CHEMISTRY

Day 4- Review for Qualifying Examination for Engineering and

Architecture
What comes to your mind when
you hear the word CHEMISTRY?
CHEMISTRY
Conversion of Units
Conversion of Units

SI Units - The revised metric system is

called the International System of Units.
(abbreviated as SI)
Conversion of Units

Mass

Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object or

sample. Because gravity varies from location to location, the
weight of an object varies depending on where it is measured.
Conversion of Units

Mass

Sample Problem:
Convert 50 g to oz.

Solution:
Conversion of Units

Mass

Tip:
You can use your calculator
for some unit conversions.
Conversion of Units

Press Shift + 8 on your

calculator
Conversion of Units

Temperature
➔ There are two temperature scales used in chemistry. Their units are degrees
Celsius (°C) and Kelvin (K).
➔ The Celsius scale was originally defined using the freezing point (0°C) and the
boiling point (100°C) of pure water at sea level.
➔ Kelvin is known as the absolute temperature scale, meaning that the lowest
temperature possible is 0 K, a temperature referred to as “absolute zero.” No
degree sign (°) is used to represent a temperature on the Kelvin scale.
➔ The formula for Kelvin is K = °C + 273
Conversion of Units

Temperature

Sample Problem:
Normal human body temperature can range over the course of
the day from about 36°C in the early morning to about 37°C in
the afternoon. Express these two temperatures and the range
that they span using the Kelvin scale.
Conversion of Units

Temperature

Solution:
K = °C + 273

36°C + 273 = 309 K

37°C + 273 = 310 K

The range of 1°C is equal to a range of 1 K because the range in Kelvin will be the same as
the range in degrees Celsius.
Conversion of Units

Temperature

Another formulas for temperature:

Conversion of Units

Temperature
Sample Problem:

A body temperature above 39°C constitutes a high fever. Convert this temperature
to the Fahrenheit scale.

Solution:
Conversion of Units

Density and Volume

➔ The SI-derived unit for density is the kilogram per cubic meter. This unit is too large for
most common uses, however, so grams per cubic centimeter and its equivalent, grams per
milliliter (g/mL), are used to express the densities of most solids and liquids.
➔ Formula for density:

where d = density

m = mass

V = volume
Conversion of Units

Density and Volume

Sample Problem:

Ice cubes float in a glass of water because solid water is less

dense than liquid water. (a) Calculate the density of ice given that,
at 0°C, a cube that is 2.0 cm on each side has a mass of 7.36 g,
and (b) determine the volume occupied by 23 g of ice at 0°C.

Note: Final answer for letter (a) should be g/mL

Conversion of Units

Density and Volume

Solution:
a.

Given:
Conversion of Units

Density and Volume

Solution:
b.
Significant Figures

To determine the number of significant figures in a number use the

following 3 rules:

1. Non-zero digits are always significant

2. Any zeros between two significant digits are significant
3. A final zero or trailing zeros in the decimal portion ONLY are
significant
Example: .500 or .632000 the zeros are significant
.006 or .000968 the zeros are NOT significant
Atoms, Molecules &
Ions
Who first discovered and
coined the term “atom”?
Democritus
In the fifth century b.c., the
Greek philosopher
Democritus proposed that
all matter consists of very
small, indivisible particles,
which he named atomos
(meaning uncuttable or
indivisible).
QUICK REVIEW
Law of definite proportions
-states that different samples of a given N N
compound always contain the same elements in the same
mass ratio. N

Oxygen N N
N
-Oxygen does not exist as isolated atoms under
ordinary conditions, but rather as molecules, each of which
consists of two oxygen atoms. (Br, I, N, Cl, H, F)

Law of multiple proportions

- According to this law, if two elements can Br Br
Br
combine to form more than one compound with each other,
the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass Br
of the other element are in ratios of small whole numbers. Br
Br
Law of Conservation of Mass
- matter can be neither created nor destroyed
Atoms, Molecules & Ions
H 2O H2 + O
2.02g 16.00g

Mass ratio = 16.00g ≈ 8g

2.02 g
= 8:1 C+O CO2
CO
Mass ratio = 16.00g = 1.33g
12g

Mass ratio = 32.00g = 2.67g

12g
EXAMPLE:
When water is decomposed into its constituent elements, it produces 0.125 g hydrogen
for every gram of oxygen. When hydrogen peroxide is decomposed, it produces 0.063 g
hydrogen for every gram of oxygen. Determine the whole number ratio of g H : 1.00 g O in
water to g H : 1.00 g O in hydrogen peroxide to show how these data illustrate the law of
multiple proportions.

