white sheet of
paper under the E.meyer flask makes it easier to detect the color change.
Record the volume of the acid consumed.
Repeat the above procedure two more times. Tabulate your data.

First run VHCl= ____________

Second run VHCl= ____________

Third run VHCl= ___________ _

Average VHCl = __________________

16
Write the equations of the reaction; ionic and net ionic equations.

Calculate the molarity of the base.

Why did you use a funnel in filling the buret?

Why do you keep on swirling the E.meyer flask during titration?

What does the disappearance of the pink color mean?

Activity 2 Determination of the concentration of HCl solution

Materials

 Buret (50 ml)

 Funnel
 Volumetric pipet (20 ml)
 Stand - clamps
 0.1 M NaOH solution – HCl solution of unknown concentration
 Phenolphtalein

Procedure

Fill the buret with NaOH solution a little above the zero mark. Withdraw some of the solution to
remove any air from the buret tip bringing the level to the zero mark.
A white sheet of paper could be held behind the buret to avoid the reflection of light.
Pour some of the HCl solution into a beaker.
Transfer, using a 20 ml volumetric pipet, 20 ml of the HCl from the beaker into an E.meyer flask.
Add some distilled water to increase the volume.
Add 1-2 drops of phenolphthaleine solution as an indicator.
Begin the titration by slowly adding NaOH from the buret to the E.meyer flask while swirling. A
pink color appears and then disappears upon swirling.
Keep adding NaOH until a light pink color persist when the last drop of the base is added.
Record the volume of the acid consumed.
Repeat the above procedure two more times. Tabulate your data.

First Run V NaOH=

Second Run V NaOH=
Third Run V NaOH=
Average V NaOH=

Write the ionic and net ionic equations of the reaction.

Calculate the molarity of the HCl solution.

What does the appearance of a light pink color mean?

17
 Experiment VI Identification of Ions in Solutions

Activity 1 Identification of negative ions

Objectives

Testing for Cl-, Br-, I-, CO32-, SO42-, S2-, NO3-

 Test tubes
 Test-tube rack
 Test-tube holder

Materials
 Aqueous solutions that provide the following ions:
chloride, bromide, iodide, carbonate, sulfate, sulfide and nitrate.
 1 M HCl solution
 Ca(OH)2 solution
 1 M BaCl2
 Concentrated H2SO4 solution
 Freshly preparedH2SO4 solution
 Silver nitrate solution.
Procedure

In each of the following steps for testing, state your observations and write the ionic and net ionic
equations of the reactions involved.

- To a test tube containing around 2 ml of NaCl solution, pour around 2 ml of Ag NO 3 solution.

Observations:______________________________________________________________
Equations:_________________________________________________________________
- To a test tube containing around 2 ml of KBr solution, pour around 2 ml of Ag NO 3 solution.
Observations:_______________________________________________________________
Equations: _________________________________________________________________
- To a test tube containing around 2 ml of KI solution, pour around 2 ml of Ag NO 3 solution.
Observations: ____________________________________________________________
Equations:______________________________________________________________
- To a test tube containing around 2 ml of Na 2CO3 solution, pour around 2 ml of 1M HCl solution.
Observations: _____________________________________________________________
Equations: ________________________________________________________________

- - To a test tube containing around 2 ml of Na 2CO3 solution, pour around 2 ml of 1M Ca(OH)2

- solution.
Observations: _____________________________________________________________
Equations: ________________________________________________________________

- To a test tube containing around some solid calcium carbonate (chalk) , pour around 2 ml of
1M HCl
Observations: _______________________________________________________________

18
Equations: __________________________________________________________________

- To a test tube containing around 2 ml of Na 2SO4 solution, add a few drops of 1 M BaCl2
solution.
Observations:
____________________________________________________________________
Equations:
_______________________________________________________________________

- To a test tube containing around 2 ml of of Na 2NO3 solution, add around 2 ml of freshly

prepared FeSO4 solution. Hold the test tube in an inclined position (60°), away from your face
and the face of your partner. Slowly pour into the test tube some drops of concentrated H 2SO4
solution. The formation of a brown ring indicates the existence of NO 3- ion.

Activity 2 Identification of positive ions

Objectives

Testing for Ag+, NH4+, Ca2+, Ba2+, Fe2+, Fe3+ Cu2+, Al3+

Materials
 Test tubes
 Test-tube rack
 Test-tube holder
 Aqueous solutions that provide the following ions:
silver, ammonium, calcium, barium, ferrous, ferric, cupric, aluminum
 NaOH solution
 NaCl solution
 Na2 CO3 solution
 Na2SO4

Procedure

In each of the following steps for testing, write your observations and write the ionic and net
ionic equations.

