MODULE 5 – PROMOTING ACCESS TO THE

CURRICULUM

LESSON 13
UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING

Objectives:
After studying the lesson, students will be able to:
1. Define the universal design for learning
2. Understand the three principles of Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
3. Be able to apply the principles to the different curricular components
4. Define differentiated instruction
5. Understand the key elements of differentiated instruction
6. Discuss the importance of differentiating instruction

Introduction:
Inclusive schools use a variety of practices to ensure that all students have opportunities to
learn and thrive in a supportive, responsive school environment and to have access to the general
education curriculum. Having access to the general education curriculum means being able to (a)
learn the knowledge and skills we expect all students to learn; (b) benefit from evidence-based
instruction that is designed, delivered and evaluated for effectiveness; and (c) use materials,
facilities and labs that facilitate earning. For many at-risk students and students with disabilities,
mastering the critical academic knowledge and skills is difficult because of learning challenges
such as sensory, memory, communication, motor, behavioral and cognitive problems.
Differentiating instruction, then, is critical to helping them become successful learners.
How can the INCLUDE strategy help you make instructional accommodations and
modifications for students with special needs? The INCLUDE strategy is based on two key
assumptions. First, student performance in school is the result of an interaction between the student
and the instructional environment (Broderick. Mehts-Parekh, &Reid, 2005; Pisha & Coyne, 2001;
Smith, 2004). The second key assumption of INCLUDE is that by carefully analyzing students’
learning needs and the specific demands of the classroom environment, teachers can reasonably
accommodate most students with special needs in their classrooms. The INCLUDE strategy
contains both elements of both universal design and differentiated instruction, two widely
recognized approaches to addressing classroom diversity in general and inclusion in particular.
Universal Design for Learning
Universal design for learning (UDL) is a means for differentiating instruction for all
students, including learners with disabilities. It is a framework that provides ways to remove or
minimize barriers to learning and promote accessibility to curricula and pedagogy, or teaching
practices for all learners, including students with and without disabilities and English language
learners (CAST, 2011). The goal is to foster learners’ ability to achieve mastery of the curricula
within a flexible environment that features various ways content can be conveyed to account for
individual differences (CAST, 2011).
Universal Design and Education
In the early 2000s the principles of Universal Design were transferred to educational
practice and renamed Universal Design for Learning (UDL). The practice became part of the
inclusion movement, which focused on changing systems of education so that they responsive to
all students, regardless of disability or other characteristics. David Rose and Anne Meyer (2005)
described UDL as providing students multiple means of presentation, allowing multiple means of
response and facilitating multiple means of engagement. UDL’s underlying tenet is that academic
content is the most important aspect of the academic experience, but that teachers should provide
a variety of pathways for students to engage with content and demonstrate mastery. This approach
focuses on the whole class and finding ways to be responsive to (and respectful of) students’
personality, life experiences, learning style, cultural background, disability status and language
abilities.
Universal Design and Special Education Needs
One important contribution that UDL makes to inclusion is its focus on student diversity.
Strategies like examining human differences through students’ literature (Avagyan, Baghdasaryan
& Sargsyan, 2016 ) and development of new norms in teachers’ development are improving
understanding and acceptance of human diversity. A UDL approach, then, focuses on the fact that
there is a wide variety of needs. UDL moves away from a narrative that label students ‘normal’
and ‘abnormal’ learners or those who need regular or special education (Rose & Meyer, 2005).
Differentiated Instruction and Universal Design for Learning
Both special and regular educators are familiar with the concept of differentiated
instruction. This broad concept allows teachers to adjust the level of challenge in particular topics
to meet the individual needs of their students. Differentiated instruction has been used in inclusive
classrooms around the world and is based on Vygotsky’s “Zone of Proximal Development” (1978)
theory, whereby students work best when asked to accomplish tasks that are moderately difficult
but neither overwhelmingly challenging nor too easy. Kaufmann and Hallahan (2011) refer to this
as the ‘just barely manageable’ approach – putting learning tasks at a level that is difficult to
handle.
Differentiated instruction may be part of the UDL processes, but UDL scholars have noted
that changes to the standard or expectations off learning for some students may be less necessary
if such students are offered variety of ways to learn material. Edyburn (2007, 2010) for example,
has presented cases of students with learning disabilities which learning only became effective
when teachers moved beyond traditional lecture and print-based materials. In such situations, the
need for learning accommodations and modifications may be reduced when lessons are designed
with flexibility in mind. Specifically, when the learning needs of students are anticipated and
accessibility is built into lesson planning, all students may be able to learn.
Framework for Universal Design for Learning
The principles of UDL are grounded in three types of learning: recognition learning
strategic learning and affective learning. Recognition learning refers to a student’s ability to
recognize and remember concepts. This is usually facilitated through teacher activities or reading
from text. Strategic learning refers to a student’s ability to respond to particular content, concepts
or skills. Strategic learning requires that students can both recognize a concept and be able to
respond to it. This type of learning id often demonstrated through writing tasks or verbal comments
in class. Affective learning refers to student’s motivation of learning the concept. Without
motivation, students will have a less robust learning experience (Clampa, 2014; Malone & Lepper,
1987; mega, Ronconi & DeBeni, 2014). An overview of the three types of learning is presented
below:
Three Types of Learning

1. Recognition – Students recognize and remember

the characters in a book
2. Strategic – Students produce a book report
analyzing the plot of a story
3. Affective – Students discuss the book through a
‘book group’ that discusses both events and
personal feelings about the book’s characters

Principles of Universal Design for Learning

UDL has three main principles that allow teachers themselves the opportunity to plan
according to the needs of their students. UDL principles align with a philosophy that embraces
differences in learners. Teachers can enhance learning for students with different profiles by
providing flexibility in opportunities for recognition, strategic earning and affective learning. Such
flexibility in teaching disrupts that traditional method of teacher, lecturing, students taking notes
and students eventually taking an exam on content.
 These principles guide the design and development of curriculum that is effective and
inclusive for all learners (Rose & Gravel, 2010). According to Rose & Meyer (2002) the three
UDL principles are:
1. To support recognition learning, provide multiple means of representation – that is, offer
flexible ways to present what we teach and learn. In other words, information is presented
in various formats to reduce sensory and cognitive barriers.
2. To support strategic learning, provide multiple means of action and expression – that is
flexible options for how we learn and express what we know. This also refers to the ability
of students to respond in a variety of ways.
3. To support affective learning, provide multiple means of engagement – that is, flexible
options for generating and sustaining motivation, the why of learning. This also consists of
actively engaging students’ activities and making available more than just a single mode
off representation and expression to address their needs and interests.
These three principles of UDL are featured in the UDL guidelines (CAST, 2011). Applying
the principles of UDL to curricula and pedagogy means adapting goals, strategies, materials and
tests to enable access for all and to remove or minimize barriers to learning. The intent is to make
the curriculum and instruction flexible enough to accommodate the diverse learning needs evident
in most classrooms (CAST, 2011; Rao, Ok & Bryant, 2014)
According to the Higher Education Opportunity Act (HEOA; Public Law 110-315, August
14, 2008, the Congress defines UDL as, a scientifically valid framework for guiding educational
practices that –
a. Provides flexibility in the ways information is presented, in the ways students respond or
demonstrate knowledge and skills, and in the ways students are engaged; and
b. Reduces barriers in instruction, provides appropriate accommodations, supports and
challenges and maintains high achievement expectations for all students, including
students with disabilities and students who are limited English proficient
UDL provides a research-based framework for teachers to incorporate flexible materials,
techniques and strategies for delivering instruction and for students to demonstrate their
knowledge in a variety of ways. Developed by researchers at the Center for Applied Special
Technology (CAST), this framework stands in contrast with the “one size fits all” instructional
approach that has traditionally been used in classrooms as given below:
Traditional Instruction Universal Design for Learning Instruction
 Teachers typically deliver content  Teachers deliver content in multiple
one way ways
 Students are passive learners who  Students are active learners who
acquire information through engage and analyze the content to gain
memorizing, practicing and taking understanding
tests
  The learning environment  The learning environment encourages
encourages students to sit quietly students to explore the content based
and work on an identical task on personal interest, preferences or
abilities
 Students’ skills and knowledge of  Students are allowed to demonstrate
content are assessed using one their skills and knowledge of content
method using one of several methods
Adapted from Universal Design for Learning: A Guide for Teacher and Education Professionals

Curricular Components
The three basic principles of UDL (multiple means of representation, means of action and
expression, and multiple means of engagement) can be applied to instruction. To do so teachers
need to apply the UDL principles to the four main curricular components (Hitchcock, Meyer, Rose
& Jackson, 2002):
 Learning Goals
 Instructional Materials
 Instructional Methods
 Assessment