Solution:

g H : 1.00 g O in water = 0.125 = 1.98 : 1 ≈ 2 : 1

g H : 1.00 g O in hydrogen peroxide 0.063

Atoms, Molecules & Ions

Who discovered the electron and
proposed the model for the
structure of atom?
J.J. THOMSON
performed a series of
experiments in 1897 designed to
study the nature of electric
discharge in a high-vacuum
cathode-ray tube and interpreted
the deflection of the rays by
electrically charged plates and
magnets as evidence of “bodies
much smaller than atoms”
(electrons)
QUICK REVIEW
-An English physicist, J. J. Thomson, used a cathode ray tube and his knowledge of
electromagnetic theory to determine the ratio of electric charge to the mass of an individual
electron. The number he calculated was 1.76 × 108 C/g, where C stands for coulomb, which is the
derived SI unit of electric charge.

-R.A. Millikan examined the motion of single tiny drops of oil that picked up static charge from
particles in the air. He suspended the charged drops in air by applying an electric field and followed
their motions through a microscope.

-His work proved that the charge on each electron was exactly the same: −1.6022 × 10−19 C. Using
Thomson’s charge-to-mass ratio and the charge from his own experiments, Millikan calculated the
mass of an electron as follows:

Atoms, Molecules & Ions

QUICK REVIEW
X-RAY
-In 1895, the German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen noticed that cathode rays caused glass and
metals to emit yet another type of ray. This highly energetic radiation penetrated matter,
darkened covered photographic plates, and caused a variety of substances to fluoresce
(give off light). These rays were not deflected by a magnet, however, so unlike cathode rays,
they could not contain charged particles.

PROTON AND NUCLEUS

-Thomson proposed, therefore, that an atom could be thought of as a sphere of positively
charged matter in which negatively charged electrons were embedded uniformly, like the
chocolate chips in a scoop of mint chocolate chip ice cream (PLUM PUDDING MODEL).
-nucleus, which is an extremely dense central core within the atom
-protons, positively charged particles in the nucleus
-neutrons, electrically neutral particles having a mass slightly greater than that of protons

Atoms, Molecules & Ions

QUICK REVIEW
-The atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus of each atom of an element. It also
indicates the number of electrons in the atom—because atoms are neutral and contain the same
number of protons and electrons.

-The mass number (A) is the total number of neutrons and protons present in the nucleus of an
atom of an element.

mass number (A) = number of protons (Z) + number of neutrons

- Most elements have two or more ISOTOPES, atoms that have the same atomic number (Z) but
different mass numbers (A).

Atoms, Molecules & Ions

EXAMPLE:
Determine the numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons in each of the following
species: (a) (b) (c) Carbon-14

Solution:
(a) Given: Therefore, number of neutrons is
Atomic Number= 17
Protons= 17 35-17= 18
Mass number = 35
The number of electrons is 17.

Bonus Ques: What is the mass number of an oxygen atom with

nine neutrons in its nucleus? a) 8 b) 9 c) 17 d) 16 e) 18
Atoms, Molecules & Ions
Atoms, Molecules & Ions
Atomic Mass Scale and Ave. Atomic Mass
-One atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as a mass exactly equal to one-twelfth the mass of
one carbon-12 atom.

-For example, experiments have shown that a hydrogen atom (1 H) is only 8.3985 percent as
massive as the carbon-12 atom. Thus, if the mass of one carbon-12 atom is exactly 12 amu,
the atomic mass of hydrogen must be 0.083985 × 12 amu, or 1.0078 amu.

