G3 - Design of Ponds

G4: Bierso, Aseman, Espares, Millare, Ocampo Page 0
G4: Bierso, Aseman, Espares, Millare, Ocampo Page 0

DESIGN OF PONDS
In partial fulfilment of the requirements in ABE 43 (Aquaculture Engineering)
Submitted by:
ASEMAN, Luisa B.
BIERSO, Nadine B.
DANIO, Mark Angelo
LLADONES, John A.
LLOBIT, Reymark C.
GEOGRAFO, Hannah G.
GUIANAN, Gemarie D.
MATAMOROSA, Mabel R.
MEJORADA, Jenny T.
(Group 3, IV-ABE1)
Submitted to:
JAYLENE KIMBERLY ACOSTA
(Course Adviser)
2022
G3: Aseman, Bierso, Danio, Lladones, Llobit, Geografo, Guianan, Matamorosa, Mejorada Page 1
LESSON 1
SYSTEM COMPONENTS AND MATERIAL SELECTION
The type of aquacultural facility, whether pond, raceway, net pen, or tank-based plays an
important role in the material selection process. An aquacultural facility has several structural
components. Each component serves a different purpose. Therefore, the material-selection process
for an individual component should consider that particular component’s role in the system.
Tanks
Tanks can be constructed from a variety of materials, including wood, concrete, plastic,
fiberglass, metal, and glass.
Aquaculture tanks should have the following characteristics:
⮚ smooth interior surface to prevent abrasion,

⮚ nontoxicity
⮚ durability and portability
⮚ ease of cleaning and sterilizing
⮚ noncorrosiveness
⮚ structural strength
⮚ easy affordability.
The choice of material should include these characteristics.
Raceways
Although earthen raceways are sometimes used,
the majority are constructed from poured concrete or
concrete or cement blocks. Earthen raceways are
sometimes lined with waterproof liners to reduce water
loss through leakage. Many small, experimental raceways
are fabricated from wood, metal, fiberglass, plastic, or
other materials
Waterproof Lining
Waterproof liners can be used with tanks fabricated from virtually any material. They are
commonly used in place of expensive coatings or sealers. Liners are also used for sealing ponds.
They eliminate the hazard of toxicity by heavy metals, paints, treated wood, or other substances.
Liners can be custom-made to fit any tank or pond size and shape. They must be carefully handled
to avoid tearing and have a useful life of about 5–10 years, depending on material and use. The
life of a liner is significantly reduced by highly acidic or alkaline water. Many modern tank or
pond liners are resistant to ultraviolet rays and therefore
have a relatively long life when used outdoors. Cost,
service conditions, and availability are factors that must
be considered in material selection for pond sealers.
Waterproof materials such as polyethylene, vinyl,