By applying the UDL principles to each of these components, teachers meet the learning
needs of all student in the general education classroom. As shown in the illustration, learning goals
are central to the UDL process. Teachers must know that they expect the students to learn before
addressing other curricular components.
Learning Goals
Teachers are accustomed to identifying learning goals that are clearly states, observable,
measurable and that align with grade level standards. They learn that the principles of UDL can be
applied so that all students can meet the learning goal.
Teachers will initially consider goals, objectives and benchmarks that are typically
provided by state department of public instruction and/or local school districts along with pacing
guides. Next, teachers look at the range of topics/content areas to be covered and assessed in the
coming weeks, months and school year. This can be overwhelming but it is critical in the
development of unit and lesson plans. To make it manageable and clear, teachers can initially map
out the main goals and objectives to focus on must be clearly identified. These big ideas are the
core concept and principles in the content areas that help all learners acquire knowledge across a
broad range of experiences (Coyne, Kame’enui & Carnine, 2007). Establishing clear goals based
on the standards is a critical first step in planning evidenced-based instruction.
Teachers can further increase access or approachability to the general curriculum by
focusing on the way goals and objectives are initially written from these big ideas (Rose, Meyer,
& Hitchcock, 2005). This can be done by writing objectives with verbs that offer the greatest
amount flexibility in terms of representation, engagement and expression.
Next, the basic questions are developed to frame units and lessons. These essential
questions are at the heart of the unit and its lesson. These questions reflect the big important ideas
that go beyond simply facts. These are the same for all learners and not differentiated.
Instructional Materials
Once goals are determined, materials and resources need to be considered in a universal
design framework. Typically, teachers are given hard copy of textbooks for their courses but
textbooks are only one part of curricular materials and resources.
Teachers know how to develop UDL goals, they are ready to learn how instructional
materials can incorporate UDL principles. Like most teachers across the nation, they also use
printed text as their primary medium for teaching. The UDL approach encourages teachers to
use materials that are more flexible and that therefore enable them to present concepts in a variety
of ways to better meet the needs of a diverse group of learners. The most common type of flexible
media is digital text, a format in which the content is separate from the manner in which it is
presented.
In addition to encouraging them to use flexible materials. UDL encourages teachers to use
alternated materials or media. Teachers can also maximize students’ access by using appropriate
scaffolds and supports (e.g. graphic organizers, spellcheckers). Using a combination f flexible
materials and media and allowing students to choose the materials they work with, teachers can
incorporate the UDL principles - representation, action and expression and engagement.
Instructional Methods
The third curricular component of universal design for learning is methods. Once the
compass is set toward the defined goals/big ideas and materials/resources are considered, the
teacher must plan curricular methods that are flexible and diverse to provide a variety of learning
experiences with extensions and supports to meet the demand in the class.
Teachers has an understanding of how to apply UDL principles to instructional goals and
materials. They also need to evaluate the instructional methods they use to teach content. They
discover that just as they need to use a variety of instructional methods to deliver the content to all
learners. The traditional instructional methods are not especially flexible nor do they provide
students with many options for accessing content. This promotes passive learning – students are
required to memorize information from the text, lecture or video. Though they are given
opportunities to practice (e.g. complete worksheet), students often do not receive corrective
feedback. Though effective with some learners these instructional methods do not address the
needs of all students nor do they effectively engage all learners.
When teachers design lessons using the UDL principle, teachers need to consider how
effectively teach content or skills to a classroom of learners with different abilities and learning
preferences. This requires teachers to be flexible in the way they present and teach information
and to offer their students options in the learning environment.
Assessment
The final curricular component to address using the UDL approach is assessment. They
learn that, just as with the other curricular components, they need to use multiple means to assess
student learning (e.g. oral presentations, visual display, skit). To evaluate whether the students
have mastered the content and to assign grades typically rely on the chapter test provided by the
book publisher, a few homework assignments, and an occasional project. By applying UDL
principles to assessments, teachers can reduce the barriers posed by a test format or medium that
may have little to do with the skill or knowledge being evaluated. When teachers apply the UDL
approach assessments should:
 Reflect the learning goal
 Provide flexible opportunities to demonstrate knowledge or a skill
 Allow for scaffolds and supports
 Be conducted in an ongoing manner
Many teachers might consider some of the UDL assessment characteristics to be unfair.
Their perception is that, by providing students with flexible opportunities to demonstrate
knowledge and by allowing scaffolds and supports, they are giving some students an advantage
over others. In fact, this is not the case. Rather, UDL assessments allow all students to show what
they really know about the content or skill.
 Self-Assessment:
Take some time to answer the following questions:
1. Briefly describe the Universal Design for Learning. Make sure to include the three
principles of UDL.
2. When they develop goals using the principles of UDL, what is the main thing that
teachers need to keep in mind?
3. Imagine that you are a second-year high school teacher beginning a unit on plants.
Your goal is to teach the students the parts of a plant, making sure to incorporate the
three principles of UDL. Using the table below, describe at least two ways you would
present the information, assess your students, and maintain their engagement in the
subject.
Learning Goal Know the parts of a plant (roots, stem, flowers, leaves)
Presentation
Assessment
Engagement

Differentiated Instruction
The concept of differentiated instruction as advocated by Tomlinson (2014) and others
(Patton 2016; Smith, Polloway, Patton & Dowdy, 2012), has become an important dimension of
classroom instruction. To a certain extent, the term is a reformulation of the basic idea of
“individualizing instruction that has been espoused for many years within special education;
however, the current term borrows from gifted education and has been applied consistently to
general education settings.
Differentiated instruction (DI) is not new. Concern for attending to the strengths and needs
of particular students is captured in writings about teaching in ancient Greece and Egypt, in
description of life in the one-room schoolhouse and in every instance where instructional plans are
adjusted to better meet the needs of an individual learner. Effective differentiated instruction
requires that educators take thoughtful and deliberate actions to address the particular needs of
students. Differentiation allows us to see learning from a variety of perspectives and provide
countless, unless teachable moments that we may otherwise miss.
Differentiating instruction is instruction that is responsive to the diverse needs of all
students, with a focus on curriculum, instructional adaptations, services and instructional intensity.
Some students require differentiation, however, and it can take various forms depending on the
student’s individual needs.
Differentiated Instruction is adapting instruction and assessment in response to differing
student interests, learning preferences, and readiness in order to promote growth in learning. It is
also an approach whereby teachers adjust their curriculum and instruction to maximize the learning
of all students: average learners, English language learners, struggling students, students with
learning disabilities, and gifted and talented students. Differentiated instruction is not a single
strategy but rather a framework that teachers can use to implement a variety of strategies, many of
which are evidence-based. These evidence-based strategies include:
 Employing effective classroom management procedures
 Grouping students for instruction (especially students with significant learning
problems)
 Assessing readiness
 Teaching to the student’s zone of proximal development
In addition to using the kinds of evidence-based strategies, teachers who differentiate
instruction often:
 Use a variety of instructional approaches
 Alter assignments to meet the needs of the students
 Assess students on an ongoing basis to determine their readiness levels
 Use assessment results to adjust instruction as needed
 Provide a variety of options for how students can learn and demonstrate their knowledge
 Strive to make lessons engaging and meaningful
 Employ different grouping formats for instruction (e.g. whole class, small groups,
independent instruction) and use flexible grouping
When we respond to student needs, we differentiate, to some extent, some of the time. For
optimal success, we need to be aware of the decisions that we make and take deliberate action to
meet the needs of all learners. Ultimately, the aim is to shape the learning experience so that it is
appropriate to the learning preferences, interests and readiness of each student.
DI means DI does not means
 Flexible, short – term groupings that  Labelling students or grouping by
allow students to work with a variety ability
of peers with the same or different
strengths and interests

 Engaging and interesting tasks (that  Confining some students to low level ,
addresses the same curriculum repetitive or rote tasks while others
expectations) based on student engage in higher-order thinking
learning preferences, interests and
levels of readiness

 A reasonable number of well-  Unlimited freedom for students to

constructed choices that address choose whatever they would like to do
identified needs/strengths of on any day
students
  Students working on the same  Different students working on different
curriculum expectations in various expectations with varying success
ways with common criteria for criteria (e.g. different rubrics)
success

 Students learning about themselves  Teachers assuming the responsibility

to help them make informed choices for making all decisions regarding
and “own” their learning student choice