-atomic weight is sometimes used to mean average atomic mass

-For example, the natural abundances of carbon-12 and carbon-13 are 98.93 percent and
1.07 percent, respectively. The atomic mass of carbon-13 has been determined to be
13.003355 amu. Thus, the average atomic mass of natural carbon can be calculated as
follows:

(0.9893)(12.00000 amu) + (0.0107)(13.003355 amu) = 12.01 amu

Atoms, Molecules & Ions

EXAMPLE:

Solution:

(0.99757)(15.9949 amu) + (0.00038)(16.9991 amu) + (0.00205)(17.9992)

= 15.999 amu

≈ 16.00 amu

Atoms, Molecules & Ions

PRACTICE PROBLEMS:

Atoms, Molecules & Ions

IONS and IONIC COMPOUNDS

-The loss of one or more electrons from an atom yields a cation, an ion with a net
positive charge.
-An anion is an ion whose net charge is negative due to an increase in the number of
electrons.

Atoms, Molecules & Ions

IONS and IONIC COMPOUNDS

Polyatomic ions
-Ions that consist of a combination of two or more atoms

-The formulas of ionic compounds indicate the smallest whole number ratio
in which the ions combine to form an electrically-neutral substance.

Empirical formulas
- Formulas that indicate the ratio of combination

Lattice
-highly ordered array of interspersed cations and anions

Atoms, Molecules & Ions

IONS and IONIC COMPOUNDS

Atoms, Molecules & Ions

IONS and IONIC COMPOUNDS

Atoms, Molecules & Ions

IONS and IONIC COMPOUNDS

Atoms, Molecules & Ions

Stoichiometry: Ratios
of Combination
Molecular and Formula Masses
Molecular mass= (no. of atoms of the element)(atomic mass)

EXAMPLE:

molecular mass of H2O = 2(atomic mass of H) + atomic mass of O

= 2(1.008 amu) + 16.00 amu
= 18.02 amu

● Although an ionic compound does not have a molecular mass, we can use its empirical
formula to determine its formula mass (the mass of a “formula unit”), sometimes called the
formula weight.

STOICHIOMETRY
More examples!
Determine the molar and formula mass of the following:

1. NH4 NO3

N= 14.007 amu
H= 1.008 amu
O= 16.00 amu

Molar mass= (14.007)(2) + (1.008)(4) + (16.00)(3)

= 80.046 amu

2. H3C6H5O7

3. Ca3(C6H5O7)2

STOICHIOMETRY
Percent Composition of Compounds

percent by mass of an element= n x atomic mass of element x 100%

Molecular or formula mass of compound

EXAMPLE: Determine the percent by mass of Hydrogen and Oxygen in H2O2

%H = 2 x 1.008 amu of H x 100% = 5.926%

34.02 amu H2O2

%O = 2 x 16.00 amu of O x 100% = 94.06%

34.02 amu H2O2

STOICHIOMETRY
Practice Problems

1. Lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) was the first “mood-stabilizing”

drug approved by the FDA for the treatment of mania and
manic-depressive illness, also known as bipolar disorder.
Calculate the percent composition by mass of lithium
carbonate.

2. Determine the percent composition by mass of the artificial

sweetener aspartame (C14H18N2O5).

3. Determine the simplest molecular formula for a compound that

is 62.04 percent carbon, 10.41 percent hydrogen, and 27.55
percent oxygen by mass.

STOICHIOMETRY
Chemical Equations

SO3 + H2O H2SO4

CaCO3 CaO + CO2

Reactants Products

STOICHIOMETRY
Balancing Chemical Equations
__ Ca(OH)2 + __ H3PO4 __ Ca3(PO4)2 + __ H2O

=Ca=
=H=
=O=
=P=

__ SO3 + __ H2O __ H2SO4

=S=
=O=
=H=
STOICHIOMETRY
Balancing Chemical Equations

1. __C4H10 (g) + __ O2 (g) __ CO2 (g) + __ H2O (l)

2.) __ Ba(OH)2(aq) + __ HClO4(aq) __ Ba(ClO4)2(aq) + __ H2O(l)

3.) __ C4H8O2(aq) + __ O2(g) __ CO2(g) + __ H2O(l)

4.) __ FeCl3 + __ NH4OH __ Fe(OH)3 + __ NH4Cl

STOICHIOMETRY
Mole and Molar Masses

1 mol = 6.022 x 10 23 - Avogrado’s number

C, Zn, Ne - these are called atoms

H2, H2O, C6H6 - are called molecules (which is a
particle that as multiple atoms)

NaCl, MgO- is made up of ions which contains

metal and non metal, thus it is ionic compounds
we use the term "formula units"

STOICHIOMETRY
EXAMPLE:
Convert 5 mol CH4 to (a) molecules of CH4 and (b) atoms of
Hydrogen.