- To a test tube containing around 2 ml of AgNO 3 solution, pour about 2 ml of NaCl solution.
Observations: ________________________________________________________________
Equations: ___________________________________________________________________
- To a test tube containing around 2 ml of NH4NO3 solution, pour around 2 ml of NaOH
solution, and gently heat the test tube, keeping it away from your face, holding a wet red litmus
paper near the mouth of the tube.
Observations: ________________________________________________________________
Equations: ___________ _______________________________________________________

19
- To a test tube containing around 2 ml of CaCl 2, pour around 2 ml of Na2CO3 solution.
Observations:
_________________________________________________________________
Equations:
___________________________________________________________________
- To a test tube containing around 2 ml of BaCl 2 solution, pour around 2 ml of Na 2SO4.
Observations:
________________________________________________________________
Equations:
___________________________________________________________________
- To a test tube containing around 2 ml of ferrous sulfate solution, add about 2 ml of NaOH
solution.
Observations:
________________________________________________________________
Equations:
___________________________________________________________________

- To a test tube containing around 2 ml of Fe(NO 3)3 solution, add around 2 ml of NaOH
solution.
Observations:
________________________________________________________________
Equations:
___________________________________________________________________

- To a test tube containing around 2 ml of CuSO 4 solution, add around 2 ml of NaOH

solution.
Observations: ______________________________________________________________
Equations:
_________________________________________________________________

- To a test tube containing AlCl3 solution, add around 2 ml of NaOH solution.

Observations:
_______________________________________________________________
Equations:
_________________________________________________________________

- Keep on adding NaOH solution.

What do you observe?

________________________________________________________________________

Write the equation of the reaction taking place.

_________________________________________________________________________

20
 Experiment VII Titration in Redox Reactions

Activity 1 Titration of Iron II sulfate solution with Potassium

Permanganate solution in acidic medium
Objectives

Determine the molarity of Fe2+ ion in a ferrous sulfate solution and the concentration of Iron II
sulfate in g/l.

Materials

 50 ml buret
 250 ml E.meyer flask
 Funnel
 200 ml beaker (2)
 20 ml volumetric pipet.
 Pipet filler
 0.02 M KmnO4
 Concentrated H2SO4 solution
 Iron II sulfate of unknown concentration.

Procedure

Fill the buret with 0.02 M KMnO4 solution a little above the zero mark. Withdraw some of the
solution to remove any air from the buret tip, bringing the liquid level to the zero mark. A
white sheet of paper could be held behind the buret to avoid the reflection of light.
- Pour some of FeSO4 solution into a beaker. Transfer, using a 20 ml volumetric pipet, 20 ml of
FeSO4 from the beaker into a 250 ml E.meyer flask.
- Add some distilled water to increase the volume a little bit.
- From the buret slowly add KMnO4 into the E.meyer flask while swirling. A pink color appears
and then disappears upon swirling.

Stop adding KMnO4 when a light pink color persists in the E.meyer flask.
- Record the volume of KMnO4 added.
- Repeat the above procedure two more times.
- Tabulate your data.
First run VKMnO4 = _________________
Second run VKMnO4 = _________________
Third run VKMnO4 = _________________
Average VKMnO4 : ________________________

Write a balanced equation for the reaction taking place.

Calculate the molar concentration of Fe 2+ ions in FeSO4 solution.

Calculate the concentration of FeSO 4 in g/l.

21
 Activity 2 Titration of Iodine with Sodium Thiosulfate

Objectives

Determine the molar concentration of iodine solution.

Materials

 50 ml buret-funnel
 200 ml beaker
 20 ml volumetric pipet.
 250 ml E.meyer flask
 Dropper
 Iodine solution of unknown concentration
 0.1 mol.L- Na2S2O3 solution
 Starch solution 1 %

Note: Starch solution should not be added to a relatively concentrated solution of iodine. It is
added when the iodine solution becomes dilute enough (light yellow color)

Procedure

Fill the buret with 0.1 M Na 2S2O3 solution a little above the zero mark. Withdraw some of the
solution. To remove any air from the buret tip, bringing the level of the liquid to the zero mark. A
white sheet of paper could be held behind the buret to avoid the reflection of light.

Put some iodine solution in a beaker. Then, using a 20 ml volumetric pipet, transfer 20 ml of this
solution into an E.meyer flask.