 Routines, procedures and classroom  A chaotic or unstructured classroom

agreements are in place environment

The Differentiated Instruction Continuum – Examining Your Practice

The first step in differentiating instruction is to examine current practice. The chart below
describes effective teaching that ranges from whole class instruction to sustaining a differentiated
instruction culture in the classroom.
A Differentiated Instruction Implementation Continuum
Same for All Students
Developing Teachers Students Examples
Instructional  Design  Learn and Anticipation
Routines and Skills instruction, demonstrate guide, exit
assessment, their learning card, graphic
evaluation and in the same organizers,
the learning way all or supplementary
environment most materials
for the class as
a whole based
on curriculum
expectations
and my own
strengths and
preferences
Expanding  Design  Experience, Activities for
Instructional instruction, over time, a all that address
Routines and Skills assessment, variety of differentiating
evaluation and ways to learn learning styles
the learning and/or ways to or
environment demonstrate intelligences
based on their learning on different
curriculum days
expectations
and a general
sense of the
 learning needs Multiple entry
of the class points for all
over time

Varied
supplementary
materials

Different Options for Different Students

Developing the  Design  Have a choice Differentiation
Routines,, Habits instruction, of ways to structures that
and Skills for assessment, learn and/or offer choice
Differentiated evaluation and ways to (e.g. Learning
Instruction the learning demonstrate Centers,
environment their learning RAFTs*)
based on on an ongoing
curriculum basis Choice of
expectations supplementary
and on the materials
specific
learning needs *Role,
of the students Audience,
in the class Format, Topic
 Try to design
a variety of
options for
students
Sustaining a  Design  Are routinely Differentiation
Differentiated instruction, provided with, structures such
Instruction Culture assessment, or choose as RAFT* and
in the Classroom evaluation and when tiered
the learning appropriate, assignments
environment ways to learn designed in
based on and/or ways to response to
curriculum demonstrate student needs
expectations their learning
and a general that are Student choice
sense of the designed for of
learning needs their supplementary
of the class particular materials
 Adapt plans learning based on their
“in the needs. strengths and
moment” so needs
that learning
experiences
provided are a
 “good fit” for *Role,
each student. Audience,
Format, Topic

Underlying Principles of Differentiated Instruction

Differentiated instruction is a cyclical process of finding out about the learner and
responding by differentiating. As we continue to learn more about the learner, we respond by
differentiating instruction with increased precision and effectiveness.

Unless students are on an Individual Education Plan (IEP) that has provisions for
modifications to curriculum expectations or alternative learning expectations, all differentiated
instruction is based on the same curriculum expectations and all students have opportunities to
achieve the same high standards of performance.
The Complexity of Learning and Teaching
Teachers consider may aspects of learning and teaching as they move from knowing the
learner to responding by differentiating. The Complexity of Learning and Teaching graphic
captures a variety of elements, including differentiated response, that contribute to effective and
response classroom practice.
Elements of Instruction for Differentiation
Teachers can differentiate instruction by adjusting the four elements based on students’
interests, learning preferences and readiness.

Content The knowledge, understanding and skills we want students to

learn

Process How students come to understand or make sense of the content

Product How students demonstrate what they have come to know,

understand, and are able to do after an extended period learning

Affect How students’ emotions and feelings impact their learning

Source: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development

Differentiating instruction involves making changes to one or more of these elements.
There is no prescribed way to differentiate instruction: the changes a teacher makes to each of the
classroom elements depends on the needs of his or her students.
Differentiation Strategies
Differentiation strategies for each aspect of instruction recommended by Edison Township
Public Schools in New Jersey:
Aspect of Instruction Differentiation Strategies
Content  Determined through formative assessment
 Using reading materials at varying readability levels
 Putting text materials on tape/CD
 Using spelling/vocabulary lists at readiness level of students
 Presenting ideas through auditory, visual, kinesthetic and
tactile means
 Using reading buddies
 Flexible grouping
 Compacting
 Meeting with small groups to reteach idea/skill,, or to extend
the thinking/skill
 Multi-leveled questions
 Modeling
Process  Tiered activities
 Center/stations
 Developing personal agendas
 Manipulatives
 Varying the length of time a student may take to complete a
task
 Cubing
 Learning logs or journals
 Note-taking organizers
 Graphic organizers
 Highlighted materials
 Jigsaw
 Think, pair, share
 Learning menus
 Webquests
 Labs
 Role play/simulations
Product  Choice boards
 Podcast
 Blog
 Presentation
 Quiz/test
 Using rubrics that match and extend students’ varied skill
levels
 Encouraging students to create their own product assignment
  Enabling students to use contemporary media/technology as
tools to demonstrate knowledge and understanding

Source: Edison Township Public Schools

Difference Between Differentiated Instruction and Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
Both describe to maximize the learning of all students by offering multiple ways to learn
content or skills and to demonstrate that knowledge. Both emphasize learning environments that
are engaging and utilize ongoing assessments to make adjustments to meet the instructional needs
of students. The difference is in when and how changes are made to address the needs of students.
Differentiated Instruction Universal Design for Learning
When During instruction when the teacher When designing the curriculum
notices the students’ needs

How Makes changes or adjustments to the Builds resources and options into
curriculum the curriculum

Activity: Differentiation in Action

Exit Ticket
 On a yellow sticky note, jot down differentiation strategies you have learned.
 On orange sticky note, share your challenges to differentiating instruction.
 On a green sticky note, write any questions you have about differentiation.
 Place your sticky notes on the anchor chart in the appropriate columns.

Self-Assessment

Take some time now to answer the following questions. Please note that the IRIS Center
does not collect your Assessment responses. If this is a course assignment, you should turn them
in to your professor using whatever method he or she requires. If you have trouble answering any
of the questions, go back and review the Perspectives & Resources pages in this module.

1. What is differentiated instruction?

2. Describe at least four significant ways in which differentiated instruction differs from
traditional classroom instruction.
3. How can teachers get to know their students? Make sure to include the three characteristics
of students that are important for differentiating instruction and give at least two examples of
how teachers can learn about each.

Reflection:
Think about your own learning. Using the three (3) essential qualities of universal
design for learning, what modes of representation, expression and engagement have worked best
for you? Provide at least one personal example for each quality.
 LESSON 14
ADAPT FRAMEWORK

Objectives:
After studying the lessons, students will be able to:
1. Define the ADAPT Framework
2. Determine the ADAPT Steps

Introduction:
We can also differentiate instruction by adapting the activities used to teach objectives,
content being taught, procedures for delivering instruction and materials that support instruction.

ADAPT Framework
It is important that for teaching to be effective, it be differentiated in regular classrooms
with exceptional learners and that differentiated teaching be an integral part of planning and
delivering lessons (Hutchinson, 2010). One of the systematic processes or strategies often use for
differentiating teaching is the ADAPT process which Hutchinson often discusses showing its
application and importance in accommodating learners with disabilities.
Adaptations share three characteristics. They are individualized, focusing on the strengths
of the individual; they are relevant to the objective being taught to all students; and they must be
effective to ensure that students learn the objectives. If our first attempt at making an adaptation
does not help the student benefit from instruction, then we continue to make adaptations until
performance improves. Student performance on tasks is a good indicator of the effectiveness of
the chosen adaptation. By using the ADAPT framework, educators can make decisions about
adaptations that are individualized for the student’s strengths and needs and relevant to the task,
such as reading and completing homework. It should be noted that the ADAPT framework and the
principles of UDL fit nicely together. Thin about UDL broadly as the principles apply to instruction
for all students and benefit students with various learning needs, whereas the ADAPT framework
is intended for students who are at risk or who have disabilities and require adaptation to
instructional delivery, materials, content and activities. The UDL principles are the “bigger
picture” for all the ADAPT framework is a “smaller picture” for some.
The ADAPT framework consists of five (5) steps to guide your decision making about
selecting and evaluating the effects of the adaptations:
1. Ask, “what am I requiring the student to do?”
2. Determine the prerequisite skills of the task.
3. Analyze the student’s strengths and struggles
 4. Propose and implement adaptations from among the four instructional categories – content,
materials, delivery and activity
5. Test to determine whether the adaptations helped the student accomplish the task.

