AL Economics Notes (Ver 3) by A Karim Lakhani
AL Economics Notes (Ver 3) by A Karim Lakhani
AL Economics Notes (Ver 3) by A Karim Lakhani
pk)
Microeconomics Notes
Central Problem of Economics
Central Problem of Economics - SCARCITY
Definition: Limited resources available are unable to satisfy the unlimited human wants
Resources - Land, Labour, Capital, Entrepreneurship.
Unlimited wants - Desire for ever higher levels of consumption.
o When old wants are satisfied, new wants are created.
A
1. What and how much to produce
2. How to produce
3. For whom to produce
K
Productive Efficiency: Absence of waste in the production process
H
L A
PPC: All points on the PPC are productive efficient. Points inside the PPC are inefficient,
representing either unemployment or underemployment.
LRAC: All points on the LRAC curve are productive efficient.
I M
Allocative Efficiency: Maximum welfare for society
R
PPC: Only one point is allocatively efficient.
Also achieved when P = MC or SMB = SMC.
K A
Allocative inefficiency results in deadweight loss, since society values additional/previous units of a
good more/less than it costs to produce them. (standard explanation for deadweight loss; try to
.
refer to areas for benefit, cost and deadweight loss in graph)
A
The Production Possibility Curve (PPC) shows all the different maximum attainable combinations of goods
or services that can be produced in an economy, when all the available resources are used fully and
efficiently, at a given state of technology.
Scarcity: Points outside the PPC such as U currently cannot be attained, even if desired by society.
o Even if growth occurs so such points are now inside PPC, new wants U1 will be created
Choice: Society must choose a single point within the PPC to produce at, e.g. between A, B, C.
Opportunity cost: Downward slope of the PPC.
Law of Increasing Opportunity Cost: Concave Good Y
shape of the PPC. As more of one good is
● U1
produced, more and more of the other good ● ● U
must be sacrificed. A
o Due to resources not being equally suited
for the production of all goods ●
Economic/Potential growth: Outward shift of C B
●
PPC boundary.
Actual growth: Outward shift of point of
production inside PPC. Good X
1
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
When a question asks for how a market has changed, it’s asking for how/how much demand and supply
have changed and their resulting effect on equilibrium price and quantity. Define all terms in terms of these
four basic concepts, e.g. Revenue/Expenditure is Price x Quantity, Profit is Revenue - Cost.
Make sure to cover all four aspects, and include elasticity concepts to boost your explanations!
I
Determinants of demand
Determinants of Supply
A
. K Elasticity
[ Price elasticity of demand/supply measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded/supplied of a
2
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
Effect on Tax /
Subsidy Incidence
consumption
N I
Producers pay greater share of taxes, but Consumers pay greater share of taxes,
also receive higher share of subsidies. but also receive higher share of subsidies.
H
Positively Income Inelastic Negative Income
K
(PED > 1) (0 < PED < 1) Elasticity (PED < 0)
A
Normal good
Nature of good Inferior good
L
Luxury Necessity
People keep wanting more of People are quickly satisfied
Rate of
that good even when they when they consume more Unknown
IM
satisfaction
consume more of it of the good (e.g. food)
Increase production of luxury Increase production
R
Application
goods during boom - Do nothing - of lower-grade goods
(Output)
A
(NOT raise prices!) during recession
. K
Positively Cross Elastic
(CED > 1)
Positively Cross Inelastic
(0 < CED < 1)
Negative Cross Elasticity
Characteristics
Application
(Response to
A Goods are substitutes.
Magnitude of CED depends on how close they are.
Joint promotions
2. Differentiate product
other firms)
Ceteris paribus: Most concepts assume ceteris paribus condition. In reality, this rarely holds true as
several factors may be changing simultaneously.
Imperfect competition: Again, most concepts assume perfect competition. In reality, perfect
competition rarely exists, possibly due to imperfect information or barriers to entry and exit.
