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2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Methods
A FBG is a point type optical sensor. It is constructed by creating a distributed Bragg reflector or a
periodic variation in the fiber core refractive index on a short segment of an optical fiber. This structure
reflects specific wavelengths of light while transmitting others. The wavelength reflected in the Bragg
reflector (Bragg wavelength) is defined by λB = 2ne .Λ, where ne is the effective refractive index of
the grating and Λ is the granting spacing period. When a strain is applied to the FBG, the grating
period is changed and consequently the Bragg wavelength also changes linearly. This dependence of
the FBG wavelength on mechanical strain has made it very interesting for use in many applications.
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Many types of substrates and materials are adapted to FBG to build different types of sensors.
The main
the Bragg advantage of awavelength)
reflector (Bragg FBG for is sensing
defined by B = 2ne.Λ, where
applications is the
ne isability to directly
the effective refractive transform
indexof
the variation of athephysical
grating and Λ is the granting
parameter into aspacing period.
variation ofWhen a strain
optical is applied
quantity, intothisthe FBG,
casethe wavelength.
grating period is changed and consequently the Bragg wavelength also changes linearly. This
When compared to conventional sensors, such as a thermocouple, for example, FBG sensors have
dependence of the FBG wavelength on mechanical strain has made it very interesting for use in many
many advantages:
applications. lightweight,
Many types ofcompact, dielectric
substrates and materials (nonconductive),
are adapted to FBGpassive (do nottypes
to build different require
of external
power), wide bandwidth and they have high sensitivity. FBG sensors are also corrosion/oxidation
sensors.
resistant and can The main
receive advantage
various of types
a FBG for sensing applications is the ability to directly transform the
of coatings.
variation of a physical parameter into a variation of optical quantity, in this case wavelength. When
A well-known property of FBG sensors is that they can be connected in series on the same fiber
compared to conventional sensors, such as a thermocouple, for example, FBG sensors have many
creating aadvantages:
sensor network, as each
lightweight, FBG dielectric
compact, sensor reflects in a specific
(nonconductive), wavelength
passive rangeexternal
(do not require by construction
choice [20]. Thiswide
power), feature is very
bandwidth andimportant as it
they have high allows the
sensitivity. FBG elements
sensors are to
alsobe connected to one single
corrosion/oxidation
interrogatorresistant and can receive
equipment, various types
thus reducing theoftotal
coatings.
system cost.
A well-known property of FBG sensors is that they can be connected in series on the same fiber
The proposed transformer deformation sensing system is based in a FBG sensors network
creating a sensor network, as each FBG sensor reflects in a specific wavelength range by construction
connectedchoice
in series
[20].inside the power
This feature is very transformer.
important as itBasically,
allows the the FBG to
elements deformation
be connectedsensors are inserted in
to one single
the top or interrogator
in the baseequipment,
of transformer windings,
thus reducing assystem
the total it is shown
cost. in Figure 1. The placement of the sensors
The proposed
in a real transformer transformer
is proposed deformation
to occur in thesensing
outer system
winding is based
and inin outer
a FBG structure,
sensors network due to ease of
connected in series inside the power transformer. Basically, the FBG deformation sensors are inserted
installation in these points. They would be installed in usual points where there exist shims that would
in the top or in the base of transformer windings, as it is shown in Figure 1. The placement of the
be replaced by sensed
sensors in a realshims. In aisreal
transformer installation,
proposed to occur inthe the load positionand
outer winding will define
in outer an initial
structure, due towavelength
point for the
easeFBG sensor in
of installation and it will
these respond
points. They wouldas abevariation
installed inaround thiswhere
usual points wavelength.
there exist In other words,
shims
the initial that would be replaced
wavelength will beby sensed at
known shims.
the In a real
time ofinstallation,
installation,the load position will
as actually define an
occurred ininitial
the performed
wavelength point for the FBG sensor and it will respond as a variation around this wavelength. In
simulated experiments.
other words, the initial wavelength will be known at the time of installation, as actually occurred in
In this case
the the deformation
performed measured by the sensors is due to the axial forces. A single interrogator
simulated experiments.
can analyze the In signals
this caseofthe many deformation
deformation sensors
measured by theconnected
sensors is in
dueseries,
to thebut one
axial of the
forces. A most
single important
interrogator can analyze the signals of many deformation
specifications for interrogator in this particular application is its response time.sensors connected in series, but one of the
most important specifications for interrogator in this particular application is its response time.

