CHAPTER 5

SENSORY, ATTENTIONAL & PERCEPTUAL PROCESSES

KNOWING THE WORLD

● The world in which we live is full of a variety of objects, people, and events.
● The information collected by our sense organs forms the basis of all our
knowledge.
● The sense organs register several kinds of information about various objects.
However, in order to be registered, the objects and their qualities (e.g., size,
shape, colour) must be able to draw our attention.
● The registered information must also be sent to the brain that constructs
some meaning out of them.
● Thus, our knowledge of the world around us depends on three basic
processes, called sensation, attention, and perception.
● These processes are highly interrelated; hence, they are often considered as
different elements of the same process, called cognition.

NATURE AND VARIETIES OF STIMULUS

● A stimulus is any object or event that elicits a response.
● The external environment that surrounds us contains a wide variety of
stimuli. Some of them can be
- seen (e.g., a house),
- while some can be heard only (e.g., music).
- that we can smell (e.g., fragrance of a flower)
- or taste (e.g., sweets)
- others that we can experience by touching (e.g., softness of a cloth).
● All these stimuli provide us with various kinds of information.
● The sense organs are also known as sensory receptors or information
gathering systems.
● Five of these sense organs collect information from the external world.
These are eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin.
● While our eyes are primarily responsible for vision, ears for hearing, nose
for smell, and tongue for taste, skin is responsible for the experiences of
 touch, warmth, cold, and pain. Specialized receptors of warmth, cold, and
pain are found inside our skin.
● Besides these five external sense organs, we have also got two deep senses.
They are called kinesthetic and vestibular systems.
● The kinesthetic senses are the senses of position and movement of the body.
● The vestibular sense contributes to our ability to maintain balance and body
posture.

SENSE MODALITIES
● The initial experience of a stimulus or an object registered by a particular
sense organ is called sensation.
● Different sense organs deal with different forms of stimuli and serve
different purposes. Each sense organ is highly specialized for dealing with a
particular kind of information.
● Hence, each one of them is known as a sense modality.

Functional Limitations Of Sense Organs

● In order to get noticed by a sensory receptor, a stimulus has to be of an
optimal intensity or magnitude.
● The relationship between stimuli and the sensations they evoke is
profoundly studied under a discipline called Psychophysics.
● In order to get noticed a stimulus has to carry a minimum value or weight.
The minimum value of a stimulus required to activate a given sensory
system is termed as Absolute Threshold or Absolute Limen(AL).
● The smallest difference in the value of two stimuli that is necessary to notice
them as different is called Difference Threshold or Difference Limen(DL).

Attentional Processes
● In the process of attention, we select a certain stimulus from a given set of
stimuli.
● The process through which certain stimuli are selected from a group of
others is generally referred to as attention.
● The process of directing or focusing our senses towards someone or
something is known as attention.
 ● For example, when we enter a mall, we come across so many people,
showrooms, cafes but we pay attention to the place where we want to go.
● There are 3 properties of attention described as follows-
- Alertness refers to the activeness and readiness of an individual to deal with
the stimuli that appear before him/her.
- Concentration refers to focussing awareness on certain Stimuli while
excluding others for the moment.
- In Search, an observer searches for some specified subset of stimuli among a
given set of stimuli.

● Attention has a focus where our maximum awareness is catered as well as a

fringe where we are least aware of the stimuli.
- When our awareness is centered on a particular object or event, it is called a
focal point of attention.
- When we have vague ideas about the stimulus and it is away from the center
of awareness, it is called a fringe of attention.

TYPES OF ATTENTION

Sustained Attention
- Sustained attention is concerned with concentration. It is defined as the
ability to maintain attention on an object or event for longer durations.
- It is also known as “vigilance”.
- Sometimes people have to concentrate on a particular task for many hours.
Air traffic controllers and radar readers provide us with good examples of
this phenomenon. They have to constantly watch and monitor signals on
screens. The occurrence of signals in such situations is usually
unpredictable, and errors in detecting signals may be fatal. Hence, a great
deal of vigilance is required in those situations.

Factors Affecting Sustained Attention

● Sensory Modality: Performance is found to be superior when the stimuli are
auditory than when they are visual.
● Clarity of Stimuli: Intense and long-lasting stimuli facilitate sustained
attention and thus, leading to better performance.
 ● Temporal Uncertainty: Stimuli can be attended better if they appear at
regular intervals as in such cases it is easier to keep a track of it.
● Spatial Uncertainty: Stimuli that appear at a fixed place are readily attended
whereas those at random places are difficult to attend.