and butyl rubber are gaining acceptance as pond linings.
These linings reduce seepage loss to essentially zero,
provided that they are not broken or punctured. They also
give a more dependable seal than well-compacted
bentonite, but for many applications costs is a significant factor. Black polyethylene films are less
expensive than vinyl and butyl rubber for a given thickness.
Screen Mesh
Screen mesh for particulate filtration is available in a wide variety
of materials including galvanized steel, carbon steel, brass, stainless steel,
nylon, and other fabrics. Mesh material selection is based on characteristics
of the influent and desired mesh size. For example, galvanized steel would
be a poor selection for use in salt water because it corrodes easily. Because
some mesh sizes are available in a limited number of materials, mesh size
desired may influence screen material selection.
Nets
Materials chosen for nets should have high resistance to sunlight and be able to withstand
weathering well and provide the necessary strength. A net having specific gravity in excess of 1
will sink, usually a desirable trait in fixed nets. Cost of netting is also a major consideration.
Polyvinylidene chloride or vinyl chloride netting is
recommended by Shimozaki. Polyvinyl alcohol may
be used, but it has poor weathering resistance and low
specific gravity. Polyethylene also sees limited use
because it is low in cost and strong, but this material
has low specific gravity. Nylon’s unsatisfactory
qualities such as low specific gravity and poor
resistance to sunlight are usually outweighed by its
low cost.
Ozone Unit
Hochheimer and Wheaton discuss suitability of various materials for use with ozone in
aquacultural applications. The following table presents the list of these materials commonly used
in aquacultural facilities and their relative resistances to ozone.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) can be used for temporary ozone contact, but it is not
recommended for long-term application. Reinforced concrete should also be used with
precautions, as ozone may corrode galvanized steel reinforcing bars in the structure. For best
results, 304 or 316 stainless steels for flanged or threaded applications and 304L or 316L for
welded (tungsten inert gas) piping joints are best for all wet and dry gas-piping components and
flexible couplings. Valves should be made of stainless steel (both body and face) with Viton,
Teflon, or Hypalon membranes and gaskets. Concrete joints made from Sikaflex-1A also are
recommended for use with ozone systems.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS
In general, an ideal material for aquacultural facilities will have the following
characteristics: high strength; low cost; easy availability; resistance to corrosion, weather, and
fouling; light weight; ease of transport, construction, and repair; nontoxicity; reusability; and
smooth texture. No single material possess all these characteristics. Specific materials presented
here have certain advantages and disadvantages compared with each other and therefore find their
use in conditions requiring their positive characteristics.
Masonry
Concrete is widely used for constructing large tanks or pools. It is easy to work with and
can be formed into any shape. Properly reinforced with steel bars, concrete will last indefinitely
for use with either fresh or salt water. Because of its weight and expense, however, concrete is
used for the construction of permanent facilities. The interior surfaces of concrete tanks should be
smoothed to avoid abrasion of fish skin and scales. Also, rough or porous surfaces are harder or
impossible to clean and disinfect. Interior surfaces can be coated with a sealer, many of which are
commercially available. Uncoated concrete surfaces are suitable for most aquaculture purposes,
but only after a sufficient curing period. Harmful substances can leach from newly poured
concrete. Thus, concrete tanks should be flushed with clean water for several days prior to use.
Concrete and cement blocks are widely used for raceway construction, as they offer cost and
strength advantages over other materials for handling relatively large quantities of water.
Metals
Metals have several uses in aquacultural applications. One can find both large structures
such as tanks and smaller components such as pipes and fittings made of commonly used metals.
Durability and smoothness are two main advantages of metallic components. However,
metallic components, especially tanks, are heavy and therefore difficult to transport. Also, metal
parts may cost more than plastic parts and be corrosion-prone. Metals may become toxic in waters
that are poorly buffered.
Metal bars, rods, and sheets can be used as supports to plastic or concrete structures.
Galvanized metal tanks should not be used for aquaculture purpose unless they are coated
or lined.
Zinc leaches from the galvanized coating and can cause heavy-metal poisoning.
Salmonids are generally quite susceptible to zinc toxicity.
Steel
Steel can be used for tank and other large structural constructions in freshwater systems.
Steel often is the least expensive means of providing structural support to large components such
as tanks. Rust and heavy weight are potential problems with steel. With proper coatings, steel can
provide good service in both fresh-water and salt-water systems. Coatings may increase cost and,
particularly for saltwater systems, steel rarely is the best choice because of corrosion. Sectional
steel tanks can be easily bolted together to construct a large tank, offering the advantages of easy
construction, transportation, and dismantling.
Aluminum
Aluminum serves well in fresh water, and certain aluminum alloys provide good service in
salt-water systems. In closed-cycle or recirculating systems, all metals including aluminum should
be used with care because even limited erosion over long periods can cause an ion buildup in the
culture water. Aluminum and steel are two metals that are commonly used in the fabrication of
small tanks popular in hatcheries for rearing small fry and fingerling. If used with caution, some
aluminum alloys can be used for brackish or salt-water culture. Water with a pH well into the
acidic range will cause aluminum to become soluble and leach into the water.
Stainless Steel
Stainless steel provides good service in fresh water and fairly good service in salt water.
However, even the corrosion-resistant 300 series stainless steels will eventually corrode in
saltwater systems. Stainless steel is expensive, but for screens and similar applications it is a good
alternative if plastic materials are not available or do not provide the necessary strength. Small
stainless-steel tanks are generally safe to use with either fresh or salt water, particularly 316
stainless steels. However, stainless steel tanks are too expensive for large-scale use.
Copper Alloys
Many copper alloys, particularly copper–nickel (90%–10%), have considerable biofouling
resistance and very low corrosion rates and can, under many circumstances, be used in areas with
only modest water flow without any detrimental effects on culture organisms. Copper-based
antifouling paints are commonly applied to synthetic-fiber fish cages. Metallic copper-alloy
meshes can be used in rigid structures to give long life and low-maintenance service and have
previously been successfully used on a smaller scale for marine fish containment. However, copper
can be absorbed by shellfish, a characteristic that may be harmful to marketing efforts.
Plastics/ Rubber Compounds
The use of synthetic, hydrocarbon-based
materials is increasing rapidly in aquacultural
facilities, as these materials offer several
advantages over traditional materials. However,
they can be expensive and vulnerable to industrial
pollution. In aquacultural applications, plastics are
most vulnerable to the ultraviolet component of
solar radiation. The term plastic represents a
variety of polymers including acrylics, polyethylene, polypropylene, vinyl, PVC, fiberglass, and
similar materials. Each has its own set of good and bad features.
Fiberglass
Fiberglass is one of most popular materials for tank
construction. It is light, strong, and relatively
inexpensive. It can be molded into most desired
shapes. It is inert in both fresh and salt water. It can
withstand the effects of ultraviolet rays if used in
sun. Fiberglass tanks are normally gel-coated on the
inner surfaces to provide a smooth surface that may
be easily cleaned and disinfected. The fiberglass
tanks can be easily drilled for installation of drains
and other plumbing fixtures.
Fiberglass is strongest in tension loading, and this is

the stress experienced in circular tank walls. Fiberglass mat consists of very thin, sharp pieces of
glass. If this material gets into the culture water, it may enter the cultured animals’ gills or digestive
structures, causing extensive tissue damage or internal bleeding.
Vinyl
Vinyl is a flexible plastic widely used for swimming-pool liners and other applications
requiring flexibility and essentially zero permeability to water. In aquaculture facilities, vinyl is
mostly used for lining purposes. In fish culture, children’s wading and swimming pools are used
to culture or hold fish. Most of these pools are constructed of some type of vinyl.
Vinyl is flexible, and thus support must be provided for the vertical walls. In small pools it
is done with inflated circular sections of vinyl. Larger pools require more rigid support, which in
commercially available units usually is some type of coated steel. The flexible properties of vinyl
allow the liner to conform to nearly any shape of
external support as long as the support material is
smooth.
It is relatively inexpensive, smooth, and