- Add some distilled water to increase the volume.

- From the buret, slowly add the sodium thiosulfate solution while swirling.
- Stop adding when the color of iodine solution becomes light yellow.
- Add with a dropper a few ml of starch solution. The color of the solution becomes
dark blue-black. Add slowly, drop by drop more of Na 2S2O3 solution until the iodine
solution becomes colorless.
- Record the volume of the thiosulfate solution consumed.
- Repeat the above procedure two more times.
- Tabulate your data.

First run VNaS2O3 = _________________

Second run VNaS2O3 = _________________
Third run VNaS2O3 = _________________
Average VNaS2O3 : ________________________

- Write a balanced equation for the reaction taking place.

____________________________________________________________________________

- Calculate the concentration of iodine.

____________________________________________________________________________

22
 Experiment VIII Acid Base pH-metry

Objectives
Determine the percentage of NaOH in a household product.

Materials
 1000 ml volumetric flask
 A bottle of household product containing NaOH solution.
 HCl solution, 0.1 M
 Buffer solution
 100 ml beaker
 50 ml buret
 10 ml volumetric, pipet filler
 Funnel
 Magnetic stirrer, bar magnet.
 pH-meter

Procedure
-A volume V0 = 10 ml is taken from the household bottle and transferred into a 1000 ml
volumetric flask. Add distilled water till the mark line while swirling to
homogenize the solution. A solution S is thus obtained.
-Calibrated the pH-meter.
-Fill the buret with HCl solution, 0.1 M.
-Transfer 10 ml of S into a 100 ml beaker.
-Add enough distilled water into the beaker to dip the electrode of the pH-meter.
-Measure the pH of the basic solution.
-Add 1 ml of the acid solution and measure the new pH value.
-Repeat the last step till a sudden jump in the pH value is noticed. (Add 0.5 ml HCl until the
pH changes slightly).
-Trace the curve of the titration: pH vs volume of acid.
-Determine the coordinates of the equivalence point.
-Determine the percentage of the base in the household product.

23
Experiment IX Acid Base pH-metry

Objectives

Determine the percentage by mass of ascorbic acid in a vitamin C tablet.

Materials
 Vitamin C tablet.
 NaOH solution 0.2 mol.L-.
 Buffer solution.
 250 ml beaker.
 50 ml buret.
 Balance.
 Graduated cylinder 100 ml.
 Distilled water.
 Mortar and pestle.
 Magnetic stirrer.
 Bar magnet.

Procedure

- Weigh a tablet of vitamin C on a balance.

- Grind the tablet and place the powder obtained in a beaker.
- Add a 100 ml distilled water and stir.
- Calibrated the pH-meter.
- Fill the buret with NaOH solution.
- Measure the pH of the solution in the beaker.
- Add 1 ml of NaOH and measure the pH.
- Repeat the last step until a sudden jump in the pH value is noticed. (Add 0.5 ml
NaOH until the pH changes slightly).
- Trace the curve of the titration: pH vs volume of NaOH added.
- Determine the coordinates of the equivalence point.
- Write the equation of the reaction taking place. (Vitamin C is C 6H8O6).
- Determine the percentage of vitamin C in the tablet.

24
 Experiment X Acid Base pH-metry

Objectives

Determine the degree of acidity of commercial vinegar. [Degree of acidity of vinegar is the
mass, in grams, of pure ethanoic acid (acetic acid) present in 100g of vinegar]

Materials

 100 ml volumetric flask

 5 ml graduated pipet, pipet filler.
 50 ml buret
 100 ml beaker
 pH-meter
 Magnetic stirrer, bar magnet.
 Buffer solution.
 Commercial white vinegar.
 NaOH solution 1.5 x 10-2 mol.L-.

Procedure

- Transfer 1 ml of the vinegar solution into a 100 ml volumetric flask. Add distilled water till the
mark line while swirling to homogenize the solution. A solution S is thus obtained.
- Calibrate the pH-meter.
Fill the buret with NaOH solution 1.5 x 10-2 mol.L-.
- Transfer 20 ml of S into a 100 ml beaker.
- Measure the pH of the acid solution.
- Add 1 ml of the base solution and measure the new pH value.
- Repeat the above procedure until a sudden jump in the pH value is noticed. (Add 0.5 ml
NaOH until the pH changes slightly).
- Plot the curve of the titration: pH vs volume of the base.
- Determine the coordinates of the equivalence point.
- Determine the degree of acidity of the vinegar, knowing that the density of the vinegar
solution is approximately 1g/c.c.

25