Selective Attention
- It is concerned mainly with the selection of a limited number of stimuli or
objects from a larger number of stimuli.
- Selective attention is the process of directing our senses to relevant stimuli
while ignoring irrelevant stimuli in the environment.
- A selective attention example is having a conversation with someone in a
crowded, public space.

Factors Affecting Selective Attention

● External factors: It deals with the features of stimuli. Other things held
constant, the size, intensity and motion of stimuli appear to be significant
determinants of attention. Novel stimuli easily catch our attention.Large,
bright, and moving stimuli easily catch our attention.
● Internal factors lie within the individual and are elaborated as follows:
- Motivational factors which relate to our biological or social needs.s.
When we are hungry, we notice even a faint smell of food. A student
taking an examination is likely to focus on a teacher’s instructions
more than other students.
- Cognitive factors include factors like interest, attitude and preparatory
set and interesting objects are easily attended by the
individuals.Objects or events, which appear interesting, are readily
attended by individuals. Similarly we pay quick attention to certain
objects or events to which we are favorably seen by an individual.

Theories of Selective Attention

A number of theories have been developed to explain the process of selective
attention.

1. FILTER THEORY
 - Filter theory was developed by Broadbent (1956).
- According to this theory, many stimuli simultaneously enter our
receptors creating a kind of “bottleneck” situation.
- They enter the selective filter, which allows only one stimulus to pass
through for higher levels of processing.
- Other stimuli are screened out at that moment of time.
- Thus, we become aware of only that stimulus, which gets access
through the selective filter.

2. FILTER - ATTENUATION THEORY

- Filter-attenuation theory was developed by Triesman (1962) by
modifying Broadbent’s theory.
- This theory proposes that the stimuli not getting access to the selective
filter at a given moment of time are not completely blocked.
- The filter only attenuates (weakens) their strength.

3. MULTIMODE THEORY
- Multimode theory was developed by Johnston and Heinz (1978).
- This theory believes that attention is a flexible system that allows
selection of a stimulus over others at three stages.
- At stage one the sensory representations (e.g., visual images) of
stimuli are constructed;
- at stage two the semantic representations (e.g., names of objects) are
constructed;
- and at stage three the sensory and semantic representations enter the
consciousness.
- . It is also suggested that more processing requires more mental effort.

Divided attention
- It occurs when mental focus is directed towards multiple ideas, or tasks, at
once.
- This skill is also known as multitasking, which people often carry out
without realizing it.
- A great example of this would be singing along to a song while driving a car.
Perceptual Processes
● Perception is defined as the process by which we interpret the stimuli in our
environment and give proper meaning to them.
● The process by which we recognise, interpret or give meaning to the
information provided by sense organs is called perception.

● Processing Approaches in Perception

BOTTOM UP PROCESSING
- The idea that the process of recognition begins from the parts, which serve
as the basis for recognition of the whole is termed as Bottom-Up Processing.
OR
It is the processing that begins at the entry level[stimulus]with what our
senses can detect.
- It begins with sensory data which is then carried to the brain and specifically
the parts of the brain for its interpretation.Therefore, it is considered to be
data driven.
- It lays emphasis on the features of the stimuli.
- For instance, drawing a figure which gets picked by our senses such as eyes
which is then carried to the brain for processing and interpreting as letter B.
- According to this approach, Perception is a process of mental construction.

TOP DOWN PROCESSING

- The idea that the recognition process begins from the whole, which leads to
the identification of its various components is termed Top-Down Processing.
OR
 - It is the processing that involves the brain sending down stored information
to the sensory system from our available knowledge, experiences & thoughts
which helps us to create a tentative interpretation of the stimulus.
- It lays emphasis on the perceiver.
- According to this approach, Perception is a process of identification of
stimuli.