easily cleaned. However, it is not very durable.
Vinyl liners have also been used to seal ponds
constructed in permeable soils. With a good sand
base under the vinyl and an overlaying layer of sand
for protection, vinyl will provide a long service life.
Polyethylene
Polyethylene is similar in properties to vinyl but does not
elongate as much. It is also widely used for making
impermeable liners for low-cost, rigid structures. It is
available in rolls up to 6 m wide and 75 m long. Polyethylene
can be purchased in many thicknesses based upon the
requirement and is quite inexpensive. However,
polyethylene does not have a long life, can be easily
punctured, and sometimes may be difficult to join.
Acrylics
Acrylics can be drilled, taped, and worked with machine
tools into desired shapes and dimensions. In aquariums this means that plumbing can be threaded
directly into the acrylic with drills and taps, which is impossible with glass. Acrylics will not
shatter like glass, but being much softer, they scratch relatively easily. Solvent bonding can be
done, or special glues designed for use on acrylics can be used.
Acrylics are inert to both salt and fresh water. However, they swell slightly if exposed to
high humidity. This becomes a problem if one side of a large acrylic piece is subjected to air of
high humidity and the other side is exposed to air of much lower humidity. The humidity difference
causes the sheet to warp, and if the material is restrained, fasteners or the acrylic itself may be
severely stressed or broken. Some acrylics warp more easily than others, and manufacturers’
specifications should be consulted before acrylics are used in this type of service. Immersion of
one side of the plastic sheet in water does not appear to cause a similar problem. Except for small
tanks, acrylics are not suitable for tank construction because of cost, but they can have other
applications in aquacultural facilities.
PVC
PVC can be used for tank construction, but
structural support must be provided for all but small
tanks. PVC can be glued or heat-welded. Primary use
of PVC is not for tanks but for piping and fittings. It is
inert in both fresh and salt water. As pipe and fittings,
it is inexpensive, light, and quite durable if not exposed
to too much solar radiation or industrial pollution. PVC
pipe and fittings are readily available in a wide range
of sizes and wall thickness. Sheet PVC is more
expensive.
Polypropylene
Polypropylene tanks are available from various suppliers in stock
sizes up to at least 1500 L. Larger tanks can be purchased on special
order. Larger tanks tend to be more expensive than similar-size
fiberglass tanks. Another problem with polypropylene is that it is
very difficult to glue anything to it. However, special heat-bonding
equipment is available for bonding polypropylene to itself.
Mechanical fittings are generally used with polypropylene
components. Polypropylene is also inert in both sea water and fresh
water.
Butyl Rubber
Butyl rubber is suitable for lining
purposes. It can be joined or patched by special
cements. In ponds, butyl-rubber linings may be
used without a covering of soil except in places in
which livestock, people, or equipment will be
moving. Minimum film thickness for placement
over clean, silty, or clayey gravels is 0.76 mm.
Soil sterilization is unnecessary if the butyl-rubber
lining is thicker than 0.5 mm is used.
Wood
Besides being light in weight, wood is typically less expensive than most other construction
materials and easy to work with. Marine plywood is often used to construct wooden tanks, but
other grades can be used as well. Plywood tanks should be designed to prevent excessive flexure
of the walls when the tank is filled. The tank sides should be braced to resist the static forces
exerted by the water.
Treated woods should not be used in contact with the culture water, because many contain
substances that are toxic to fish. All exposed surfaces should be painted to seal the wood against
rot. Paints containing lead or other heavy metals that may leach into the water should never be
used for aquaculture purposes.
Others
Glass
Glass culture units are found almost exclusively in the aquarium trade or for publicdisplay
aquaria. Aquaria range in size from small fish bowls to over 400 L in volume. Glass is not practical
for use in the fabrication of large tanks because of high cost, excessive weight, and the ease with
which it can be damaged. In the aquarium-manufacturing industry acrylic is rapidly replacing glass
for tank construction, but acrylics are too expensive for large-tank construction.
Gunite
Gunite is a strong, durable, concrete-like material that has an indefinite life. It is often used
to construct small spas, swimming pools, and ornamental fish ponds. Gunite material is very
compact and can be blown under high pressure over a support framework fabricated from steel
reinforcing rods and small-mesh poultry fencing. The material is usually applied in a 5 to 10 cm
thick layer. Gunite is more expensive than liners but has indefinite life, whereas liners must be
replaced every few years. Gunite has rough surface and porous texture, which are harmful to fish
and the fish environment. The utility of gunite as a construction material for production tanks has
yet to be proven.
Natural Fabrics
Natural fabrics such as cotton and hemp are suitable for fish netting and cage cultures These
materials have been used historically. But, with the advances in plastics and other synthetic
compounds, their use is now confined to subsistence farming. Most net materials today are some
type of plastic, such as polypropylene, nylon, or PVC.
PONDS
Ponds are clearly the dominant design used for aquaculture accounting for roughly 40% of
the total aquaculture production. Worldwide the average production from ponds is 1040 kg/ha, but
the range of productivity varies by a factor of 10. High-density shrimp ponds and carp ponds may
produce in excess of 12,000 kg/ha. In such systems, artificial aeration and supplemental feeding
are required.
Ponds are typically greater than 0.9 m and less than 2.4 m in depth. Pond depth is selected
based on a compromise between being deep enough that light does not penetrate to the pond bottom
(these limits rooted plant growth) and shallow enough to limit temperature stratification, reduce
overall water usage, and to minimize harvesting efforts. Pond areas range from 0.3 to 7 ha for
catfish and shrimp farms; size is less important than maintaining a regular rectangular shape to
facilitate net harvesting and efficient usage of land space.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Pond ecology is best described as the interaction of the life in your pond with the
environment that exists there. A shallow, nutrient rich pond, exposed to sunlight with little water
flowing through it will be teeming with algae and aquatic plants. It may have very little animal life
present because of low oxygen levels. In contrast a newly created, deep, spring fed pond may have
little life of any kind in it because of low temperatures and lack of food supply. A pond begins
with mostly water, few nutrients, and little aquatic life. Over time the pond accumulates nutrients.
Photosynthesis is the process by which phytoplankton (microalgae) uses sunlight to