ADAPT Steps
The first step is Ask, “what I am requiring my student to do?” for example in, second grade
student, students are expected to learn basic academic skills, demonstrate the ability to get along
with others, and listen to the teacher. In high school, students are required to take notes in class,
complete their homework, learn from textbooks, conduct and write about research and pass end-
of-semester exams. These “setting-specific demands” are typical of the core curriculum – content
that is taught to all in the general education setting (Lenz & Deshler, 2004). Students who have
difficulty with these requirements are opportunities for teachers to use the ADAPT framework.
The second step is Determine the prerequisite skills of the task. This means identifying
what students must be able to do to meet teachers’ expectations, “pulling apart” the task to identify
those specific prerequisite skills. For example, to add two number (9+3 =?), students must be able
to (a) identify and understand the numerical value of the numerals 9 and 3, (b) identify and know
the meaning of + and = symbols, (c) use a strategy (such as “Count on 3 from 9”) to arrive at the
solution, and (d) write the numeral 12 correctly (not 21). All these steps should be performed rather
quickly so students can keep up with instruction.
The third step, Analyze the student’s strengths and struggles, means identifying each
prerequisite skill of a task (from Step 2) as a strength or struggle for an individual student. You
can use assessment techniques or your knowledge of the student. For example, in thinking about
our addition problem (9 + 3 = ?), teachers can use active process assessment, interviewing students
as they solve the problem out loud to see they do it. By having the students “think aloud”, the
teacher can figure out whether the steps for arriving at the answer reflect strengths or struggles.
For example, if a student reads the numerals and symbols correctly, then these prerequisite skills
can be listed as strengths for this task. If a student starts with 1 and counts up to 12 rather than
starting with 9 and counting up 3 to get 12, the teacher suspects the “start big and count on” strategy
is a struggle. The teacher can also use observation to determine whether numerals are written
correctly, which is a strength.
In the fourth step, Propose and implement adaptations from among the four categories, the
teacher considers the student’s strengths and struggles to identify appropriate instructional
adaptations. In the ADAPT framework, there are four adaptation categories: (1) instructional
activity, (2) instructional content, (3) instructional delivery, and (4) instructional material.
Returning to our addition problem example (9 + 3 = ?), the teacher identifies the need to reteach
the “Start big and count on” addition strategy. She decides to work with a small group of students
(instructional delivery), all of whom need to be retaught the strategy. She uses easier facts
(instructional content), such as 3 + 2, and then increases to more difficult facts, such as 8 + 2 and
9 + 3; reviews the concept of greater than (instructional content) to be sure students know which
number in a problem is the larger of the two; and uses chips (instructional material) so students
can keep track on the “counting on” number (for 8 + 2, there are two chips to move as the student
starts big, at 8, and counts 2 to get 10).
The fifth step, Test to determine whether the adaptations helped the student accomplish
the task, focuses on monitoring student progress. For example, returning to our addition problem
9 + 3, during curriculum-based assessment or one-minute timed assessments, the teacher can check
to see whether problems that can be solved with “Start big and count on” are answered correctly.
In the note taking example, a final copy of the notes can be graded, and the exam on which the
notes are based can be examined for evidence of the key information in the student’s answers.
The four adaptation categories from which educators can choose when selecting
adaptations that are individualized for the student and relevant to the task (Bryant and Bryant,
1998):
 Instructional activity is the actual lesson used to teach and reinforce skills and concepts.
Sometimes, a different instructional activity is needed if students do not benefit from the
original lesson delivered
 Instruction content consists of the skills and concepts that are the focus of teaching and
learning, the curriculum that state and local districts requires educators to teach. Content
can be located in standards, district documents, and the teachers’ guides that accompany
textbooks and other materials.
 Instructional delivery describes the way the activity is taught, including grouping
practices, instructional steps, presentation techniques, and student activities. Systematic,
explicit instruction is included in instructional delivery and includes the following: (a)
modeling, in which teachers provide a demonstration of steps and examples for solving a
problem; (b) “thinking aloud”, in which teachers make their thinking processes
transparent to students by saying out loud the steps they are taking while solving a problem;
(c) prompts or cues, with which teachers provide visual or verbal assistance to increase
the likelihood of correct responses; (d) error correction, or immediate feedback correct
error responses; (e) guided practice, or multiple opportunities for student to respond and
practice; and pacing, in which teachers provide instruction an appropriate rate to keep
students engaged in learning and understanding.
 Instructional materials are aids such as textbooks, kits, hardware, software and
manipulatives. In any subject area, there are multiple types of instructional materials that
teachers can use to address various learning needs.

Self-Assessment:
Answer the following questions:
1. What is ADAPT framework?
2. What are the four categories of adaptations?
 LESSON 15
EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES

Objectives:
After studying the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Discuss and apply effective instructional practices
2. Discuss instructional grouping practices to promote effective instruction

Introduction:
Effective instructional practices support student learning. This will also discuss the two
significant questions facing school personnel are the question of curriculum (what to teach) and
instruction (how to teach). Delivering instruction means adopting specific practices for conveying
information and ensuring appropriate student responses.

Planning for Instruction

There are four areas that teachers should plan as they prepare to teach lessons. First is to
provide information about types of knowledge and critical thinking and instructional techniques
for teaching information. The next is the types of questions for providing questioning techniques.
The next is the stages of learning, where information about how students’ performance may be
affected by their level of acquaintance with the content being taught. Finally, instructional
components including steps for delivering instruction.

Types of Knowledge and Critical Thinking

The different types of knowledge according to Krathwohl (2002) can be categorized into
four types: (1) factual knowledge, (2) conceptual knowledge, (3) procedural knowledge and (4)
metacognitive knowledge. The first two types, factual and conceptual constitute knowledge of
what, and the last two type, procedural and metacognitive constitute knowledge of how. Similarly,
factual and procedural knowledge constitute low level knowledge whereas conceptual and
metacognitive constitute high level knowledge.
Critical thinking involves reasoning to learn new concepts, ideas or problem solutions.
(Mastropieri and Scruggs, 2014).
Types of Knowledge
Four major categories of knowledge based on taxonomy of learning outcomes (Anderson
et.al., 2001):
Factual Knowledge
Facts are discrete bits of information that provide building blocks for concepts ad
generalizations. There are several definitions of facts. Paul D. Eggen, a specialist in information
processing models for instruction, has defined facts as the types of content “which are singular in
occurrence, which have occurred in the past or exist in the present, which have no predictive value,
and which are required solely through the process of observation”. Facts have also been defined
concrete, verifiable by observation and applicable to a single example.
The ability to memorize, retain and recall information is factual knowledge, which is
fundamental to school. Students with special learning needs may have difficulties learning factual
information because of problems with encoding, retaining and recalling the information. They
benefit from strategies that teach them how to memorize and recall information (Swanson,
Cooney& O’Shaughnessy, 1998). Students must learn numerous facts across the content areas so
they can apply information to their learning.

Conceptual Knowledge

Facts serve as the foundation concepts and generalizations – for higher-level thinking.
Concepts are the names given to the categories formed as a result of classifying factual data. To
make sense of all the various stimuli in the world, learners of all ages form concepts and give them
names. To form concepts, learners pay attention to likenesses, ignore differences, and place similar
objects in the same category.

Related to factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge can be understood as knowing the

interrelationships and/or function among details and elements that make up a larger structure. This
is knowledge about principles, models and classifications entails conceptual knowledge. In
essence, concepts are categories of knowledge. They range in level of abstractness. Visual displays
can help students understand concepts. Students can create collections of words and pictures that
represent a concept.

Anderson and Krathwohl define conceptual knowledge as “the interrelationships among

the basic elements within a larger structure that enable them to function together.” They elaborate
this as “knowledge of classifications and categories, knowledge of principles and generalizations,
and knowledge of theories, models and structures.”

Price and Nelson (2003) recommend that teachers conduct a concept analysis of content to
be taught prior to instruction. The concept analysis should include the following:

 Identification of the critical concepts to be taught as part of a unit or chapter

 Definitions of the concepts

 List of attributes

 List of noncritical attributes that are not essential for understanding the concept
  List of examples

 List on “nonexamples”

 List of related concepts

Activity:

Distinguish among facts, concepts and generalizations by putting an F for facts, C for
concepts and a G for generalizations in front of the correct word, phrase or sentence.

___________ The Chicago Cubs beat the Pittsburgh Pirates on July 15, 2005

___________ National League baseball teams

___________ Chicago Cub fans are zealous

___________ baseball equipment

___________ Ron Santo played for the Chicago Cubs

___________ Hall of Fame

___________ The New York Mets defeated the Baltimore Orioles in the 1969 World Series

___________ Baseball is America’s sport

Procedural Knowledge

Skills and strategies fall into the categories of knowledge that, knowledge how and
knowledge when. This knowledge tends to be subject specific. Learning a set of steps that must be
followed to complete a task involves a procedural knowledge. This knowledge type is critical for
success in goal attainment because it puts the “what” into action through the “how”
process. Procedural knowledge can be understood as knowledge of (1) subject-specific skills and
algorithms, (2) subject-specific techniques and methods, and (3) criteria for deciding when to use
the right procedures according to Anderson and Krathwohl. Students with special learning needs
may have difficulty with procedural knowledge because it requires memorization of the steps in
the correct sequence and the ability to perform each step. It may also be necessary to teach
prerequisite knowledge. Modelling, practice and error correction are examples of ways to teach
procedural knowledge. Cue cards containing the steps of the procedure can also be useful for
students to refer to until they learn the steps.
 Activity:

Reading is an important skill in all content areas and at ll grade levels. In essence
every teacher is a reading teacher.