Time horizon: Concepts may only hold true in the short term. In the long run, prices may fall and
demand for a good may get more price elastic due to more competitors entering the market, or a
trend might die out for example.
3
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
Price Controls
Price Floor
Aims
Achieve equity by protecting the welfare of certain groups (e.g. workers)
Create a consistent surplus so stocks will be accumulated (e.g. to prepare for future shortages)
Problems
Allocatively inefficient (deadweight loss of ABC, same as price ceiling on next page)
Distorts price signals, creating illusion of a lucrative market
o Producers become complacent
o May attract new producers, creating excessive surpluses
N I
Stock storage = Waste of money
A K
The labour market is initially at equilibrium with a wage of P and a quantity of Q jobs available.
L
The number of job seekers increase to Q1 but the quantity of workers demanded by firms drops to
Q2, resulting in a surplus of (Q1 – Q2).
(Q – Q2) jobs are lost.
I M
Only a quantity Q2 of workers enjoy the higher wages.
R
Wage
SS
P1
K A A
A . P
C
B
DD
Quantity of
Q2 Q Q1 workers
4
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
Price Ceiling
Aims
Achieve equity by keeping prices of a good affordable to the majority
Stabilise prices (e.g. during war)
Prevent suppliers from exploiting the market by raising prices
Problems
Allocatively inefficient (deadweight loss of ABC, same as price floor)
Distorts price signals, making them no longer a way to allocate scarce resources
Emergence of the black market
K H
A black market may be created, where goods bought at the controlled price of P1 are sold at a
A
Price
SS
L
IM
P2 A
P B
P1
AR C
DD
. K Quantity
A
Q2 Q Q1 of rentals
5
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
I
consuming a good.
(Complete market failure)
N
he can get for free (free-
rider problem)
Public Goods
Non-rivalrous: Benefits
enjoyed from a good are not
depleted by additional users.
o MC = 0, so P = MC = 0, i.e. L A
I M
good must be provided for
free.
R
Externalities are costs or Tax Pros
benefits from production or The government can impose a Still allows market to operate
K A
consumption experienced by
society, but not by producers
or consumers themselves.
tax equal to the EMC, so the
externality is internalised.
Ensures firms/consumers bear the
full cost of their actions
.
Cost/Benefit Provides incentive for firms to find
SMC = PMC
ways to reduce EMC
A
+ tax
Explaining negative Generates tax revenue
externalities: [vice versa for SS = PMC
positive] Cons
(Partial market failure)
6
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
I
results in a deadweight loss determine size of subsidies
Qty
of area ABC. Q QSE May breed inefficiency as firms lack
N
Cost/Benefit incentive to find lowest cost of
A
SMC = PMC production
B
+ EMC Increases burden on taxpayers
H
A SS = PMC Marketable Permits Pros
(Partial market failure)
K market for it
Externalities
A
DD = PMB The government estimates the Provides incentive for firms to find
= SMB socially efficient output, then ways to reduce EMC
QSE Q Qty of (good)
consumed / L
decides on the number of
marketable permits to issue. Cons
M
Each permit allows firms to Difficult to measure EMC in
I
produced
produce a certain amount of determining the number of permits
NOTE: Demerit and merit good negative externalities, and firms to be released
R
need not necessarily have can buy and sell the permits with May hence also be difficult to enforce
negative and positive
A
prices determined by market the limit as specified by permits
externalities, only that the forces. Difficult to withdraw permits once
K
government deems them to be they are owned by firms
.
so and will hence intervene!
(Possible link to government Regulation / Ban Pros
A
failure) Regulation: Impose legislation Easy to understand and enforce
to regulate behaviour that have Can be implemented quickly
EMC/EMB (e.g. restricting
production) Cons
Total ban: Only beneficial if the Do not allow market to operate
welfare loss from it (area Legal restrictions are blunt weapons
between SMB and SMC) is less – firms may adhere to the letter but
than the deadweight loss under not the spirit of the law. They have
the free market (area ABC). no incentive to lower EMC beyond
the legal requirement.