(a) 5 mol CH4 x 6.022 x 1023 molecules = (a) 3.011 X 1024 molecule of CH4
1 mol CH4

(b) 5 mol CH4 x 6.022 x 1023 molecules x 4 atoms of H = 1.2044 x 1025 atoms of H

1 mol CH4 1 molecule of CH4

EXAMPLE:
Calcium is the most abundant metal in the human body. A typical human body contains roughly
30 moles of calcium. Determine (a) the number of Ca atoms in 30.00 moles of calcium and (b)
the number of moles of calcium in a sample containing 1.00 × 1020 Ca atoms.

Solution:

30.00 mol Ca × 6.022 × 1023 Ca atoms = 1.807 × 1025 Ca atoms

1 mol Ca

1.00 × 1020 Ca atoms × 1 mol Ca = 1.66 × 10−4 mol Ca

6.022 × 1023 Ca atoms

STOICHIOMETRY
PRACTICE PROBLEM:

1. Potassium is the second most abundant metal in the human body.

Calculate (a) the number of atoms in 7.31 moles of potassium and
(b) the number of moles of potassium that contains 8.91 × 1025
atoms.

2. Calculate (a) the number of atoms in 1.05 × 10−6 mole of helium and
(b) the number of moles of helium that contains 2.33 × 1021 atoms.

STOICHIOMETRY
EMPIRICAL FORMULA FROM PERCENT
COMPOSITION
Write the empirical formulas for the following molecules: (a) glucose (C6H12O6), a
substance known as blood sugar; (b) adenine (C5H5N5), also known as vitamin
B4; and (c) nitrous oxide (N2O), a gas that is used as an anesthetic (“laughing
gas”) and as an aerosol propellant for whipped cream.

(a) C6H12O6 = CH2O

(b) C5H5N5 = CHN

(c)N2O = N2O

STOICHIOMETRY
PRACTICE PROBLEM
1. Write empirical formulas for the following molecules: (a) caffeine (C8H10N4O2), a stimulant
found in tea and coffee, (b) butane (C4H10), which is used in cigarette lighters, and (c)
glycine (C2H5NO2), an amino acid.

STOICHIOMETRY
COMBUSTION ANALYSIS
EMPIRICAL FORMULA

Combustion of a 5.50-g sample of benzene produces 18.59 g CO2 and 3.81 g H2O.
Determine the empirical formula and the molecular formula of benzene, given that its
molar mass is approximately 78 g/mol.

Solution:

mass of C = 18.59 g CO2 × 1 mol CO2 × 1 mol of C × 12.01 g C = 5.073 g C

44.01 g CO2 1 mol CO2 1 mol C

mass of H = 3.81 g H2O × 1 mol H2O × 2 mol H × 1.008 g H = 0.426 g H

18.02 g H2O 1 mol H2O 1 mol H

STOICHIOMETRY
moles of C = 5.073 g C × 1 mol C = 0.4224 mol C
12.01 g C

moles of H = 0.426 g H × 1 mol H = 0.423 mol H

1.008 g H

C0.4224H0.423 = 0.423 ≈ 1 , which shows that empirical formula is CH

0.4224

We then divide the approximate molar mass 78 g/mol by the empirical formula
mass which is 12.01+1.008 = 13.02 g/mol

Thus, empirical formula is CH and molecular formula is C6H6.

STOICHIOMETRY
PRACTICE PROBLEMS

1. What is the empirical formula of a compound containing C, H, and O if

combustion of 1.23 g of the compound yields 1.8 g CO2 and 0.74 g H2O?

2. Determine the masses of CO2 and H2O produced by the combustion of 0.986
g of a compound with empirical formula C3H6O2.

STOICHIOMETRY
CALCULATIONS WITH BALANCED
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

D D
grams M mole M molecules
molecular Avogadro’s
atoms
mass number electrons

STOICHIOMETRY
CALCULATIONS WITH BALANCED
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

How many moles of O2 are needed to react with 8 moles of NH3?