FACTORS AFFECTING PERCEPTION/PERCEIVER

● Human beings are creative and smart in nature who always attempt to give
substantial meaning to the stimuli in their environment.
● Factors that play an important role in the perception process are described as
follows-
- Motivation- The needs and desires of a perceiver strongly influence his/her
perception and people always aim to satisfy their needs and wants and for
that people perceive objects in such a way that it will satisfy their needs and
desires.Experiments were conducted to examine the influence of hunger on
perception. When hungry persons were shown ambiguous pictures, they
were found to perceive them as pictures of food objects more often than
satiated (non-hungry) persons.
- Expectations– The expectations about what we might perceive in a given
situation also have a strong impact on our perception and it reflects a strong
tendency to see what we expect to see even when the results are not in sync
with the external reality.For example, if your milkman delivers you milk
daily at about 5.30 A.M., any knocking at the door around that time is likely
to be perceived as the presence of the milkman even if it is someone else.
- Cognitive Styles- It is defined as the consistent way of dealing with our
environment and it crucially affects the way we perceive our environment.
- Cultural Background And Experiences- Different experiences and learning
opportunities available to people available in different cultural settings also
has a strong impact on the perception.

PERCEPTION OF SHAPE OR FORM

- The process of organizing visual fields into meaningful wholes is defined as
form or shape perception.
 - As per Gestalt Psychologists, we perceive different stimuli not as discrete
elements but as an organized whole that has a definite form. For Example, a
flower pot with a bunch of flowers is a whole and if the flowers are
removed, the flower pot still remains a whole.
- The most primitive organization takes place in the form of figure-ground
segregation.

Figure Ground

Figure has a definite form. backGround is relatively formless.

It is highly organised. It is highly unorganised.

It has a clear contour. It is contourless.

Figure stands out from the Background stays behind the figure.
background.

Figure is clearer,limited and Background appears relatively unclear,unlimited

relatively nearer. and away from us.

PRINCIPLES/LAWS OF PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION

● Law of Prägnanz- The law of prägnanz is sometimes referred to as the law
of good figure or the law of simplicity. This law holds that when you're
presented with a set of ambiguous or complex objects, your brain will make
them appear as simple as possible. For example, when presented with the
Olympic logo, you see overlapping circles rather than an assortment of
curved, connected lines.
● The Principle Of Proximity: According to this principle, the objects that are
close together in space or time are perceived together.
 The only thing differentiating the group on the left from those on the right is the proximity
of the lines. And yet your brain interprets the image on the right as three distinct groups.

● The Principle Of Similarity: According to this principle, objects that are

similar to one another and have similar characteristics are perceived as a
group

The
squares here are all equally spaced and the same size, but we automatically group them by
color, even though there’s no rhyme or reason to their placement.
● The Principle Of Continuity: This principle states that we tend to perceive
objects as belonging together if they appear to form a continuous pattern.

The eye tends to want to follow the straight line from one end of this figure to the other, and
the curved line from the top to the bottom, even when the lines change color midway
through

● The Principle Of Smallness: As per this principle, smaller areas tend to be

seen as figures against a larger background.

In Fig.5.10 we are more likely to see a black cross rather than a white cross
within the circle because of this principle.
 ● The Principle Of Symmetry: This principle suggests that symmetrical areas
tend to be seen as figures against asymmetrical backgrounds.
● The Principle Of Surroundedness: This principle suggests that areas
surrounded by others tend to be perceived as figures.
● The Principle Of Closure: We tend to fill gaps in stimulation and tend to
perceive objects as a whole rather than their separate parts.

.
The brain completes the white shapes, even though they’re not well defined.

Perception of Space, Depth and Distance

- The process of viewing the world in three dimensions is termed distance or

depth perception
- On perceiving depth, we mainly depend on two main sources of information
termed cues.
- One is called Binocular cues as they require both eyes and another is called
Monocular cues as they allow us to perceive depth with just one eye.

Monocular cues are explained below–

● Relative Size: We tend to perceive an object farther away when it appears
small, and closer when it appears bigger.
● Overlapping: These cues occur when some portion of the object is covered
by another object. The overlapped object is considered farther away, whereas
the object that covers it appears nearer.
● Linear perspective: Denotes the phenomenon by which distant objects
appear to be closer together than nearer objects.For example, parallel lines,
 such as rail tracks,appear to converge with increasing distance with a
vanishing point at the horizon. The more the lines converge, the farther away
they appear.
● Aerial Perspective: The air comprises microscopic particles of dust and
moisture that makes distant objects look hazy or blurry. This effect is called
Aerial Perspective. For example, distant mountains appear blue due to the
scattering of blue light in the atmosphere, whereas the same mountains are
perceived to be closer when the atmosphere is clear.
● Light And Shade: In light, some parts of the object get highlighted, whereas
some parts become darker.
● Relative Height: Larger objects are perceived as being closer to the viewer
and smaller objects as being farther away.
● Texture Gradient: Denotes a phenomenon by which the visual field having
more density of elements is seen farther away.
● Motion Parralox: It is a kinetic monocular cue that occurs when objects at
different distances move at a different relative speed.