High investigative and legal costs
required for enforcement and
prosecution
Consumers may not know, or Education, campaigns or Difficult and takes time to change
Imperfect Information
(Partial market failure)
7
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
I
Revenue/Cost (e.g. through deregulation) tariff on consumers to make up for
4. Setting price at P=MC, so their losses:
N
MC
AC allocative efficiency is Fixed minimum charge to cover
A
A achieved and supernormal firm’s fixed costs
P
Imperfect Competition
(Partial market failure)
H
AR 5. Setting price at P=AC, so only quantity
C
normal profits are earned BUT fixed cost may deter
Q QE
MR
Output
A K
6. Imposing a lump-sum tax
Adds to firm’s fixed costs,
so AC rises
potential users from using the
service.
M
Is a natural monopoly, where Firm loses profits to BUT equity achieved, as firm’s
the market size allows for
only one firm to operate at
the MES; or
R I government as tax revenue
7. Imposing a specific tax
Adds to firm’s variable cost
profits are reduced.
A
Is able to reap substantial o Both MC and AC rise
economies of scale or achieve Price increases, output
dynamic efficiency, and hence
.
perform better than a
perfectly competitive firm. K decreases
Tax burden borne by both
A
firm and consumers
On the whole, the role of the government is to achieve all six economic goals, namely:
Micro: Efficiency and Equity, by correcting market failure (as above)
Macro: Growth, Full employment, Low inflation and a Healthy BOP (discussed in next chapter)
Hence, when “government” is mentioned in micro questions, you should immediately think of the types of
market failures above.
However, government failure (applicable to all solution above!) may actually worsen allocative efficiency
instead, due to:
Politicians motivated by self interests instead of society’s interests
Electoral pressures overshadow societal welfare, e.g. unpopular taxes are avoided
Imperfect information: Government may not know the full costs/benefits of policies, the exact
monetary value of externalities, or level of demand for a public good
Costs of administration and enforcement might outweigh the social benefits from policies
Time lags due to bureaucracy and inefficiency may cause policies to be ineffective or too late
Overdependence on government intervention, resulting in a vicious cycle of intervention
8
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
Cost Theory
Internal Economies of Scale [ Falling unit costs of production when a firm increases output. ]
Financial Economies:
A large firm has higher sales volume and more assets to offer as collateral, and is hence deemed to
be more credit-worthy compared to a small firm, so banks will be more willing to offer loans
Lower interest rates when borrowing large amounts
Large firms can also raise interest-free funds by issuing shares to the public
Marketing Economies:
Bulk purchase of inputs means lower prices and higher quality
N I
Bulk distribution of products through large modes of transport means lower per unit delivery cost
High output also means lower per unit advertising costs
Administrative Economies:
H A
K
Lower per unit admin costs, as admin costs will not rise much with output
A
Decentralised decision making increases efficiency, and avoids distortions and delays otherwise
present in information transfer
L
Large firms able to offer higher pay to keep the best staff
Risk-bearing Economies:
I M
Able to predict demand more accurately due to greater market share
R
Diversification to reduce risk
Technical Economies:
K A
Specialisation through division of labour
.
Lower per unit fixed costs of machinery
More resources available for R&D
A
External Economies of Scale [ Falling unit costs of production when whole industry grows. ]
Economies of Concentration: When firms carrying out similar activities are concentrated in an area
Training schools may be set up to meet the industry’s growing demand for labour, providing a
ready pool of skilled workers
Better infrastructure may also be set up to meet the industry’s needs, lowering operating costs
I
Economies of nformation: Firms can share cost of R&D
Internal Diseconomies of Scale [ Rising unit costs of production when a firm increases output. ]
Management Difficulties
Difficult to coordinate between various departments due to communication breakdowns, resulting
in inefficiency
Long chains of authority may lead to time lags in decision implementation
Extensive red tape results in large firms responding more slowly to changes in market conditions
9
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
Strained Relationships
Difficult to ensure welfare of all workers, especially those at the lower end of the hierarchy,
resulting in low morale and loyalty and an overall fall in productivity.