1. Choose or list a reading skill that you will use in your teaching (summarizing, predicting,
finding the main idea, questioning the author, outlining and so on.)

2. Think about the skill you have chosen.

a. What do students need to know about the skill? Why is the skill important?

b. What so students need to learn to do to demonstrate this skill?

c. How will students know when to apply this skill?

Metacognitive Knowledge

Metacognition is often described as thinking about the strategies we use to tackle tasks. It
is knowledge about how people learn and process information or tasks such as the nature of the
task and the processing demands on the individual. Students need to understand how they learn
and process information so they can develop a plan for accomplishing a given learning task,
monitor their comprehension when reading text, and evaluate their progress the completion of a
task (Pintrich, 2002).

This is probably the least paid-attention-to knowledge type because sometimes it feels
uncomfortable to reflect on what is happening inside your world. We fear what we might
find. Metacognitive knowledge can be understood as (1) strategic knowledge, (2) knowledge
about cognitive tasks (i.e. contextual, conditional), and (3) self-knowledge. Because people are
complex, and groups of people only add to the dynamic of complexity within a system, having a
good measure of metacognitive knowledge (that is, engaging in this type of thinking) is critical to
your performance, well-being, and success.

As Anderson and Krathwohl present it, metacognitive knowledge is “knowledge of

cognition in general as well as awareness and knowledge of one’s own cognition.” This is strategic
knowledge, knowledge about cognitive tasks including appropriate contextual and conditional
knowledge, and self-knowledge. The models of instruction centering on classroom discussion,
resolution of conflict and cooperative learning all have as their foundation the basic ideas of
metacognitive knowledge described here.

In summary, knowledge types include factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive

knowledge. These four knowledge types can be found in content standards. Teachers must be able
to match practice instructional strategies with the types of knowledge students are learning.
 Activity:

Answer the following questions. Each question asks you to think about your
understanding of the four knowledge types.

1. Would you say you are familiar with each types of knowledge?

2. Would you be able to match the definition and the type of knowledge if you were given
the definitions?

3. Would you be able to define each knowledge type?

4. Would you be able analyze text in your content area using the four knowledge types?

Instructional Techniques

For students to learn information from their content instruction, information must instead
be presented in a meaningful way to aid memory (Schumaker & Deshler, 2006). Instructional
techniques that promote meaningful associations of knowledge include clustering, elaboration and
mnemonic devices (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2014; Schumaker & Dessler, 2006).

Clustering

This involves categorizing information in a meaningful way. Students have a better chance
of learning the information when you (or they) reduce the amount of information to learn all at
once and organize it in a meaningful way. Information can also be organized and presented in
visual displays such as semantic maps and relationship displays (Vaugh & Bos, 2011).

Elaboration

Adding more details to facts to aid in memorization, retention and recall refers to
elaboration. According to Mastropieri and Scruggs (2009), elaboration helps students remember
information. Students can identify what they know about a topic to help them make elaborative
sentences.

Elaboration procedures (imagery, mnemonics, questioning and note taking) expand

information by adding something to make learning more meaningful. Imagery adds a mental
picture. Elaboration methods also are useful with complex learning tasks.

Mnemonic Devices

These devices are techniques for aiding memory by forming meaningful associations and
linkages across information that appears to be unrelated (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2014). Mnemonic
devices help students learn content area vocabulary, memorize lists of factual information and read
multisyllabic words (Bryant & Bryant, 2003; Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2009).
 Mnemonics are popular elaboration methods (Weinstein, 1978). A mnemonic makes
information meaningful by relating it to what one knows. Mnemonics take various forms
(rehearsal, elaboration, organization, comprehension, monitoring and affective). Acronyms
combine the first letters of the material to be remembered into meaningful word.

Mnemonic techniques incorporate several valid learning principles including rehearsal and
relating new information to prior knowledge. Informal evidence indicates that most students have
favorite memorization techniques, many of which employ mnemonics. Experiments that compare
recall of students instructed in a mnemonic with recall of students not given a memory technique
generally indicate that learning benefits from mnemonics instruction (Winstein, 1978). Students
must understand how to use the technique, which generally entails instruction.
The Keyword Method is one type of mnemonic device. It links information such a word
with response information, such as the word’s definition (Schumaker & Deshler, 2006; Mastropieri
& Scruggs, 2009).
Sentence mnemonics use the first letters of the material to be learned as the first letters of
words in a sentence. Also possible is combining material to be remembered into a paragraph or
narrative story. This type of mnemonic might be useful when long lists have to be remembered
(e.g. 50 state capitals). Student-generated acronyms, sentences and stories are as effective as those
supplied by others (Snowman, 1986).
The pegword method requires that learners first memorize a set of objects rhyming with
integer names; for example, one bun, two-shoe, three-tree, four – door, five-hive, six-sticks, seven-
heaven, eight-gate, nine-wine, ten-hen. Then the learner generates an image of each item to be
learned and links it with the corresponding object image. Successful use of this technique requires
that learners first learn the rhyming scheme.
To use the method of loci, learners imagine a familiar scene, such as a room in their house,
after which they take a mental walk around the room and stop at each prominent object. Each new
item to be learned is paired mentally with one object in the room.

Critical Thinking
Critical thinking involves reasoning to learn new concepts, ideas, or problem solutions
(Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2014). Examples of the use of critical thinking include reasoning about
how to resolve a social issue, explaining the ending of a novel, determining how to solve a problem,
and explaining historical events and their impact on society and the world. Students with learning
needs may experience difficulties with critical thinking because they have not been taught how to
think critically, they lack the prior knowledge and background that would help them understand
issues and their earlier instruction may have focused on factual and procedural knowledge.
One way to ensure instruction is responsive to the need for critical thinking is to incorporate
activities that tap domains of cognitive taxonomies that foster critical thinking (Anderson et.al
2002; Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill & Krahtwohl, 1956).
Critical Thinking Activities

Critical thinking activities identifies and describes cognitive domains in column 1

(remembering, understanding, applying) and provides examples of verbs relevant to each domain
in column2. These can be translated into class assignments (column 3) and activities in (column
4). Think about how you could design a lesson by incorporating activities addressing the various
cognitive domains that promote critical thinking. It is easier to develop critical thinking skills by
drawing from the higher order domains (numbers 3 – 6) on the list. However, these domains
encompass knowledge taught through the lower order domains. So, there is a place in instruction
for each domain.
Types of Questions
Posing various types of questions and help students think critically about what they are
learning. Students can demonstrate their knowledge about a topic by answering convergent
questions. Convergent, lower order questions usually have one answer and start with who, what
or when. Answers to these questions are essential to show student understanding about a topic.
Divergent, higher order questions tap critical thinking skills because they require students to make
inferences, to analyze or synthesize information, and to evaluate content. This questions may start
with What could happen….? What if …..? what do you think caused….? Why do you think….?
Or ask How were the characters alike and different? And How could events be changes to affect
the outcome? Critical thinking must be developed through divergent questioning strategies and
coaching. Consider how these types of questions relate to the cognitive domains. The table below
provides examples of instructional techniques for different types of knowledge and critical
thinking.
Instructional Techniques for Knowledge and Concepts