convert carbon dioxide into a food source and to release oxygen as a by-product. In addition to
supplying oxygen in fish ponds, photosynthesis also removes several forms of nitrogenous wastes,
such as ammonia, nitrates, and urea.
Oxygen in pond water is very beneficial to the overall health of the pond. The value to fish
and the ability of the pond to get rid of waste. The waste that occurs in the pond includes "deposits"
from its animal life - fish and geese, waste material that enter with storm water runoff, as well as
plant and animals that die in the pond.
Oxygenation of pond happens in two major ways. Plants and algae do photosynthesis
during the day and wind adds oxygen at night.
In the presence of light, respiration and photosynthesis can occur simultaneously in algae.
However, the respiration rate is low compared with the photosynthesis rate, resulting in a net
consumption of carbon dioxide and production of oxygen. The intensity and composition of light
penetrating a pond surface significantly affects the microbial activity. The aquatic plants will use
sunlight and carbon dioxide to produce energy in the form of cellulose and release oxygen as a
byproduct. During the daytime when the pond is receiving sunlight, photosynthesis can release
oxygen into the water for the fish and bacteria to use. However, during the nighttime hours when
there is no sunlight, photosynthesis stops and plants actually start to use some oxygen instead of
producing it, and as the night progresses, the oxygen levels steadily drop. The quality and quantity
of light penetrating the pond surface to any depth depends on the presence of dissolved and
particulate matter as well as the water absorption characteristics. Because of these restrictions,
photosynthesis is significant only in the upper pond layer. Any part of the pond that is too dark for
photosynthesis to occur is likely to be oxygen deficient unless the pond is being mixed from top
to bottom. The surface water above this disappearance depth will be oxygenated by photosynthesis
while water below that depth must be mixed to receive oxygen.
The other method of getting oxygen into pond water occurs by oxygen exchange with the
atmosphere at the surface of the pond. The rougher the surface the more rapid the exchange. Also
the more deficient the oxygen content of the water the faster the exchange occurs. This process is
important at night and is critical for the pond with a heavy load of plants and animals. At night the
plants do respiration instead of photosynthesis the same as the animals. By dawn the pond may be
oxygen deficient if atmospheric aeration is impeded by lack of wind or especially by a covered
surface.
As the wind blows, waves are created which mix the surface water and expose more
surface area of the water to the air and oxygen is diffused into the water at the air/water interface.
This process is more efficient on large lakes because there is a large open area for the wind to blow
across the lake with less blockage from trees, hills, and buildings, and the larger surface area allows
the waves to travel further. Small ponds that are surrounded by trees or other obstructions that
block the wind do not receive as much oxygen from wind.
What is Dissolved Oxygen?

Dissolved oxygen refers to the level of free, non-compound oxygen present in water or
other liquids. It is an important parameter in assessing water quality because of its influence on
the organisms living within a body of water. Dissolved oxygen is necessary to many forms of life
including fish, invertebrates, bacteria and plants. These organisms use oxygen in respiration,
similar to organisms on land. Fish and crustaceans obtain oxygen for respiration through their gills,
while plant life and phytoplankton require dissolved oxygen for respiration when there is no light
for photosynthesis
Fig. 1: Physical and chemical stratification of pond water. From surface to bottom there is a decline in
light intensity, photosynthesis, oxygen levels and water temperature. Without oxygen, bottom water and
pond soil become anaerobic and build up toxic reduced substances. Fish and shrimp avoid anaerobic
areas in the ponds.
Where does Dissolved Oxygen come from?
Dissolved oxygen enters water through the air or as a plant byproduct. From the air, oxygen
can slowly diffuse across the water’s surface from the surrounding atmosphere, or be mixed in
quickly through aeration, whether natural or man-made. The aeration of water can be caused by
wind (creating waves), rapids, waterfalls, ground water discharge or other forms of running water.
Dissolved oxygen is also produced as a waste product of photosynthesis from phytoplankton,
algae, seaweed and other aquatic plants.
Dissolved Oxygen from Photosynthesis

While most photosynthesis takes place at the surface (by
shallow water plants and algae), a large portion of the
process takes place underwater (by seaweed, sub-surface
algae and phytoplankton). Light can penetrate water,
though the depth that it can reach varies due to dissolved
solids and other light-scattering elements present in the
water. Depth also affects the wavelengths available to
plants, with red being absorbed quickly and blue light
being visible past 100 m. In clear water, there is no
longer enough light for photosynthesis to occur beyond
200 m, and aquatic plants no longer grow. In turbid
water, this photic (light-penetrating) zone is often much shallower. Regardless of wavelengths
available, the cycle doesn’t change. In addition to the needed light, CO2 is readily absorbed by
water (it’s about 200 times more soluble than oxygen) and the oxygen produced as a byproduct
remains dissolved in water. As aquatic photosynthesis is light-dependent, the dissolved oxygen
produced will peak during daylight hours and decline at night
.
DISSOLVED OXYGEN FOR FISH PRODUCTION
Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to oxygen gas that is dissolved in water.
Sources of Oxygen in an Aquatic Environment

