Lec ONIR 6 RI

Lecture 6.
The research instruments
Saya Sapakova
Associate professor,
IITU, Almaty
Learning Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

• Understand scope of instrumentation schemes
• Recognize static and dynamic characteristics and predict the
reliability of an instrument
• Describe major approaches in data collection
An instrument is a device and instrumentation is the course of action (the
process of experimenting, testing, and using the device)
Characteristics of an instrument
They are mainly divided into:

• Static characteristics
• Dynamic characteristics
Characteristics of an instrument
Data collection
Data collection is the process of collecting and measuring information of

selected variables in an established systematic manner.
The systematically collected data enables researcher to answer relevant

questions and evaluate outcomes.
Data collection is important factor of research in all fields of study including

physical and social sciences, humanities, Engineering and Technology and
business.
Data collection
The goal of data collection is to get quality evidence which will allow
researcher to analyze formulation of convincing and credible answers to
prove his/her hypothesis.
Data collection begins after finalization of research problem, accurate data

collection is necessary for maintaining the integrity of research. Inaccurate
data causes consequences that includes the inability to answer research
questions accurately and the inability to repeat and validate the research
Types of data
To decide the method of data collection a researcher should know types of

data. A Researcher would have to decide which kind of data is required for
research and then accordingly he will have to decide the method of data
collection.
To reduce likelihood of errors occurring selection of appropriate data

collection instruments (existing, modified, or newly developed) and clearly
delineated instructions for their correct use are needed. The data has been
divided into two types: primary and secondary.
Primary data
The data which are collected fresh for the first time are called as primary
data.
This may include number of ways like interviews, focus groups, telephone
surveys, and so on. Primary data can be collected from large population and
across wide geographical coverage through emails and posts
Advantage of primary data
• The primary data is original and pertinent to the subject of the research
to achieve high accuracy in research
• The researcher can get a realistic view about the topic under
consideration from the primary data
• Primary data are highly reliable because these are collected by the
researcher or concerned and reliable party
Disadvantage of primary data
• To collect primary data coverage is restricted in size and for larger coverage a
more number of researchers are required;
• The cost of the data collection will increase with increase in time and efforts of
more people but the importance of the research may drop;
• Primary data collection takes lot of time and efforts. The problem of the
research can become serious or out dated before completing the process of data
collection, analysis and report preparation. It may defeat the purpose of the
research;
• In collection of survey based data one can face design problems while preparing
questionnaire. The prepared questionnaire must be simple to understand and
respond;
• Timely responses are not received from some respondents.
Secondary data
The data which has already been collected by someone else, analysed and
statistically processed is called as secondary data.
It has been collected by someone not related to the current research field but
collected this data for some other motive and at different time in the past. If the
researcher uses this data to make conclusions then this becomes secondary data
for the researcher.
Secondary data
Secondary data can be of internal or external type.
If information is acquired within the organization where research is being carried

out the data is called as internal or in-house secondary data.
If data is obtained from outside sources then data is called as external secondary
data.
Advantages of using secondary data
• Secondary data is economical and faster to access

• It gives a way to use the work of the best intellectuals all over the globe
• It imparts a persuasion to the researcher about direction he/she should follow
for the selected research topic
• Secondary data adds value to the research study by preserving time, effort, and
money
Disadvantages of using secondary data
• The data collected by someone else may not be as reliable and as accurate
compared with primary data
• Data collected at one location may not be acceptable for the other location
because of inconsistent environmental conditions
• As time passes the data becomes obsolete and antiquated
• Collected secondary data may pervert the results of the research
• To use secondary data a special care and permissions are necessary to amend or
modify for use
• To use secondary data, care should be taken to avoid issues of copyright and
authenticity
Data collection process
(a) Primary Sources :

Information gathered using the 1st approach is said to be collected from
primary sources.
Primary sources provide first-hand information.
Primary sources e.g., measured, observed, interviewed, questionnaire.
For Example:
determining the job satisfaction of the employees of an organization.
finding out first-hand the attitudes of a community towards health
services.
evaluating the social programme.
ascertaining the health needs of a community.
Observation
when subjects are so involved in the interaction that they are unable to provide
objective information about it.”
Observation is one of the best way to collected primary data.
It is a purposeful, systematic and selective way of;
- watching and listening to an interaction or phenomenon as it takes place.
For Example:
Study the dietary patterns of a population.
Study the behavior or personality traits of an individual.
Want to learn about the interaction in a group.
It is also appropriate in situations where full and/or accurate information cannot be elicited
by questioning because;
- respondents either are not co-operative or are unaware of the answers because it is
difficult to them to detach themselves from the interaction.
Observation
(1) Participant Observation
Researcher participate in activities of the group being observed in the same manner.
For Example;
You might want to examine the reactions of the general population towards people in
wheelchairs. You can study their reactions by sitting in a wheelchair yourself.
Or you might want to study the life of prisoners and pretend to be a prisoner.
(2) Non-Participant Observation