Stages of Learning
All learners experience stages of learning as they learn new skills. Consider the following
stages of learning as well as suggestions for teacher strategies and interventions.
Acquisition stage of learning. In this stage, the learner may not know how to perform the skill,
so the aim is for the individual to learn to perform it accurately. After a period of instruction, some
learners demonstrate that they can perform the task or skill with 90% to 100% accuracy; at this
point, they have passed through the acquisition stage of learning. Other students, such as those
with special learning needs, may require further instruction and adaptation
Proficiency stage of learning. In this stage, the aim is for the learner to perform the skills fluently;
the focus is on accuracy and speed of responding. Examples of skills that should be learned
proficiently are answering basic arithmetic facts, saying the letters of the alphabet, writing letters
and identifying instruments used in a science lab.
There are some very important reasons why proficient levels of performance are necessary
goals. If students can write the letters of the alphabet correctly, but too slowly they will not be able
to complete writing tasks in a timely manner and keep up with their peers. Writing a report and
taking a spelling test are examples of skills that require proficiency in forming letters. Computing
basic facts is another example. Students need to be able to perform many tasks fluently so they can
work as proficiently but also as quickly as their peers. Students should be able to perform low-
level cognitive skills automatically so that more emphasis can be placed on those higher level skills
(such as problem solving, comprehending text and writing reports) that extend knowledge and
learning.
Maintenance stage of learning. The third stage of learning is particularly difficult for many
diverse learners. Maintenance requires memory because practice alone is not enough. The goal of
maintenance stage is for the mastered skills to remain at the same performance level as during the
proficiency stage. Retention of learning is important. For some students with special learning
needs, this is a challenging stage because they may forget factual knowledge, rules or procedures
for solving different types of problems. When students do not retain information at the desired
level of performance, teachers must include in their planning instructional time for reviewing and
evaluating what has been taught to promote maintenance of learning.
Generalization stage of learning. Remember that consistently linking learning to real life
situations and buildings on prior knowledge will help greatly with retention. This leads to the
fourth learning stage which is generalization – also referred to as transfer of learning. In
generalization the skills a student learns in one situation are applied to different ones. This stage
means that the mastered skills should occur across all appropriate situations. In fact, some
researchers (Schumaker & Deschler, 2006) recommend that the concept of generalization be
introduced to students during the acquisition stage and specifically promoted following
demonstration of skill mastery (when students have passed a quiz for example). A good way to
promote generalization during the acquisition stage is to ask students where they can use the new
strategy in other classes.
Application stage of learning. The fifth and highest level of learning is application. The
application stage requires the student to use learning and extend it to new situations. In this stage,
students independently make discoveries. They categorize, make decisions, see
relationships/analogies, analyze, estimate, compare/contrast, show flexibility and identify items
that are irrelevant. Students may work in individual or small groups on exploratory activities of
interest and reflect on their work.
Stages of Learning and Instructional Practices

Source: Adapted from Mastropieri and Scruggs (2014)

Self-Assessment:
Answer the following question:
What technologies do you use for organizing and accessing your academic work?

Instructional Components
Research findings have identified specific instructional components that produce positive
learning outcomes for students with special learning needs (Coyne, Kame’enui, & Carnine, 2011;
Swanson & Deshler, 2003). These components are based on direct instruction and strategy
instruction.
Direct Instruction
Direct instruction has been used so far to refer to general teaching procedures. Direct
instruction (DI) refers to a specific teaching approach that offers a variety of evidence-based
practices aimed at helping learners achieve academic content at high rates. This is a teacher
directed and focuses on the teaching of skills using explicit, systematic procedures such as
modeling, practice opportunities, pacing, error correction, and progress monitoring.
Strategy instruction
Strategy instruction focuses on the process of learning by using cognitive strategies (steps
for facilitating the learning process) and metacognitive (self-regulatory) cues (Wong, 1993).
In a major classic study on the effectiveness of interventions to teach students with learning
disabilities, Swanson, et.al (1999) found using instructional components from direct and strategic
instruction were the most effective, they labeled theses instructional components as the combined
model and suggested using the following instructional components when planning instruction.
 Sequencing: breaking down the task, providing step-by-step prompts
 Drill-repetition: daily testing of skills, repeated practice
 Segmentation: breaking down skills into parts and then synthesizing the parts into a whole
 Directed questioning and responses: asking process or content questions of students
 Control of task difficulty: sequencing tasks from easy to difficult, teaching prerequisite
skills
 Technology: delivering instruction via computer or presentation software
 Teacher-modeled problem solving: demonstrating processes or steps to solve a problem or
explaining how to do a task
 Small group instruction: delivering instruction to a small group
 Strategy cues: reminding students to use strategies, modeling the “think aloud” technique

Delivering Instruction
Instructional steps and techniques designed to help all students access and master the
curriculum. They include use of an advance organizer, presentation of information, practice,
closure and progress monitoring.
Advance Organizer. Consists of activities to prepare students for the lesson’s content (Lenz, &
Deshler, 2004: Schumaker & Deshler, 2006). Advance organizers tell students the purpose of the
lesson (objectives), motivate students by sparking their interest, and activate background
knowledge by reviewing related information. In planning advance organizers, teachers should
consider their students’ background knowledge experience and ability with prerequisite skills for
the new task, the vocabulary to be learned, and the level of abstraction of the new learning (Price
& Nelson, 2003).
 Examples of advance organizer:
 Writing the objective on the board and explaining how it will be taught
 Explaining the importance of learning the objective and asking students to provide
examples of how they can use the new information
 Providing an active technique such as role-playing, seeing a video clip, or taking a field
trip before instruction
 Having students map or tell what they know about the content to be studied
 Providing a review of related information about for students to make connections
Presentation of Subject Matter. In this step, teachers present instructional content related to the
instructional objective such as rules (spelling, phonics, mathematics), strategies (reading strategy,
paragraph-writing strategy), and concepts (place value, science, vocabulary, health). When
presenting facts, rules and procedures, teachers should model, or demonstrate, the correct
responses and the appropriate thinking processes by using “think aloud”. Students can imitate the
modeled responses orally, in written from or motorically (by manipulating objects). If students are
in the acquisition stage of learning, modeling is particularly important.
Practice. We can think of practice in several ways. First, there is guided practice, which engages
students in practicing what they have learned, usually under the teacher’s direction, and checking
their understanding. There are several techniques.
Students with special learning needs benefit from multiple opportunities to practice or
massed practice; active participation activities can provide these opportunities. Active
participation also promotes engaged time and on-task behavior. Engaged time is the amount of
time students are actively learning.
Checking for understanding (CFU) means periodically determining whether students are
learning the content. For instance, CFU can be conducted after subject matter is presented or during
guided practice. It is necessary to ensure that all students respond. Teachers can use the following
techniques to check for student understanding (Price & Nelson, 2003):
 Present information that was taught (factual, rule, procedure) and ask students to show, by
signaling thumbs up or thumbs down, whether the information is correct.
 Use response cards for students to indicate their response to the teacher’s statement or
question
 Have their students show their responses using materials such as manipulatives in math
 Have students write their responses to be turned in for checking
 Have students write their responses on white boards.
Error-correction procedures should be implemented to correct mistakes and to provide
feedback, ensuring that students do not practice mistakes or learn information incorrectly. Error-
correction procedures include stopping the student if an error is made, modelling the correct
response, and having the student repeat the correct response.
 Questioning continues to be an important instructional technique to monitor student
comprehension of the instructional objectives. Teachers can also use the Response-Dependent
Questioning Strategy, which has remained viable for years, to help students arrive at the correct
answer to question.
Independent practice is a type of practice that occurs in the classroom or as homework and
implies that students have demonstrated a good understanding of the skill (as determined during
progress monitoring) and are ready for activities that do not require direct teacher supervision or
guidance. They can also be assigned homework as another opportunity for practice. Independent
practice activities should be related directly to the instructional objective introduced during the
presentation of information, and students can be capable of high levels of success working
independently. Distributive practice, which is practice opportunities presented over time on skills
that have been taught, ensures that students continue to get some level of practice (in the
maintenance stage of learning for example) so their learning of new skills remains intact.
Distributed practice on taught skills can be done during independent practice and as part of
homework.
Closure. During closure, which occurs at the end of a lesson and may take only a few minutes,
teachers and students review the instructional objective, review the lesson’s activity, relate
learning to other contexts, and discuss follow-up plans. Closure activities can be brief, but they are
an important part of the lesson and need to be considered when time is allotted for instructional
planning.
Progress Monitoring. In progress monitoring, teacher’s must evaluate student’s understanding of
the lesson and their ability to perform the skills.