Binocular cues (Physiological Cues) are:

● Retinal or Binocular Disparity: It occurs because the two eyes have different
locations in our head. They are separated by each other horizontally by a
distance of about 6.5 centimeters and due to the distance, the image formed
on the retina of each eye of the same object is slightly different and this is
known as retinal disparity.
● Convergence: When we see a nearby object our eyes converge inward in
order to bring the fovea of each eye. A group of muscles send messages to
the brain regarding the degree to which eyes are turning inward and these
messages are interpreted as cues to the perception of depth. The degree of
convergence decreases as the object moves farther away from the observer.
● Accommodation : Accommodation refers to a process by which we focus the
image on the retina with the help of ciliary muscle. These muscles change
the thickness of the lens of the eye. If the object gets away (more than 2
meters), the muscle is relaxed. As the object moves nearer, the muscle
contracts and the thickness of the lens increases. The signal about the degree
of contraction of the muscle is sent to the brain, which provides the cue for
distance.
Perceptual Constancies

Perception of the objects is relatively stable in spite of changes in the stimulation

of sensory receptors called perceptual constancy.
The three types of Perceptual Constancies-
● Size Constancy: The tendency for the perceived size of objects to remain
relatively unchanged with changes in their distance from the observer and
the size of the retinal image is called Size Constancy.For example, when you
approach your friend from a distance, your perception of the friend’s size
does not change much despite the fact that the retinal image (image on
retina) becomes larger.
● Shape Constancy: In our perceptions, the shapes of familiar objects remain
unchanged despite changes in the pattern of the retinal image resulting from
the differences in their orientation.For example, a dinner plate looks the
same shape whether the image that it casts on the retina is a circle, or an
ellipse, or roughly a short line (if the plate is viewed from the edge). It is
also called form constancy.
● Brightness Constancy: The tendency to maintain an apparent brightness
constant under different amounts of illumination is termed brightness
Constancy.For example, surface of a paper which appears white in the
sunlight, is still perceived as white in the room light. Similarly, coal that
looks black in the sun also looks black in room light.

Illusions
- They refer to misperceptions which are a consequence of misinterpretation
of information received by our sensory organs.
- They result from an external stimulus situation and generate the same kind
of experience in each individual. That is why illusions are also called
“primitive organizations”.
- Some illusions are universal in nature whereas others are more personal and
culture-specific.
- Some important visual illusions are as follows-
1. Geometric Illusion
- Muller-Lyer Illusion- it is a type of visual illusion in which two lines
of the same length appear to be of different lengths.
 - Vertical-Horizontal Illusion- It is a type of visual illusion in which the
vertical length is perceived to be larger than the horizontal line despite
them being the same length.
2. Apparent Movement Illusion- It is experienced when some motionless
pictures are projected one after the other at an appropriate rate. This
illusion is also referred to as ‘phi-phenomenon’.
Ex- flip book

Socio-Cultural Influence On Perception

● Socio-cultural factors play a crucial role in our perceptions by generating
differential familiarity with and salience of stimuli as well as certain habits
of Perceptual influence among people.
● People differ in their way of identification of objects and interpretation of
depth as per their cultural settings.
● Segall, Campbell, and Herskovits carried out the most extensive study of
illusion susceptibility by comparing samples from remote African villages
and Western urban settings. It was found that African subjects showed
greater susceptibility to horizontal-vertical illusion, whereas Western
subjects showed greater susceptibility to Muller-Lyer illusion
● Sinha and Mishra have carried out several studies on pictorial perception
using a variety of pictures with people from diverse cultural settings, such as
hunters and gatherers living in forests, agriculturists living n villages, and
people employed and living in cities. Their studies indicate that
interpretation of pictures is strongly related to cultural experiences of people.
While people in general can recognise familiar objects in pictures, those less
exposed to pictures have difficulty in the interpretation of actions or events
depicted in them.