Transformer
FBG sensor

Axial forces
Winding

FBG
Winding

FBG
Optical fiber
Interrogator

Figure 1. Figure
Winding1. Winding deformation
deformation sensingsystem
sensing system conception
conception showing how the
showing how Fiber
theBragg
Fiber Grating
Bragg Grating
(FBG) sensors are fixed in the in the outer winding and in outer structure, due to ease of installation
(FBG) sensors are fixed in the in the outer winding and in outer structure, due to ease of installation in
in these points.
these points.
2.2. FBG Deformation Sensor Shape
The substrate material where the FBG is fixed is very important in the sensor performance. Two
important issues regarding this substrate are the shape and the material type. The shape is dependent
of where the sensor is placed in the windings. In order to simplify the introduction of the sensor in a
Sensors 2019, 19, 4877 4 of 15

2.2. FBG Deformation Sensor Shape

The substrate material where the FBG is fixed is very important in the sensor performance.
Two important issues regarding this substrate are the shape and the material type. The shape is
Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16
dependent of where the sensor is placed in the windings. In order to simplify the introduction of the
sensor in a future
of where transformer
the sensor is placed fabrication the sensor
in the windings. In ordershape as shims
to simplify for the windings
the introduction were in
of the sensor adopted.
a
However, some modifications were inserted in the shim shape in order to
future transformer fabrication the sensor shape as shims for the windings were adopted. However, obtain a better sensitivity
when axial
some forces are produced
modifications were insertedin the windings.
in the shim shape Figure
in order2 shows
to obtain the sensor
a better conception.
sensitivity whenThisaxialshape
is anforces are produced
evolution in the windings.
of the shape describedFigure 2 shows
in [18]. the sensor
The sensor conception.
consists This shape isblock
in a rectangular an evolution
of a special
of thewhere
material shape described
an emptyindome [18]. The sensor consists
is designed inside inthe
a rectangular
block. Inblock of a special
the block top a material whereshape
flat cylinder
an empty dome is designed inside the block. In the block top a flat cylinder
element is fixed, which concentrates the axial forces towards the dome positioned just below. shape element is fixed,
The FBG
which concentrates the axial forces towards the dome positioned just below. The FBG fiber with
fiber with polyimide coating was fixed at the bottom of the dome using a high temperature commercial
polyimide coating was fixed at the bottom of the dome using a high temperature commercial epoxy
epoxy adhesive, which also contained bisphenol-A-(epichlorohydrin). The cure was carried out in
adhesive, which also contained bisphenol-A-(epichlorohydrin). The cure was carried out in ambient
ambient temperature
temperature duringduring 24 h.adhesive
24 h. This This adhesive
resists toresists
water,tooils
water,
and oils and temperatures
temperatures up to 120 °C.up to The120 ◦ C.
The adhesive
adhesivealso also does
does notnot suffer
suffer contraction,
contraction, dilatation
dilatation or deformation
or deformation and for
and is suitable is suitable for a wide
a wide variety
variety of materials,
of materials, such such as: wood,
as: glass, glass, wood,
ceramicsceramics
and rubber,andamong
rubber, among
others. others.
It was testedItfor
was tested
PEEK andforTBPEEK
and with
TB with
goodgood results.
results.
BelowBelow
thethe rectangularblock
rectangular blockcontaining
containing the
theempty
emptydome dome there
there is aisboard basebase
a board that that
protects the the
protects
FBG. All parts of the substrate were made of the same
FBG. All parts of the substrate were made of the same type of material. type of material.

Figure 2. (a) 3D shape of FBG winding deformation sensor, (b) cross section FBG winding deformation
Figure 2 (a) 3D shape of FBG winding deformation sensor, (b) cross section FBG winding deformation
sensor showing
sensor showingthethedome
domeand
and the
the flat
flat cylinder and(c)(c)a areal
cylinder and real conception
conception of the
of the FBG FBG winding
winding
deformation sensor.
deformation sensor.

2.3. FBG Deformation

2.3. FBG Sensor
Deformation SensorMaterials
Materials
Anymaterial
Any materialororcomponent
component introduced
introduced intointo transformers
transformers should
should not cause
not cause undesirable
undesirable effectseffects
such such
as partial discharges,
as partial forfor
discharges, example,
example,and andin in addition theyhave
addition they have toto operate
operate with
with no degradation
no degradation for many
for many
yearsyears
in typical temperature
in typical temperature ofof8585◦ C,
°C,but
but reaching 120°C
reaching 120 ◦C occasionally.
occasionally. TheThe sensors
sensors werewere constructed
constructed
usingusing
twotwo different
different materials.The
materials. Thefirst
first material
material was
wasthethetransformerboard
transformerboard (TB),(TB),
which is a kind
which is a of
kind of
electrical insulation cellulose that has been used in the manufacture of transformer
electrical insulation cellulose that has been used in the manufacture of transformer winding winding shims
shims for
for many years. The second material was PEEK, a kind of organic thermoplastic polymer. Both
many years. The second material was PEEK, a kind of organic thermoplastic polymer. Both materials
materials have optimum electrical insulation characteristics, which should ensure that the dielectric
have optimum electrical insulation characteristics, which should ensure that the dielectric performance
performance of the instrumented transformer would not be affected. The rest of the sensor materials