Instructional Grouping Practices Promote Effective Instructions

There are a variety of instructional grouping practices, including whole group instruction,
flexible small groups and one-to-one teaching. Peer tutoring is another grouping practice that
supports students who can benefit from more opportunities to practice their skills. Finally, teachers
have used cooperative learning structures for years to enrich practice in student-centered
instruction.
Whole Group Instruction
In a whole group instruction, the teacher presents a lesson to the entire class. This grouping
practice works well where common instructional objectives are identified, the teacher delivers the
lesson, and students respond orally in writing. Whole group instruction is often chosen to teach
content-area subjects, such as science, social studies and health and it is common at the secondary
level.
Flexible Small Groups
Flexible small groups consist of 3 – 5 students and can include those of the same or
different abilities. The purpose varies according to instructional level and students’ individual
needs.
Same-Ability Groups
Identified through assessment, all the students in same ability groups are performing
comparably on a particular skill and require extra or accelerated instruction. For struggling
students, extra practice on curricular objectives is often necessary. For students who are high
achieving, gifted or talented, same –ability groups can provide enrichment activities.
Mixed-Ability Groups
This instructional grouping practice consists of students, identified through assessment,
who are performing at various levels on skills. This grouping practice can allow students to work
on projects and to make presentations. The advantage is that they can learn from each other. Little
evidence exists that mixed-ability groups adversely affect the learning of students who are gifted
and talented (Tieso, 2005).
One-to-One Teaching
In this grouping practices, teachers provide instruction to individual students on the basis
of their specific learning and behavioral needs. One to one instruction has been shown to help
students avoid frustration and cope with instructional demands. The advantage is that individual
students receive assistance that promotes their learning. On the other hand, teachers must plan
tasks so other students are engaged as well. Furthermore, one on one instruction may not be easy
to achieve I general education classrooms because of the number of students and time constraints.
Peer Tutoring
This is an instructional grouping practice wherein pairs of students worked on assigned
skills for extra practice. This models that have remained viable instructional grouping practices
include Classwide Peer Tutoring (Delquadri, Greenwood, Whorton, Carta and Hall, 1986) and
Peer Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS; Fuchs, Fuchs, Mathes & Simmons, 1997). Research on
peer tutoring can improve the academic achievement of tutees as well as increase the amount of
time students spend on school tasks (Heron, Villareal, Yao, Christianson & Heron 2006).
In peer tutoring, there is a tutor-tutee relationship, which consists of instruction and
feedback to provide efficient teaching to students with disabilities and students who are at risk for
academic difficulties (Heron et.al, 2006). The advantages of this grouping practice include the
opportunity for students to develop academic skills, form cooperative relationships and gain
instructional support for learning and behavioral problems.
Cooperative Learning
Think about the way you prefer to learn. Do you like to bounce ideas off other people and
engage in conversation and debate, or do you prefer to learn by yourself and seek help only when
needed?
Cooperative learning allows mixed-ability small group to focus on academic and social
skills. According to some of the pioneer researchers on cooperative learning, the purposes of this
type of learning are for students to work collaboratively to achieve common academic and social
goals and to be accountable to the team for their individual efforts (Johnson, Johnson & Holubec,
1994).
Cooperative learning involves students working together to accomplish shared goals,
and it is this sense of interdependence that motivate group members to help and support
each other. When students work cooperatively they learn to listen to what others have to say, give
and receive help, reconcile differences, and resolve problems democratically.
Several models of cooperative learning are popular in classrooms. The techniques share
similar characteristics: group academic and social goals, arrangement of heterogeneous student
groups, task structure, cooperation and individual and group accountability.
The role the teacher plays in establishing cooperative learning in the classroom is critically
important for its success. This involves being aware of how to structure cooperative learning in
groups, including their size and composition the type of task set; expectations for student behavior;
individual and group responsibilities; and the teacher’s role in monitoring both the process and the
outcomes of the group experience.
Advantages of cooperative learning:
1. There are opportunities for students to work together toward common goals, thus
necessitating some degree of collaborative behavior.
2. Group work requires verbal interactions, creating opportunities to develop language skills.
3. Cooperative learning means students, rather than teachers, are responsible for solving
problems.
4. It promotes social interactions and peer acceptance (Slavin, 1991).
Preparing for Cooperative Learning
1. What are the academic and social skills objectives?
2. What tasks or activity structure can be used to teach the objectives?
3. How can the elements of cooperative learning be promoted?
4. How will student groups be formed?
5. What environmental factors must be considered?
6. What management techniques will be used?
7. What is the teacher’s role during group activities?
8. How will individual and group progress with instructional objectives be monitored?
9. What difficulties might students with special needs encounter in cooperative learning
groups?

Activity:
Working in Groups:
1. What instructional grouping practices can you suggest in order to promote effective
instruction? What practices help older and younger students to work collaboratively in
small groups or pairs? How are these practices used to support student learning?
2. What are the benefits of having older students assist younger students? What are the
benefits of having students of the age work cooperatively together?

Self-Assessment:
1. How do you think today’s technologies will change the way students receive, interact with,
and respond to information in science and social studies?
2. Do you think technology use in schools will “level the playing field” for students in content
areas? Defend your position.
3. Develop a list of possible resources in your community for collaboration in science and
social studies instruction.

Reflection:
Do you agree or disagree with the idea that people need stories to connect to the
world around them? Defend your position.
 LESSON 16
GUIDELINES FOR TEXTBOOKS AND
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

Objectives:
After the studying the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Know the guidelines to be followed for textbooks and instructional materials
2. Define and give examples of the terms assistive technology devices and services
3. Categorize items into the 10 common areas of assistive technology

Introduction:
Instructional materials are the content or information conveyed within a course. These
include the lectures, readings, textbooks, multimedia components, and other resources in a course.
These materials can be used in both face-to-face and online classrooms; however, some must be
modified or redesigned to be effective for the online environment. The best instructional materials
are aligned with all other elements in the course, including the learning objectives, assessments,
and activities.
One of the most common resources in the classroom is the textbook; a very important tool
in teaching arsenal. Teachers rely on textbooks and don’t consider other aids or other materials for
the classroom.
Textbooks
Basals are textbooks usually adopted by school districts to serve as a primary source for
subject-area content. They are a good source of instructional content but often raise challenges
for struggling students:
 The reading level of the textbook probably exceeds the ability of the student with reading
difficulties. For students to benefit from reading a textbook, the material should be at
their instructional reading level, the level at which they have 90% to 94% and 90% to
100% comprehension.
 The organization or the structure of the text content may be hard for students with reading
difficulties to follow. The text may lack or the student may not be familiar with, key words
that signal different types of text organization (cause/effect, compare/contrast).
Recognizing how text content is organized helps readers comprehend the material.
 Basals usually do not include enough direct, explicit instruction to help struggling students
learn content. For example, there may not be sufficient practice opportunities or examples.
Textbooks: Advantage and Disadvantages
Notice that most, if not all of those classrooms use a standard textbook series. The reasons
for this are many, depending on the design and focus of the curriculum, the mandates of the
administration and/or the level of expertise on part of the classroom teachers.
Textbooks provide the following advantages in the classroom:
 It is helpful to beginning teachers. The material to be covered and the design of each lesson
are carefully spelled out in detail.
 It provides organized unit of work. It gives you all the plans and lessons you need to cover
a topic in some detail.
 It provides a balanced, chronological presentation of information.
 It is a detailed sequence of teaching procedures that tell wat to do and when to do it.
 It provides administrators and teachers with a complete program. The series is typically
based on the latest research and teaching strategies.
As good as they may appear the surface. Textbooks do have some limitations. The
following table lists some of the most common weaknesses of textbooks, along with ways of
overcoming those difficulties.
Weakness Student Difficulty Ways of Overcoming
Problem
The textbook is designed as Students only see one Provide students with lots of
the sole source of perspective on a concept or information such as trade
information. issue. books, CD-ROMS, websites,
encyclopedias, etc.
Textbook is old or outdated. Information shared with Use textbook sparingly or
students is not current or supplement with other
relevant. materials.
Textbook doesn’t take Teacher does not tailor lessons Discover what students know
students background to the specific attributes and about a topic prior to teaching.
knowledge into account. interest of students. Design the lesson based on
that knowledge.
The textbook has all the Students tend to see learning Involve students in problem
answer to all the questions. as an accumulation of correct solving activities, higher –
answers. level thinking questions and
extending activities.

Instructional Materials
Guidelines for selecting and using instructional materials should address (a) student and
(b) the content and methodology.
Student
Teachers can consult the IEP to identify a student’s reading level as they make decisions
about the need to adapt instructional materials that require the ability to read. They can also identify
a student’s reading level by conducting an informal reading inventory. Finally, it’s important to
determine a student’s interest in content and materials and identify where in the learning process
the student stops trying, motivation is a key ingredient of successful learning, and knowing their
student’s level of persistence helps teachers understand learners’ needs more fully.
Instructional Content and Methodology
Age appropriateness for instructional materials is a primary concern in the selection
process. For example, high interest/controlled vocabulary materials can be used with older students
who have limited reading vocabularies. These materials focus on topics that appeal to older
students, such as current events, sports and entertainment personalities, yet are written with grade-
specific vocabulary to take into account limited word recognition and reading abilities. Equally
important is the relationship between the materials and the curricular expectations from the school
district and state. Teachers are held highly accountable through state assessments to teach the
content on which students will be assessed, so materials selected for instruction must reflect this
content, which has been specified as appropriate for all students.
Instructional materials might include review activities (for maintenance), teaching
strategies, practice opportunities, and enrichment activities (for generalization purposes). Teachers
must examine the materials to determine how the instructional material can best be used in a lesson
and what adaptations are needed, if any.
Very often teachers need to modify instructional materials to meet an individual learner’s
needs. Some instructional materials offer suggestions, such as extension exercises or alternative
methodologies. Other adaptations might include adding more practice options, using only portions
of the material, rewording complex directions, and breaking instructional components down into
smaller instructional activities.
Adaptations for Curricular Materials
Textbooks and instructional materials are important components of instruction and must
be selected wisely. Textbooks may be assigned to teachers, but those teachers must still analyze
them critically to see what difficulties students might encounter when reading the material.
Instructional materials are used when concepts are first presented, during guided practice, and as
part of independent practice activities.
Adaptations for Instructional Materials
Task/Instructional Student Struggles or Materials Adaptation
Materials Challenges
Reading directions or Reading or understanding Have students underline
instructions/workbooks, written directions or important words (circle,
worksheets instructions underline, draw)
 Rewrite directions or
instructions using easier
words

Explain the directions or

instructions to the student

Say, “Tell me what you need

to do first”. “What do you
need to do next?”