There are three main sources of oxygen in the aquatic environment:
1) direct diffusion from the atmosphere;
2) wind and wave action; and
3) photosynthesis. Of these, photosynthesis by aquatic plants and phytoplankton is the most
important in outdoor pond systems.
In ponds or tanks with algae or plants, oxygen, derived from photosynthesis, is produced
during the day when sunlight shines on the plants in the water. Oxygen levels drop at night because
of respiration by plants and animals, including fish. These predictable changes in DO that occur
every 24 hours are called the diurnal oxygen cycle (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Dissolved oxygen concentration in ponds fluctuates on a 24-hour basis. This fluctuation is called a diurnal oxygen
cycle. Dissolved oxygen increases during daylight hours when photosynthesis is occurring and decreases at night when
respiration continues but photosynthesis does not.
OXYGEN DEPLETION
Oxygen depletion refers to low levels of DO

and may result in fish mortality. A concentration of
5 mg/L DO or more is recommended for optimum
fish health. Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved
oxygen is species specific, however, most species
of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2–4 mg/L.
Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than
2 mg/L. The number of fish that die during an
oxygen depletion event is determined by how low
the DO gets and how long it stays down. Usually
larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are.
CAUSES OF OXYGEN DEPLETION
Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen

consumption exceeds oxygen production.
Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused
by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae
in the ecosystem, "turnover" of a body of water,
increased organic waste entering the water (i.e.,
manure from feedlots, septic tank waste water,
and excess fish feed), death and decay of organic
matter (i.e., plant or algae die-offs), or by certain
chemicals (i.e., formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column.
WHY ARE OXYGEN DEPLETION EVENTS MOST TROUBLESOME IN THE

SUMMER?
In outdoor ponds, oxygen depletion events can occur at anytime, however, they are most
likely to cause fish kills during hot summer weather. A decrease in oxygen production is caused
by incidents such as cloudy weather and plant or algae die-offs that shut down photosynthesis.
Heavy populations of plants or algae are the most important producers of oxygen in the system.
However, they are also the most important users of oxygen. There are several reasons why oxygen
depletion events are more common in the summer and they are discussed below.
High Water Temperature
Warm water is much less capable of holding oxygen gas in solution than cool water. For
example, water that is 90°F can only hold 7.4 mg/L DO at saturation, whereas water that is 45°F
can hold 11.9 mg/L DO at saturation. This physical phenomenon puts the fish in double jeopardy
because at high water temperatures their metabolic rates increase, hence their physiologic demand
for oxygen increases.
Cloudy, Still Weather

Muggy, overcast summer days often precipitate oxygen depletions. During cloudy weather,
the intensity of light reaching surface waters is greatly diminished, resulting in a marked decrease
in oxygen production from photosynthesis. Oxygen consumption, however, remains unchanged.
This results in a net loss of oxygen over each 24-hour period. This loss of oxygen from decreased
production is confounded by still, muggy, humid weather common on overcast summer days.
Oxygen transfer (from the atmosphere into the water) is minimal because there is little or no
wind/wave action. The net result over a period of several days is oxygen depletion and, often, fish
kills.
Stratification/Pond Turnover
During hot weather, surface waters warm up more rapidly than deeper waters. As the
difference in temperature increases between warm surface water and cool bottom water, a
thermocline develops. A thermocline is an area of rapid temperature change that acts as a physical
barrier between warm water at the surface (epilimnion) and cold water at the bottom
(hypolimnion). When a thermocline is present there is no mixing of surface and deep layers of
water. Because photosynthesis and oxygen production only occur near the surface, water in the
deep layer becomes devoid of oxygen and develops an oxygen demand. Decomposition of organic
matter, including uneaten feed or dead plant material, occurs at the bottom of the pond and is an
oxygen consuming process. Hence the bottom layer becomes anoxic because the oxygen present
is used up but there is no source of new oxygen molecules due to presence of the thermocline. The
thermocline can be broken by heavy wind and cold rain, common during summer thunderstorms.
When the thermocline breaks down, the oxygen-rich surface waters mix with oxygen-deficient
bottom waters. If the oxygen demand is sufficient, all DO present will rapidly be removed from
the water column, resulting in severe oxygen depletion and a fish kill.
HOW TO DETERMINE IF LOW DO IS THE CAUSE OF A FISH KILL
 All fish die at approximately the same time (often during the night or in the pre-dawn
hours).
 Large fish may be affected more than small fish.
 Moribund fish may be seen at the surface "gasping" for oxygen (this is called "piping").
 Some species may die with their back arched, gills flared and mouth open. This is most
commonly seen in hybrid striped bass and, occasionally, in catfish.
 The weather immediately prior to the fish kill may have been hot, still and overcast. A
severe thunderstorm may have occurred immediately prior to the fish kill.
 An oxygen depletion event severe enough to result in significant fish mortality is often
observed in water with heavy populations of algae or aquatic plants.
WHAT TO DO IF LOW DO IS SUSPECTED AS THE CAUSE OF A FISH KILL
The most important thing to do if fish are dying from low DO is to turn on an aerator. If
emergency aeration is not available, little can be done to help the fish. To confirm the problem,
oxygen levels should be tested while the fish kill is in progress. Some county extension agents are
equipped with water testing equipment.
PREVENTING OXYGEN DEPLETION
An oxygen depletion event can be predicted and, therefore, prevented by monitoring

dissolved oxygen levels in a pond. The most efficient tool for measuring DO is an electronic
oxygen meter. These instruments are available through most aquaculture supply companies at a
variety of prices. Chemical test kits are also available. These are more troublesome to run, but are
accurate and do not require as great an investment by pond owners.
Monitoring oxygen throughout the night is impractical for recreational pond owners and
part-time fish farmers. For these people it is easier to "predict" an oxygen depletion by measuring
DO levels in the late afternoon (5pm–6pm) and late evening (8pm–10pm). The decline in DO
during the night can be predicted by graphing DO concentration against time on standard graph
paper (Figure 2). If the projected concentration of DO is below 4 mg/L before 7am emergency
aeration is recommended.
Figure 2. Estimation of potential for dissolved oxygen depletion.
DIURNAL LIMITS
The situation of the catfish pond can be used to illustrate this. If a pond contains no fish
and no nutrients to drive algal production, the oxygen concentration in the pond water will reach
the equilibrium dissolved oxygen level as defined by temperature, 8.4 mg/L at 25◦C (Fig. 2.1a).
a. Oxygen concentration at equilibrium (8.4 mg/1) with no algal growth.
If nitrogen and phosphorus are added to the pond at a rate equal to the N and P in catfish
feed sufficient to support 3000 kg/ha, the pond oxygen levels will become polarized as a result of
photosynthesis with a daytime high of 10.1 mg/L and a nighttime low of 6.7 mg/L (at typical pond
photosynthesis rates of 2.0 mg carbon/m2 /day, see Fig. 2.1b)
b. Diurnal oxygen fluctuation due to algal growth at a rate of 2.0 mg