4NH3 + 3 O2 2 N2 + 6 H2O

8 moles of NH3 x 3 moles of O2 = 6 moles of O2

4 moles of NH3
CALCULATIONS WITH BALANCED
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Urea [(NH2)2CO] is a by-product of protein metabolism. This waste product is formed in the
liver and then filtered from the blood and excreted in the urine by the kidneys. Urea can be
synthesized in the laboratory by the combination of ammonia and carbon dioxide according to
the equation

2NH3(g) CO2(g) (NH2)2 CO(aq) H2O(l)

(a) Calculate the amount of urea that will be produced by the complete reaction of 5.25 moles
of ammonia. (b) Determine the stoichiometric amount of carbon dioxide required to react with
5.25 moles of ammonia.

STOICHIOMETRY
Solution:

Conversion Factors:

2 mol NH3 1 mol (NH2)2CO

1 mol (NH2)2CO 2 mol NH3

(a) moles (NH2)2CO produced = 5.25 mol NH3 × 1 mol (NH2)2CO = 2.63 mol (NH2)2CO
2 mol NH3

(b) moles CO2 required = 5.25 mol NH3 × 1 mol CO2 = 2.63 mol CO2
2 mol NH3

STOICHIOMETRY
PRACTICE PROBLEM
1. Nitrogen and hydrogen react to form ammonia according to the following balanced
equation: N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g). Calculate the number of moles of hydrogen required
to react with 0.0880 mole of nitrogen, and the number of moles of ammonia that will
form.

STOICHIOMETRY
MASS OF REACTANTS AND PRODUCTS
Nitrous oxide (N2O), also known as “laughing gas,” is commonly used as an anesthetic in dentistry.
It is manufactured by heating ammonium nitrate. The balanced equation is

NH4NO3(s) N2O(g) + 2H2O(g)

(a) Calculate the mass of ammonium nitrate that must be heated in order to produce 10.0 g of
nitrous oxide. (b) Determine the corresponding mass of water produced in the reaction

STOICHIOMETRY
1 mol NH4NO3 and 2 mol H2O
1 mol N2O 1 mol N2O

10.0 g N2O × 1 mol N2O = 0.227 mol N2O

44.02 g N2O

0.227 mol N2O × 1 mol NH4NO3 = 0.227 mol NH4NO3

1 mol N2O

0.227 mol NH4NO3 × 80.05 g NH4NO3 = 18.2 g NH4NO3

1 mol NH4NO3

Thus, 18.2 g of ammonium nitrate must be heated in order to produce 10.0 g of

nitrous oxide.
STOICHIOMETRY
(b) Starting with the number of moles of nitrous oxide determined in the first step of part (a),

0.227 mol N2O × 2 mol H2O = 0.454 mol H2O

1 mol N2O

0.454 mol H2O × 18.02 g H2O = 8.18 g H2O

1 mol H2O

Therefore, 8.18 g of water will also be produced in the reaction.

TRY TO SOLVE THIS!

What mass of glucose must be metabolized in order to produce 175 g of water?

STOICHIOMETRY
STEPS on solving balanced
chemical equations:

1. Balance the given equation (verify).

2. Determine ng conversion factor from the balanced

equation.

3. Solve for the required item.

STOICHIOMETRY
LIMITING REACTANTS
The reactant used up first in a reaction is called the limiting reactant, because the
amount of this reactant limits the amount of product that can form.

When all the limiting reactant has been consumed, no more product can be formed.
Excess reactants are those present in quantities greater than necessary to react with the
quantity of the limiting reactant.

To know about the ratio of

moles, you can visit this link!

https://youtu.be/3zmeVamEsWI STOICHIOMETRY
EXAMPLE:

CO(g) + 2H2(g) CH3OH(l)

moles of H2 = 5 mol CO × 2 mol H2 = 10 mol H2

1 mol CO

moles of CO = 8 mol H2 × 1 mol CO = 4 mol CO

2 mol H2

Thus, there will be 4 moles of CO consumed and 1 mole (5 mol − 4 mol) left
over.