Reduce the number of

directions or instructions
Reading books and word Reading words Put the text on tape for the
lists/textbooks, literature student to listen to the reading
(electronic books)

Use high-interest/low-
vocabulary materials
Comprehending text Comprehending material Provide graphic organizers

Provide questions for students

to answer after reading few
paragraphs
Completing worksheets Completing items on Provide more time
worksheets
Reduce the number of items

Reformat using borders to

separate important
information

Use color to highlight

important information
Reading text or worksheets Seeing the material Enlarge font size

Use a font that has simple

lettering
Provide a magnifier

Use screen magnification

software

Use color
 Contrast foreground with the
background
Computing mathematical Identifying symbols (=, +. X) Have students circle the
problems using workbook symbols and state its meaning
or worksheets
Have students highlight the
symbol with color before
proceeding

Provide a cue sheet with a

symbols and their meaning

Enlarge the font size of

symbols to make them more
readily visible
Assistive Technology Devices and Services for Promoting Access to the General Education
Curriculum
Assistive Technology Devices
The assistive technology device has been defined throughout legislative mandates. The
Assistive Technology Act of 2004 defines an assistive technology as “any item, piece of equipment
or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is
used to increase, maintain or improve functional capabilities of individual with disabilities.” This
definition has also been used in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of
2004 (IDEA) and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Within the legislation is also the
definition of assistive technology services, which is defined as “any service that directly assists an
individual with a disability in the selection, acquisition or use of an assistive technology device”
(Assistive Technology Act of 2004).
Assistive technology can support all types of learners. Generally speaking, it has two
fundamental purposes: (1) it can enhance an individual’s strengths so that his or her abilities
counterbalance the effort of any abilities, and (2) it can provide an alternate mode of performing a
task so that disabilities are compensated for or bypassed entirely (Lewis, 1998).
AT can be subdivided into the following common areas:
1. Communication aids
2. Daily living aids
3. Ergonomic aids
4. Environmental aids
5. Sensory aids
6. Mobility and transportation aids
7. Seating and positioning aids
8. Sports, recreation and leisure aids
9. Computer access aids
 10. Education and learning aids
AT Areas Examples
Communication  Picture communication boards
 Single message switches
 Multiple message output devices
 Communication software
Daily living  Picture schedules
 Dressing stick, sipper pull, button hook
 Adapted bathing aids
 Adapted cooking and eating utensils
Ergonomic  Adjustable tables
 Wrist/arm support
 Adapted furniture
 Adjustable lighting
Environmental  Switch-operated appliances
 Automatic doors
 Adapted door knobs
 Swimming pool lifts
Sensory  Personal amplification system
 Braille transcription
 Screen magnifiers
 Audiobooks
Mobility and  Standing and walking devices
transportation  Scooters
 Wheelchairs
 Transfer aids
Seating and positioning  Support cushions or braces
 Chairlifts
 Seat wedges
 Standing tables
Sports, recreation and  Modified spots equipment
leisure  Adapted video games
 Video descriptions and captioning
 Modified cameras
Computer access  Screen readers
 Eye-gaze systems
 Touch technologies
 Alternative and adaptive mice and keyboards
 Voice recognition software, an on screen keyboards
Education and learning  Graphic organizers
 Word prediction software
 Touch tablets and smart technologies
 Talking calculators
 According to Bryant and Bryant (2003) AT devices can be grouped and categorized, that
reflect their purpose and function. These include positioning and seating, mobility,
communication, adaptive toys and games, adaptive environments, computer use and instructional
aids.
Positioning and seating devices encourage the best posture and seating arrangement for a
particular function and time period. Mobility is the act of movement. Communication devices help
people compensate for expressive language difficulties by focusing on their capabilities to
understand language and to convey their thoughts, ideas and needs. Augmentative and
alternative communication (aug com) devices are included in the communication category. Aug
com devices can supplement vocalizations when speech is not understood by a particular
communication partner and can provide a way for an individual to speak.
Adaptive toys and games (recreation) give children with disabilities an opportunity to play
with toys and games to help them develop cognitive skills and to socialize with their peers. They
might include devices with a sound so children who are blind can discriminate among them. Game
board markers might have large tops so children with motor problems can grasp and hold them.
Adaptive environments (control of the environment) are devices and approaches that
enable a person to manipulate the environment to allow for daily living, working, schooling,
playing and so forth. Other adaptive environment devices include curb cuts; Braille words for
restroom, elevator and room numbers; grab bars in showers and automatic door openers.
Computer access devices include keyboard overlays (templates that lie on the keyboard to
define the key space for responding), pointers and screen reader and voice recognition software.
For people who are blind and whose hearing is a “functional capability”, alternative output devices
for computer use, such as screen reader software, are necessary. Screen reader software reads the
text displayed on the computer screen.
Finally, instructional aims provide access to the curriculum, instruction and instructional
materials. Access to information can come via screen reader program that allows access to the
world wide web for research for a student who is blind and remediation can come from math or
reading instructional software. This software can provide students with extra practice on academic
and problem solving skills. However, students must continue to receive instruction from the
classroom teacher.
Assistive Technology Services
According to the Assistive Technology Act of 2004, several AT services must be provided
to ensure that devices are properly identified and used. The selection of appropriate AT devices
based on the evaluation of the individual is an important service. One evaluation example is the
Functional Evaluation for Assistive Technology (Raskind & Bryant, 2002), which enables
professionals to rate the performance of a student on listening, speaking, academics, memory,
organization, motor tasks and behavior each discipline has its own criteria for evaluating student
performance.
 Training is another example of an AT service (Rieth, Colburn & Bryant, 2004). Training
on AT devices should be provided to the students or users of the devices, their families and
professionals such as classroom teachers, speech/language pathologists, and occupational
therapists. Professionals must be trained to know how devices work, how to integrate them when
working with students, how to troubleshoot if a device malfunctions and how to evaluate students
to make an appropriate match between device and needs. Training must be an ongoing priority to
ensure that both users and professionals remain informed. It is conducted in teacher preparation
programs and a part of ongoing in-service training (Rieth, et.al, 2004).
Finally, because devices can often go home with students, family members must know how
to use them properly. If electronic devices prove overwhelming, more training may be required for
successful implementation (Lemons, 2000).
Assistive Technology Integration
As teachers design instruction, they can think about the curriculum and objectives students
will be taught and the way instruction will be delivered (using grouping, modeling, guided
practice). They must also consider the strengths and needs of their students with IEPs and how AT
devices can promote their active participation in lessons (Bryant & Bryant, 2003; Rieth et.al,
2004). Finally, they should also consider the environment requirements for the devices, such as
whether they produce potentially distracting sound or require electricity.
During instruction, teachers should monitor how easy it is to use the device and whether
further training is required. Techers should monitor their student’s ability to keep pace with their
peers in completing the tasks. Practice with the nuances of the device may be necessary so students
can achieve the maximum benefits from using it.
Finally, teachers should not overlook the fatigue factor when using the device. Some
devices, such as keyboarding with computers, may be tiring and hinder productivity. Evaluating
the effectiveness of integrating assistive technology requires the input of professionals, family
members and students

Self-Assessment:
Answer the following questions:
1. What guidelines should be followed for textbooks and instructional materials?
2. What are assistive technology devices and services for promoting access to the general
education curriculum?
3. What innovative technology have you used or seen integrated into the classroom to increase
student participation and academic outcomes?
 Activity:
1. Make a table of assistive technologies and innovative tools that you have used personally
and would like to use in teaching.
2. Explore and research 10 assistive technologies that could be useful for struggling readers
in your classroom.

Reflection:
Keep a running list of technology that you use in a given day. Look carefully at the list and
reflect on what life would be like without those technologies.
References:

UNICEF Armenia. Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook. University of Minnesota, 2018.

Bryant, Diane P. (et.al). Teaching Students with Special Needs in Inclusive Classroom. Los
Angeles:
SAGE Publications, 2017.

Hallahan, Daniel P. (et.al). Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education, 12th ed.
England Pearson, 2014.