carbon/𝒎𝟐 /day.
If a minimum desirable oxygen concentration in the pond is 3 mg/L, and surface re-aeration
can supply 3.6 g O2/m2/d at a typical wind speed of 3 m/s, approximately 590 kg of catfish
respiratory demand can be sustained (see Fig. 2.1c).
c. Suppression of Oxygen concentration due to 1131 lbs/acre of catfish.
The catfish farmer is able to increase the carrying capacity of the pond by eliminating the
bottom of the nighttime diurnal curve by applying mechanical aeration when needed. Under these
conditions, unless the algal crop is being harvested, photosynthesis is not supplying oxygen to the
pond. In practice, mass balances on the growing algal crop consistently fail to account for
approximately 25% of the algal cell production. This algal biomass is likely leaving the water
column by entering the catfish biomass through the food chain or exiting the pond by
decomposition and seepage to the groundwater. This fortuitous algal harvest combined with early-
morning mechanical aeration to increase pond O2 from a low of 1.3 mg/L to 3.0 mg/L allows the
catfish farmer to push the carrying capacity to 1400 kg/ha (see Fig. 2.1d).
d. Pond oxygen concentration with 3094 lb/acre of catfish at 25 % algal harvest.
POLYCULTURE
Polyculture is the practice of culturing more than one species of aquatic organism in the same
pond. The motivating principle is that fish production in ponds may be maximized by raising a
combination of species having different food habits. The mixture of fish gives better utilization of
available natural food produced in a pond. Polyculture began in China more than 1000 years ago.
The practice has spread throughout southeast Asia, and into other parts of the world.
HOW DOES POLYCULTURE WORK?

Ponds that have been enriched through chemical fertilization, manuring or feeding practices
contain abundant natural fish food organisms living at different depths and locations in the water
column. Most fish feed predominantly on selected groups of these organisms. Polyculture should
combine fish having different feeding habits in proportions that effectively utilize these natural
foods. As a result, higher yields are obtained. Efficient polyculture systems in tropical climates
may produce up to 8,000 kg of fish per hectare per year.
FISH USED IN POLYCULTURE
Combinations of three Chinese carps (bighead, silver and grass carp) and the common carp are
most common in polyculture. Other species may also be used. While fish may be grouped into
broad categories based on their feeding habits, some overlap does occur. Descriptions of the
feeding habit categories and examples of fish from each category follow. Plankton Feeders
Plankton is normally the most plentiful food in a pond, so it is very important to include a plankton
feeding fish in a polyculture system. This group of fish feeds on the tiny, free-floating plants
(phytoplankton) and animals (zooplankton) which multiply abundantly in fertilized ponds. Two
fish typical of this group are the silver carp, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, and the bighead carp,
Aristichthys nobilis.
FACTORS AFFECTING SPECIES SELECTION

1) Water temperature Many fish cannot survive or grow well in cold water. Systems using cold-
tolerant fish such as common carp and Chinese carps must be used if temperatures drop below
18°C.
2) Market value of fish the market price and demand should be considered before a fish species is
chosen for culture. When two or more fish can fill the same feeding niche in a pond, the choice
should be based on which will maximize economic returns to the farmer.
3) Pond fertilization practices Most polyculture systems are based on fertilization. Manures and
chemical fertilizers increase production of natural fish food organisms in ponds. Thus, more food
is made available to fish. Fertilized ponds may be stocked at higher rates than unfertilized ponds.
4) Feeding habits of fish Supplemental feeds are commonly given to fish. Manure may serve as a
food source for some fish by supplementing the nutrition available from natural food organisms in
the pond. A wide variety of agricultural by-products may serve as supplemental feed. When fish
are fed, ponds can be stocked at higher rates. Stocking bottom feeding fish such as common carp
prevents sinking foods from being wasted.
5) Tolerance to pond conditions Polyculture ponds is usually heavily fertilized or manured. This
practice may cause low oxygen levels and other conditions in the water that are stressful to fish.
6) Potential of uncontrolled spawning in grow-out ponds Certain fish, like tilapia, reproduce easily
in ponds. Tilapia may become so overpopulated that their growth stops, and they become stunted.
Predator fish are often stocked in tilapia ponds to control reproduction.
PRACTICAL APPROACHES IN POLYCULTURE