External Diseconomies of Scale [ Rising unit costs of production when whole industry grows. ]
N I
Concentration and expansion of firms may result in congestion, overcrowding and pollution.
L
Mergers may also result in rationalisation, through which productive efficiency is increased but at
M
the cost of retrenchment.
1. Niche Market:
R I
Revenue Factors Cost Factors
1. Limited economies of scale due to low
A
Specialised products that will lose their appeal if
K
fixed costs involved
Small Firms
A .
2. Subcontracting for large firms, providing them
with infrastructural support
3. Products where variety is preferred
1. High pricing power due to large market share 1. Presence of substantial economies of
Demand curve more price inelastic scale, from high start-up costs and capital
Able to employ strategies like predatory intensive production
Large Firms
10
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
Market Structures
* Defining characteristic
Perfect Monopolistic
Oligopoly Monopoly
Competition Competition
Many buyers Many firms with A few dominant firms Only one producer
and sellers insignificant market share *Mutual
Perfect each. interdependence:
information Prevents collusion Each firm’s decisions
Number of
Independence of firms: will also affect rival
Firms firms, hence rival
Firms’ decisions will
Characteristics
I
market strategy.
Homogenous, *Product differentiation No specific type – Unique, no close
N
perfect May be real: e.g. can be homogenous substitutes
Type of
substitutes with Personalised service; or differentiated.
A
Product no variety. Or imaginary: e.g.
H
Branding
Barriers to None None High *High
K
Entry
Allocative
(P = MC)
Yes
No – Only L A
No. (But not as bad as
monopoly, due to more
price-elastic DD curve)
Not much, since
No
Yes – To gain a
No
Yes.
M
normal profits supernormal profits competitive edge,
run.
R I
earned in long earned in short run from
innovation will not be
sustained anyway due to
even if only
temporary.
Evaluation:
May lack incentive
to innovate due to
A
Dynamic freedom of entry for new lack of competitive
(Investing firms. pressures
K
supernormal (X-inefficiency)
profits in R&D) Evaluation: Small-scale
.
No guarantee that
innovation will still occur R&D will produce
A
to differentiate products, results
since rivals may not copy
Efficiencies
11
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
Oligopoly: Models
1. Kinked Demand Curve Theory Revenue/Cost
No collusion
MC
Homogenous product
Rival firms will match price decreases but
P
not price increases
I
shifts in MC within the discontinuous
B
region AB
Change in output but not price for
moderate shifts in demand
A N MR
Output
H
Criticisms: Q
Does not explain how eqm price/output were obtained in the first place
K
Firms may match price increases if there is a rise in costs or demand across entire industry
A
L
2. Non-price competition
Product Development and Innovation: Firms may try to maintain profits through developing new
products that will give a competitive edge (even if only temporary)
I M
Marketing, Advertising and Promotions: To give consumers a perception of product differentiation
R
3. Price Wars
K A
Usually a last resort, as they are costly to wage and hence unsustainable. However, predatory pricing may
be used to eliminate new competitors or gain market share.
5. Collusion
A .
4. Cooperation – E.g. joint ventures, when R&D costs are high but the pace of technical changes is rapid
6. Contestable Market: Government regulation to make market more like monopolistic competition
No barriers to entry/exit – Creates threat of potential entrants making a hit-and-run, by entering
the market for a short while for quick supernormal profits
o All firms subject to same government regulations and control regardless of size
o Regulation to prevent predatory pricing by incumbent firms to deter entrants
Hence firms will behave as if under strong competition and be unable to set prices above AC
without attracting new entrants, thus earning only normal profits in the long run.