STOICHIOMETRY
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
● Combination reaction (synthesis reaction)
NH3(g) + HCl(g) NH4Cl(s)
● Decomposition Reaction

CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

● Single-replacement reaction

Mg (s) + Cu(NO3)2(aq) Mg(NO3)2(g) + Cu (s)

● Double-replacement reaction

AgNO3 + NaCl AgCl + NaNO3

● Combustion

CH2O(l) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(l)

STOICHIOMETRY
STOICHIOMETRY
ACID-BASE REACTIONS

HF + H2O F + H 3O

NH3 + H2O NH4 + OH

STOICHIOMETRY
STOICHIOMETRY
DILUTION
Dilution is the process of preparing a less concentrated solution from a more
concentrated one.

moles of solute before dilution = moles of solute after dilution

moles of solute = moles of solute × liters of solution

liters of solution

Mb × mLb = Ma × mLa

STOICHIOMETRY
EXAMPLE:

What volume of 12.0 M HCl, a common laboratory stock solution, must be used
to prepare 250.0 mL of 0.125 M HCl?

Mb = 12.0 M, Ma = 0.125 M, mLa = 250.0 mL

12.0 M × mLc = 0.125 M × 250.0 mL

mLc = 0.125 M × 250.0 mL = 2.60 mL

12.0 M

STOICHIOMETRY
ATOMIC ORBITALS
Atomic Orbitals are space around the nucleus
where in there is a high probability of finding H
electrons.

s, p, d, f shapes of orbitals

QUANTUM NUMBERS
In quantum mechanics, three quantum numbers are required to describe the distribution
of electron density in an atom.

To know more about quantum numbers and atomic orbitals, you can watch a video here!
https://youtu.be/Aoi4j8es4gQ
STOICHIOMETRY
SOLUTIONS
-A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances

-Usually, the substance present in the largest amount is referred to as the solvent and any
substance present in a smaller amount is called the solute.
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS

A saturated solution is one that contains the maximum amount of a solute that will
dissolve in a solvent at a specific temperature

An unsaturated solution is one that contains less solute than it has the capacity to
dissolve.

A supersaturated solution, on the other hand, contains more dissolved solute than
is present in a saturated solution
% by mass = mass of solute x 100
mass of solvent

% by mass = volume of solute x 100

volume of solvent
EXAMPLE

A saline solution with a mass of 355 g has 36.5 g of NaCl dissolved in

it. What is the mass/mass percent concentration of the solution?

% by mass = 36.5g × 100% = 10.3%

355g
PRACTICE PROBLEM

A dextrose (also called D-glucose, C6H12O6) solution with a mass of

2.00 × 102 g has 15.8 g of dextrose dissolved in it. What is the
mass/mass percent concentration of the solution?

ANSWER: 7.90%
MOLARITY (M)
molarity = moles of solute ; L = mol
liters solution M

MOLALITY (m)
molality = moles of solute
kilograms solvent

MOLE FRACTION (X)

molality = moles of solute
total moles of solution

STOICHIOMETRY
EXAMPLE:
For an aqueous solution of glucose (C6H12O6), determine (a) the molarity of 2.00 L of a
solution that contains 50.0 g of glucose, (b) the volume of this solution that would contain
0.250 mol of glucose, and (c) the number of moles of glucose in 0.500 L of this solution

moles of glucose = 50.0 g = 0.277 mol

180.2 g/mol

(a) molarity = 0.227 mol C6H12O6 = 0.139 M (b) volume = 0.250 mol C6H12O6 = 1.80 L

2.00 L solution 0.139 M

(c) moles of C6H12O6 in 0.500 L = 0.500 L × 0.139 M = 0.0695 mol

STOICHIOMETRY
EXAMPLE
A solution is prepared by dissolving 4.00 g NaOH in 100.00g of H2O. The
volume of resulting solution is 102.00 ml. Calculate the following: (a) mole
fraction of NaOH, (b) molarity of the solution, (c) molality of the solution, (d)
mass % of NaOH, (e) density of the solution.