In addition to boosting biomass and harvests, other approaches to polyculture often make
sense. In some situations, diseases in one species can be reduced or eliminated by stocking another
species. One example involves the use of black carp, redear sunfish, or freshwater drum to
consume snails in catfish production ponds. The snails would otherwise serve as an intermediate
host for trematode parasites that can greatly reduce the survival and growth of catfish fingerlings.
The goal is not to produce an additional harvestable crop, but rather to maximize catfish survival
and yields. A similar benefit, albeit based on different principles, has been shown with the
polyculture of some finfish and penaeid shrimp. Recent work by Tendencia and fellow researchers
found that stocking 500 grams per cubic meter of tilapia or grouper efficiently inhibited the growth
of luminous bacteria in shrimp-rearing water, while stocking milkfish had no effect.
OPPORTUNITIES IN POLYCULTURE
As aquaculture continues to expand in coastal areas with brackish water or even full-
strength seawater, additional opportunities for polyculture have presented themselves. Milkfish,
shrimp, oysters, mullets, crabs, tilapia, rabbitfish, and threadfin are just some of the aquatic species
that have performed acceptably in coastal polyculture.
ISSUES in POLYCULTURE
Some problems are unavoidable when practicing polyculture. The fact that two or more
species are present requires them to be sorted during harvesting, which may not always be an easy
task. During production, direct or indirect competition can occasionally reduce yields. In some
situations, such as the polyculture of koi carp and goldfish described by Jha and coauthors in 2006,
insufficient niche differentiation can result in overall reductions in yields.
pH Limit
Water quality is one of the most overlooked aspects of pond management - until it affects fish
production. However, several other variables influence water quality for fish including water
temperature, phytoplankton, photosynthesis and pH, carbon dioxide, alkalinity and hardness.
Additionally, water quality can be affected through the interaction of these factors.
pH is a measure of whether water is acidic or basic. Fish have an average blood pH of 7.4, so pond
water with a pH close to this is optimum. An acceptable range would be 6.5 to 9.0. Fish can become
stressed in water with a pH ranging from 4.0 to 6.5 and 9.0 to 11.0. Fish growth is limited in water
pH less than 6.5, and reproduction ceases, and fry can die at pH less than 5.0. Death is almost
certain at a pH of less than 4.0 or greater than 11.0. Pond water pH fluctuates throughout the day
due to photosynthesis and respiration by plants and vertebrates. Typically, pH is highest at dusk
and lowest at dawn. This is because nighttime respiration increases carbon dioxide concentrations
that interact with water producing carbonic acid and lowering pH. This can limit the ability of fish
blood to carry oxygen.
What Changes A Pond Water’s PH
Highly alkaline water (in this case a pH above 8.5) is more common. It can happen because some
untreated materials are leaking into your pond or too many algae is building up.
Too little oxygen and too much carbon dioxide lowers the pH of water too far (below 6.5 here).
Having too many fish can also make this problem worse. They give off carbon dioxide, which adds
to the problem.
What Happens to Fish in Incorrect pH Pond Water

High water pH can cause fish to gasp for air at the surface, isolate themselves, stay on the
bottom, and even death.
pH Effect
11 Alkaline death point
6-9 Best growth
5-6 Slow growth
4-5 No reproduction
4 Acid death point
(The Inevitable PH Fluctuations of Aquaculture Pond Water - Responsible Seafood Advocate,
2018)
Managing problems with high pH

The long-term solution to high pH problems in ponds is to alter pond biology so that the
net daily carbon dioxide uptake is near zero. This can be done by reducing photosynthesis or
increasing respiration.
POND TYPES
I. According to the water source

A. Spring – water ponds are usually less than 10 acres, and have no inlet, but may
have an outlet, occasionally joining with spring runs to feed into larger spring lakes. It is
supplied from a spring either in the pond or very close to it.
B. Seepage ponds are supplied from the water-table by seepage into the pond. The
water level in the pond will vary with the level of the water-table.
C. Rain-fed ponds are supplied from rainfall and surface runoff. No water is supplied
during the dry season. These ponds are often small depressions in impermeable soil, with
a dike built at the lower side to retain more water.
D. Barrage ponds are man-made shallow water bodies generally located on
headwater streams and associated to agricultural or forested catchment. It is fed directly by
water running straight out from the water body such as river, lake and stream etc.to the
ponds.
E. Diversion ponds are constructed by bringing water from another source to the
pond. It can be done by letting the water enters a channel from which controlled amounts
can be fed to the ponds.
F. Pump-fed ponds are normally higher than the water level and can be supplied from
a well, spring, lake, reservoir or irrigation canal, by pumping.
II. According to the means of drainage

A. Undrainable ponds cannot be drained by gravity. They are generally fed by
groundwater and/or surface runoff, and their water level may vary seasonally. Such ponds
have two main origins (a) They may be dug in swampy areas where there is no source of
water other than groundwater. (b) They may result from the extraction of soil materials
such as gravel, sand or clay.
B. Drainable ponds are set higher than the level to which the water is drained and can
easily be drained by gravity. They are generally fed by surface water such as runoff, a
spring or stream, or are pump-fed.
C. Pump-drained ponds may be drainable by gravity to a certain level, and then the
water has to be pumped out. Other ponds, similar to undrainable ponds, must be pumped
out completely. These ponds are only used where groundwater does not seep back in to
any extent
III. According to the means of drainage
A. Undrainable ponds cannot be drained by gravity. They are generally fed by
groundwater and/or surface runoff, and their water level may vary seasonally. Such ponds
have two main origins (a) They may be dug in swampy areas where there is no source of
water other than groundwater. (b) They may result from the extraction of soil materials
such as gravel, sand or clay.
B. Drainable ponds are set higher than the level to which the water is drained and can
easily be drained by gravity. They are generally fed by surface water such as runoff, a
spring or stream, or are pump-fed.
C. Pump-drained ponds may be drainable by gravity to a certain level, and then the
water has to be pumped out. Other ponds, similar to undrainable ponds, must be pumped
out completely. These ponds are only used where groundwater does not seep back in to
any extent
IV. According to the construction materials

A. Earthen ponds are entirely constructed from soil materials. They are the most
common, the location for earthen pond is limited to area where there is clay soil and
underground water or a flowing stream. It is therefore sited in swampy area where clean
fresh water is available.
B. Walled ponds are usually surrounded by blocks, brick or concrete walls.
Sometimes wooden planking or corrugated metal is used.
C. Lined ponds are earthen ponds lined with an impervious material such as a plastic
or rubber sheet.
V. According to the construction method