12
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
Price Discrimination
[ Price discrimination occurs when a firm charges different prices for the same product when they are not
a result of cost differences. (NOT price differentiation: Price difference due to differences in cost) ]
When asked if something is a case of price discrimination, evaluate how much it satisfies the conditions for
price discrimination, as below:
Conditions:
1. Some degree of monopoly power
2. Segregation of market into separate and identifiable groups, with no seepage between groups (i.e.
I
consumers cannot buy in the lower-priced market and sell in the higher-priced one)
N
3. Different price elasticities of demand among groups
4. Product is homogenous, with all units giving equal benefits to consumers and having equal costs to
Types:
the producer (as implied in the definition)
H A
A K
1. First Degree Price Discrimination: Each unit sold at the maximum price buyers are willing to pay.
DD = AR curve also becomes MR curve since additional revenue from each unit sold is equal to the
L
full price consumers are willing to pay, hence firm earns profits of area under DD curve.
2. Second Degree (Block pricing): Charging higher prices for initial units and lower prices thereafter, to sell
off surplus capacity.
I M
R
3. Third Degree: Charging different prices in different markets.
Benefits:
K
Extra profits for firmA
P=MC
.
Allocative efficiency is achieved in 1st degree, since profit-maximising output is increased to where
A
Possibility of supply even when AC lies above AR, due to extra profit generated to cover costs
o 3rd degree also makes it possible to supply a more price elastic market, so consumers who
are less willing to buy the good can buy it at a lower price
Can result in positive externalities if merit goods involved (e.g. medical services)
Disadvantages:
Loss of consumer welfare, as consumer surplus is lost to firm as profits
o Complete reduction of consumer surplus in 1st degree
o Hence, not equitable.
13
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
Alternative Theories
The Traditional Theory of firms assumes that firms will always aim to maximise profits, producing where
MC=MR. In reality, this is not the case, due to:
Imperfect information, resulting in an inability to maximise profits; or
Firms having other aims besides profit maximisation.
1. Lack of Information towards MC: Firms usually only consider explicit costs since they are easier to
compute, but economic cost consists of both explicit and implicit costs => True MC unknown.
2. Lack of Information towards MR: Difficult to determine demand curves and hence MR
be inaccurate or become outdated very quickly.
N I
Even if firms conduct market research to determine the price elasticity of demand, such data may
Not ceteris paribus: Demand curve does not remain static, and may change due to other
A
o
factors affecting demand (i.e. PETRI)
K H
3. Divorce of Ownership and Control: Owners want to maximise profits but managers may have other
A
Maximising their own self-interests, in terms of one’s salary and fringe benefits
L
Increasing the number of subordinates under one’s control
The power to dictate how company funds are used
Since these often depend on sales revenue or size of the company, managers may aim for revenue
I M
maximisation or growth maximisation instead (see below)
4. Revenue Maximisation: Firms themselves may choose to maximise sales revenue instead by producing
institutions.
AR
up to the point where MR = 0, in order to boost the firm’s reputation among consumers and financial
K
5. Growth Maximisation: Firms may want to maximise growth to gain market share and hence produce at
.
AR = AC, the maximum possible output that will still not incur economic losses.
A
BUT firms still need to satisfy the demands of their shareholders (owners), i.e. be profit satisficing,
and may hence impose a minimum profit constraint.
Evaluation: Revenue and growth maximisation may just be short-term goals, and serve as a means
to the end of profit maximisation in the long run.
6. Organisational Slack (X-inefficiency): Occurs when the firm uses more input than in necessary for a
certain output, hence making AC and MC higher than necessary. May occur due to:
Lack of competitive pressures
Imperfect knowledge of the lowest costs or wages needed
Unwillingness to take the risk of investments
Trade unions’ demands for higher wages
7. Other Goals: Consumer/Worker cooperatives, Corporate Social Responsibility (i.e. charity work),
environmental beliefs etc.