Researcher don't get involved in the activities of the group but remain a passive observer,
watching and listening to its activities and draw conclusions from this.
For Example;
you might want to study the functions carried out by nurses in a hospital.
- as an observer, you could watch, follow and record the activities as they are performed.
Observation
(i) Observation (Problems):

 Hawthorne effect – individuals or groups become aware that they are being observed and
change their behavior.
- What is observed may not represent their normal behavior.
 Possibility of observer bias.
 Interpretation drawn from observation varies between observer.
 Possibility of incomplete observation and/or recording.
(i) Observation (Environments of Observation):

• Natural observation
 Observing a group in its natural operation rather than
intervening in its activities.
• Controlled observation
Introducing stimulus to the group for it to react to and observing the reaction.
Observation
(i)Observation (Recording Observation):

Narrative recording
Using scales
Categorical recording
Recording on electronic devices.
Advantages
• Subjective bias can be eliminated

• Data is unaffected by past behavior or future intentions
• Natural behavior of group is allowed to record
Disadvantages
• Gives limited amount of information

• Unseen factors can affect the observation task
Interviewing
Interviewing :
“ An interview is a verbal interchange, often face to face, though the telephone maybe used, in which
an interviewer tries to elicit information beliefs or opinions from another person.”
you, as a researcher, have the freedom to decide the format and content of questions to be asked of your
respondents
Interviewing
Interviewing
(ii) Interviewing (flexible/inflexible):

This process of asking questions can be;
-either very flexible,
- where you as the interviewer have the freedom to think about and formulate questions at run-
time.
or inflexible, where you have to keep strictly to the questions decided beforehand;
-including their wording,
- sequence and the manner in which they are asked.
(ii) Interviewing (Types of Interviewing):
Interviews are classified into different categories;

(1) Unstructured Interview
Researcher is free to order these in whatever sequence they wish.
Have complete freedom in terms of the wording.
Common in qualitative research.
(2) Structured Interview
Researcher asks a predetermined set of questions using;
- the same wording and order of questions as specified in the interview schedule.
A written list of questions, open ended or closed.
Advantages:-
It provides uniform information, which assures the comparability of data.
(iii) Questionnaire :
Written list of questions, the answer to which are recorded by respondents.

Respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected and then write down the
answers.
(iii) Questionnaire (Ways of administering):
(1) Mailed questionnaire

 Send the questionnaire to prospective respondents by mail.
 Usually it is good idea to send a prepaid, self addressed envelope with the questionnaires.
 Major Problems – low response rate.
(2) Collective administration

 Captive audience – people assembled in one place such as students in a classroom, or people attending a function, etc.
 Major Advantage – ensures a high response rate..
(3) Administration in a public area

 Administer a questionnaire in a public place such as a shopping center, health center, hospital, or school.
 Depends upon the type of study population, you are looking for and where it is likely to be found.
 Major Problems – slightly more time consuming.
(iii) Questionnaire (Ways of administering):
Design an environment of your research field which includes all methods of Data Collection?
Participant Observation, Unstructured Interview,

Non-Participant Observation, Structured Interview,
Mailed questionnaire,
Collective administration,
Administration in a public area
Questions?

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Lecture 6.

The research instruments

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

They are mainly divided into:

Data collection is the process of collecting and measuring information of

The systematically collected data enables researcher to answer relevant

Data collection is important factor of research in all fields of study including

Data collection begins after finalization of research problem, accurate data

To decide the method of data collection a researcher should know types of

To reduce likelihood of errors occurring selection of appropriate data

Secondary data can be of internal or external type.

If information is acquired within the organization where research is being carried

• Secondary data is economical and faster to access

(a) Primary Sources :

(2) Non-Participant Observation

(i) Observation (Problems):

(i) Observation (Environments of Observation):

(i)Observation (Recording Observation):

• Subjective bias can be eliminated

• Gives limited amount of information

(ii) Interviewing (flexible/inflexible):

Interviews are classified into different categories;

Written list of questions, the answer to which are recorded by respondents.

(1) Mailed questionnaire

(2) Collective administration

(3) Administration in a public area

Participant Observation, Unstructured Interview,

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