A. Dug-out ponds are constructed by excavating soil from an area to form a hole
which is then filled with water. They are usually undrainable and fed by rainfall, surface
runoff or groundwater.
B. Embankment ponds are formed by constructing a dam to collect are formed by
constructing a dam to collect
C. Cut-and-fill ponds are built by a mix of excavation and embankment on sloping
ground. They are usually drainable, and water, which is impounded within the dikes, is fed
by gravity or by pumping.
VI. According to the use of pond
A. Spawning ponds for the production of eggs and small fry
B. Nursery ponds for the production of larger juveniles;
C. Brood ponds for broodstock rearing;
D. Storage ponds for holding fish temporarily, often prior to marketing;
E. Fattening ponds for the production of food fish;
F. Integrated ponds which have crops, animals or other fish ponds around them to
supply waste materials to the pond as feed or fertilizer;
G. Wintering ponds for holding fish during the cold season.
REFERENCES:
• Beveridge, M. 1996. Cage Culture. Fishing News Books, Oxford, England.

• CIGR Handbook Volume2
• Dissolved Oxygen. (2019, January 23). Environmental Measurement Systems. Retrieved
September 26, 2022, from https://www.fondriest.com/environmental-
measurements/parameters/water-quality/dissolved-
oxygen/#:%7E:text=aquatic%20plants%208.-
,Dissolved%20Oxygen%20from%20Photosynthesis,%2Dsurface%20algae%20and%20p
hytoplankton
• Global Seafood Alliance. (2021, January 7). Proper water circulation in aquaculture ponds
critical - Responsible Seafood Advocate. Retrieved September 26, 2022, from
https://www.globalseafood.org/advocate/proper-water-circulation-in-aquaculture-ponds-
critical
• Hugugenin, J. E., S. C. Fuller, F. J. Ansuini, and W. T. Dodge. 1981. Experiences

with a fouling-resistant modular marine fish culture system. In: L. J. Allen and
E. C. Kinney (eds.), Proceedings of the Bio-Engineering Symposium for Fish Culture.
American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, MD.
• Lawson, T. B. 1995. Fundamentals of Aquacultural Engineering. Chapman and Hall,
New York.
 Pond Ecology. (n.d.). Retrieved September 26, 2022, from https://extension.psu.edu/pond-

ecology
 pH Of Pond Water: Why Experts Keep It Between 6.5-8.5. (2018, March 30). Premier
Ponds. https://premierpond.com/ph-level-guide/
 Stevens, R. (2022). Fish Pond Water Quality: As Simple as Chemistry 101. Noble Research
Institute; https://www.noble.org/news/publications/ag-news-and-views/2009/july/fish-
pond-water-quality-as-simple-as-chemistry-
101/#:~:text=pH%20is%20a%20measure%20of,would%20be%206.5%20to%209.0.
 Texas A&M AgriLife Extension. (2010, June 22). Dissolved Oxygen - AquaPlant:
Management of Pond Plants & Algae. AquaPlant. Retrieved September 26, 2022, from
https://aquaplant.tamu.edu/faq/dissolved-
oxygen/#:%7E:text=The%20primary%20source%20of%20oxygen,oxygen%20into%20th
e%20pond%20water.
 Wheaton, F. W. 1977. Aquacultural Engineering. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
 https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FA002

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G4: Bierso, Aseman, Espares, Millare, Ocampo Page 0

G4: Bierso, Aseman, Espares, Millare, Ocampo Page 0

In partial fulfilment of the requirements in ABE 43 (Aquaculture Engineering)

DANIO, Mark Angelo

JAYLENE KIMBERLY ACOSTA

⮚ smooth interior surface to prevent abrasion,

Waterproof materials such as polyethylene, vinyl,

Fiberglass is strongest in tension loading, and this is

It is relatively inexpensive, smooth, and

Photosynthesis is the process by which phytoplankton (microalgae) uses sunlight to

What is Dissolved Oxygen?

Dissolved Oxygen from Photosynthesis

Sources of Oxygen in an Aquatic Environment

Oxygen depletion refers to low levels of DO

CAUSES OF OXYGEN DEPLETION

Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen

WHY ARE OXYGEN DEPLETION EVENTS MOST TROUBLESOME IN THE

Cloudy, Still Weather

HOW TO DETERMINE IF LOW DO IS THE CAUSE OF A FISH KILL

 Large fish may be affected more than small fish.

WHAT TO DO IF LOW DO IS SUSPECTED AS THE CAUSE OF A FISH KILL

PREVENTING OXYGEN DEPLETION

An oxygen depletion event can be predicted and, therefore, prevented by monitoring

Figure 2. Estimation of potential for dissolved oxygen depletion.

a. Oxygen concentration at equilibrium (8.4 mg/1) with no algal growth.

b. Diurnal oxygen fluctuation due to algal growth at a rate of 2.0 mg

c. Suppression of Oxygen concentration due to 1131 lbs/acre of catfish.

d. Pond oxygen concentration with 3094 lb/acre of catfish at 25 % algal harvest.

HOW DOES POLYCULTURE WORK?

FACTORS AFFECTING SPECIES SELECTION

PRACTICAL APPROACHES IN POLYCULTURE

What Happens to Fish in Incorrect pH Pond Water

Managing problems with high pH

I. According to the water source

II. According to the means of drainage

IV. According to the construction materials

V. According to the construction method

• Beveridge, M. 1996. Cage Culture. Fishing News Books, Oxford, England.

• Hugugenin, J. E., S. C. Fuller, F. J. Ansuini, and W. T. Dodge. 1981. Experiences

 Pond Ecology. (n.d.). Retrieved September 26, 2022, from https://extension.psu.edu/pond-

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