First is to get the molar mass of each compound,

NaOH = (22.99) + (16.00) + (1.01) = 40.00 g of NaOH

H2O= (1.01)(2) + (16.00) = 18.02 g of H2O

STOICHIOMETRY
Next, is to get the n of each compound,

n of NaOH = 4.0g x 1 mol n of H2O = 100.0g x 1 mol

40.0g 18.02g

= 0.1 mol of NaOH = 5.549 mol of H2O

(a) Solve for the mole fraction (X) of NaOH,

X NaOH = mole of NaOH

total moles of solution

= 0.1 mol of NaOH X of NaOH = 0.0177

0.1 + 5.549
STOICHIOMETRY
(b) molarity of the solution (M)

M = moles of NaOH
liters solution

= 0.1 mol of NaOH M = 0.9804 mol/L

0.102 L

(c) molality of the solution (m)

m = moles of NaOH m = 0.1 mol of NaOH
kg of H2O 0.1 kg H2O

m = 1 mol/ kg
(d) mass % of NaOH

mass % of NaOH = mass of NaOH x 100%

total mass of solution

= 4.00 g x 100%
4.00 g + 100.00 g

mass % of NaOH = 3.846 %

(e) density (ρ) of sol’n

ρ = mass = 100.0g + 4.0g ρ = 1.02 g/ml
volume 102 ml
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. For an aqueous solution of sucrose (C12H22O11), determine (a) the molarity of
5.00 L of a solution that contains 235 g of sucrose, (b) the volume of this
solution that would contain 1.26 mol of sucrose, and (c) the number of moles
of sucrose in 1.89 L of this solution.

2. A sulfuric acid solution (H2SO4 + H2O) contains 572.0g of H2SO4 per liter
solution and has a density of 1.33 g/ml. Find the (a) molarity of the solution,
(b) molality of the solution, (c) mass % of the solution, (d) mole fraction of
H2SO4.

STOICHIOMETRY
Enthalpy
Enthalpy

Enthalpy (H) is used to quantify the

heat flow into or out of a system in a
process that occurs at constant
pressure.
Enthalpy

Sample Problem:
Calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction.
Enthalpy
Solution:
1st step - Balance the reaction

C=2 C=2
H = 5+1 = 6 H=6
O = 1+6 = 7 O = 4+3 = 7
Enthalpy
Solution:
2nd step - Solve using the formula

-278 kJ/mol for ethanol

-393 kJ/mol for carbon dioxide

-286 kJ/mol for water

Calorimetry
Calorimetry

Calorimetry is the measurement of heat

changes, by defining two important
terms: specific heat and heat capacity.
Calorimetry

The specific heat (s) of a substance is the amount of

heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of the
substance by 1°C.
The heat capacity (C) is the amount of heat required
to raise the temperature of an object by 1°C.
Calorimetry

Sample Problem:
How much energy is required to heat 70 grams of
water from 26°C to 48°C. The specific heat
capacity of water is 4.184 J/g°C.
Calorimetry

Solution:
Chemical Bonding I
Chemical Bonding I

Lewis Dot Diagram - is a representation of the

valence electrons of an atom that uses dots
around the symbol of the element. The number
of dots equals the number of valence electrons
in the atom.
Chemical Bonding I

Steps for drawing Lewis Dot Diagram:

1. Count all the valence electrons.
2. Determine the central atom.
3. Draw single bond to the central atom.
4. Put all remaining all valence electrons on atoms as
lone pairs.
5. Turn lone pairs into double or triple bonds to give
every atom an octet.
Chemical Bonding I

Sample Problems:
Draw the Lewis Dot Diagram of the following.
Chemical Bonding I

Ionic Bonding - it is the complete transfer of valence electron(s)

between atoms. It is a type of chemical bond that generates two
oppositely charged ions.

Covalent Bonding - it is the sharing of electrons between atoms. This

type of bonding occurs between two atoms of the same element or
of elements close to each other in the periodic table.
Chemical Bonding I

Sample Problems:
What type of bonds are contained in the following
substances? Is it ionic, covalent (nonpolar and polar)
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
Intermolecular forces are the forces of attraction or repulsion which act between
neighboring particles (atoms, molecules, or ions ). These forces are weak compared
to the intramolecular forces, such as the covalent or ionic bonds between atoms in a
molecule.

Types of Attractive Intermolecular Forces

1. Ion-ion interactions - involves ions with oppositce charges.

2. Ion-dipole forces: electrostatic interaction involving a partially charged dipole of one molecule
and a fully charged ion.

3. Dipole-dipole forces: electrostatic interactions of permanent dipoles in molecules; includes

hydrogen bonding.