Behavioural Theories: Firm will aim to satisfice the minimum demands of the various interest
groups it deals with, e.g. the government, shareholders, workers, consumers and environmentalists
o Firm will try to reach a compromise with all groups, but hence be unable to maximise anything
Evaluation: Large firms listed on stock exchanges and which are vulnerable to takeovers often still
focus on profit maximisation as one of their top priorities.
14
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
Macroeconomics Notes
Macroeconomic Goals
Economic Growth
Economic growth indicates an increase in both a
country’s output capacity and real output, so
more goods and services are available for Growth involving restructuring may
cause structural unemployment.
I
consumption, which increases the standard of
living of residents, creates jobs and increases tax
N
revenue. Potential growth also helps to prevent Growth reduces Full Employment
cyclical
demand-pull inflation. Low unemployment means human capital
A
unemployment;
Shown by outward shift in boundary and point of high employment is maximised, fuelling growth. It also
H
production in PPC, or an increase in NI due to ensures the provides greater tax revenue and social
AD↑ or AS↑. economy is
stability.
K
producing near
its full potential.
A
Potential growth
L
(increasing AS)
ensures domestic Growth will raise incomes and
demand can be met, cause M to grow faster than
hence preventing X; fixing BOP deficits through
M
expenditure reducing Improving
I
Low predictable demand-pull
policies effectively trade balance
inflation rates boost inflation.
means slowing creates jobs in
R
investors’ Improving BOP by the export
this growth.
confidence and devaluing currency sector.
A
encourage savings, a (expenditure
key source of funds switching policy)
K
for investment, will boost X and I,
hence fuelling creating growth.
.
investment.
A
Low Inflation
Stable prices help to improve BOP and
Lower inflation rates
than other countries
Balance of Payments Equilibrium
An imbalance in trade and capital flows would
affect national income and the exchange rate.
ensure exports remain Trade deficits deplete a country’s reserves and
provide economic certainty, encouraging price-competitive.
investment. Maintaining the internal value may have to be financed by borrowing from
of money also encourages savings since abroad. This outflow of currency results in a
Expenditure reducing weakened exchange rate. Investor confidence
people are less worried about the value of
policies (reducing AD)
their money, providing additional funds for may also fall.
will reduce demand-pull
investment and growth. inflation. Trade surpluses may cause a protectionist
Cost-push inflation is always bad, whereas Expenditure switching backlash from trade partners. The high
policies (devaluing demand for exports may also cause demand-
mild demand-pull inflation stimulates
currency) will cause
growth and employment. pull inflation.
imported inflation.
FDI outflows will take away jobs.
IN EFFECT: BOP + low inflation VS growth + employment
ECONOMIC GROWTH creates more jobs, but may cause demand-pull inflation and trade deficits.
Increasing EMPLOYMENT will increase output and growth, but create demand-pull inflation.
INFLATION can be fixed through reducing AD, in the process also solving BOP DEFICITS, but this would
slow down growth and cause unemployment.
15
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
AE=Y AD / AS
Aggregate Expenditure is the total planned Aggregate Demand/Supply is the total demand/
expenditure on goods and services in an economy. supply of goods and services in an economy at
any given time.
Use the AE=Y framework to explain the effect of
changes to C G I X M on national income and Use the AD-AS framework to explain how both the
employment ONLY, without considering effects on price level AND national income/employment can
I
price level. be adjusted to achieve the macroeconomic goals.
N
∆ Price Level
Also used to show multiplier, k = ∆ (= ). AS1
A
AS2
AE
Y = AE
AE inflation
P2
K H
A
Inflationary AEFE P1
Gap AD2
L
Deflationary AE unemployment
Gap
AD1
IM
Real National
Income
Y1 Y2
R
[An outward shift in AD greater than that of AS increases NI
Y
YFE and employment, but causes mild demand-pull inflation.]
A .
This came out in the 2009 ‘A’s, so it likely won’t be tested again anytime soon. Good for your understanding
though, plus... it actually makes sense!