4. Instantaneous dipole-induced dipole forces or London dispersion forces: forces caused by

correlated movements of the electrons in interacting molecules, which are the weakest of
intermolecular forces and are categorized as van der Waals forces.
STOICHIOMETRY
Summary:

Ion-Ion – strongest; involves formal charges

Ion-dipole- formal and partial charges

Dipole-dipole- partial charges

Van der waals- weakest; induced dipoles

STOICHIOMETRY
ICE BREAKER!!!
Gas Laws
Gas Laws

Boyle’s Law states that the absolute pressure and

volume of a given mass of confined gas are
inversely proportional, provided the temperature
remains unchanged within a closed system.
Gas Laws

Sample Problem:
The air inside a flexible 4.5L container has a
pressure of 115 kPa. What should be the volume of
the container be increased to in order to decrease
the pressure to 625 torr.
Note: 101.3 kPa = 760 torr
Gas Laws

Sample Problem:
The volume of the gas at 19.5 psi decreases from
1.8 L to 750 mL. What is the new pressure of gas
in atm?
Note: 1 L = 1000 mL
14.7 psi = 1 atm
Gas Laws

Charles’ and Gay-Lussac’s Law - it describes the

relationship between the volume and temperature of
a gas.
Gas Laws

Sample Problem:
A 4.5 L flexible container holds a gas at 350 K. What
will be the new volume if the temperature is
increased to 500 K.
Gas Laws

Sample Problem:
The tire pressure of a car is 30 psi at 25°C. What will
be the new tire pressure when the temperature of
tires rises to 40°C while driving on the road.
Gas Laws

Avogadro’s Law - it states that under the same

pressure and temperature conditions, equal
volumes of all gases contain the same number of
molecules.
Gas Laws

Sample Problem:
If 3.6 moles of gas occupies a volume of 75 L at a
certain temperature, what volume will 4.9 moles of
gas occupy?
Gas Laws

Sample Problem:
A 200 mL balloon contains 0.30 moles of gas. If 0.40
moles of gas was added to it, what will be the new
volume of the balloon?
Gas Laws

Combined Gas Law - it is the combination of the

three gas laws: Boyle's Law, Charles' Law, and Gay-
Lussac's Law. It states that the ratio of the product
of pressure and volume and the absolute
temperature of a gas is equal to a constant.
Gas Laws
Sample Problem:
A sample of gas was placed in a flexible 8.0 L container at
250 K at a pressure of 1.5 atm. The container was
compressed to a volume of 2.0 L and heat was added until
the temperature reached 500 K. What is the pressure inside
of the container?
Gas Laws

Ideal Gas Law - it states that both pressure and

volume are directly proportional to temperature.

Where R is constant = 0.082057 atm-L/mol⋅K

Gas Laws
Sample Problem:
How many grams of carbon dioxide should be placed
in a 200 mL container at -20°C to produce a pressure
of 93 kPa.
Note: 101.3 kPa = 1 atm
1000 mL = 1 L
Work and Heat
Work and Heat

Work is the energy required to move an object against

a force.
Heat is the amount of energy that is transferred from
one system to its surroundings because of a
temperature difference.
Work and Heat

Energy is defined as the capacity to do work or

transfer heat. When a system releases or absorbs
heat, its internal energy changes.

where ΔU = change in internal energy

q = heat (released or absorbed by the system)
w = work (done on/by the system
Work and Heat

Sign convention for heat and work

When heat is absorbed by the system , q is positive.
When heat is released by the system, q is negative.
When work is done on the system , w is positive.
When work is done by the system, w is negative.
Work and Heat

Sample Problem:
Calculate the overall change in internal energy, ΔU,
(in joules) for a system that absorbs 200 J of heat
and does 150 J of work on its surroundings.
Work and Heat

Solution: For the given:

ΔU = q + w ● Heat = 200 J (absorb)
● Work = 150 J (on the system)

ΔU = q + w
ΔU = 200 J + (-150 J)
ΔU = 50 J
Work and Heat

Sample Problem:
Calculate the overall change in internal energy for a
system that releases 60 J in heat in a process in
which no work is done.
Work and Heat

Solution: For the given:

ΔU = q + w ● Heat = -60 J (release)
● Work = 0 (no work is done)

ΔU = q + w
ΔU = -60 J + 0
ΔU = -60 J
You didn’t come this far,
to only come this far.
 END
THANK YOU!