Households
16
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
Taxes -- C, I
FISCAL POLICY
Since consumption is given by C = a + bY: ↓ direct taxes => ↑ disposable income Y => ↑induced
consumption bY => ↑ C
Tax rebates for firms will increase their profits and the expected rate of return on investments => ↑ I
I
(as per the MEI)
Evaluation:
A N
1. MPC: If Marginal Propensity to Consume (MPC) is low, reducing taxes may have little effect on
H
consumption, as consumers will just save the extra income.
2. Consumer/Investor Confidence: (“animal spirits”, or lack thereof)
A K
Consumers do not only base their consumption on current income levels but also on future
expected income, so tax cuts may not stimulate consumption much if they view it as only a
L
temporary measure.
Private investment also depends on business expectations, so tax cuts may not stimulate
M
investment much if investor confidence is low.
Government Expenditure -- G
R I
The government may inject increased government expenditure into a weak economy, in order to trigger off
A
a stream of induced spending via the multiplier effect which will jump-start the economy (“Pump-priming”)
. K
Evaluation: “Crowding-out Effect” / Public Sector Borrowing Requirement (PBSR)
To fund increased spending, the government will need to:
A
Increase taxes: But this reduces disposable income and profits of consumers and firms => ↓ C, I
Borrow from financial institutions: But ↑ demand for loans => ↑ interest rate => ↓ I
Print money: But this creates inflation.
BUT fiscal policy can still be effective if ↑ AD due to G outweighs ↓C, I.
Also NOT applicable to SG, as the govt draws any extra funds required for G from our accumulated reserves,
and not through public borrowing.
Exam questions usually won’t ask you to explain how the Central Bank manipulates the interest rate, so you
probably don’t even need to bother with the Liquidity Preference and Loanable Funds theories; just know
how interest rates affect the economy.
17
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
Interest Rate -- C, I
With lower interest rates:
MONETARY POLICY
Decreased opportunity cost of consumption => ↑ C
The cost of borrowing for firms is reduced, hence increasing their expected rate of return on
investments and giving them incentive to increase their level of investment (as per the MEI curve)
Domestic currency will depreciate due to the outflow of hot money, as people will withdraw money
from that country and save it in banks of other countries that offer higher rates => ↑ X-M
Evaluation:
1. Interest Elasticity of Money Demand: If the bulk of the money in the economy consists of speculative
I
funds, a large decrease in money supply will be needed to decrease interest rates.
2. Interest Elasticity of C & I: If C and I are interest-inelastic and are more dependent on confidence levels,
A N
bleak expectations of future incomes may mean C, I do not rise much despite low interest rates.
(vice versa: “irrational exuberance” despite high interest rates in contractionary MP)
H
3. Liquidity Trap: If interest rates are already at the perceived lowest possible rate, increasing money
supply will not decrease it any further, since investors expect it to rise in future and would rather hold
on to cash to exchange for bonds when that happens.
A K
4. For SG: Open Market Operations are ineffective due to our inactive secondary bond market.
M
Exports become cheaper and imports more expensive, and if the Marshall-Lerner condition holds (i.e.
R I
PEDX + PEDM > 1), export revenue will rise while import expenditure falls => X-M ↑
o BUT for SG: Due to the high import content of our exports, they will actually become less
A
competitive due to imported inflation
NOTE: Invoke the M-L condition only in explaining how exchange rate affects trade, as it is the only factor
. K
that affects demand for both X and M. Otherwise, just say “import/export demand is price elastic” (or not).
Attracts FDI due to the lower costs of operation, and also short-term investments (“hot money”) since
A
people expect the currency to appreciate => I ↑
(Such capital inflows may actually cause the exchange rate to rise back to equilibrium.)
o Evaluation: Unstable exchange rates may actually discourage long-term investment.
Also helps to remedy BOP deficits – see Expenditure Switching Policies
Savings -- C, I
A high MPS actually reduces C and the multiplier, resulting in a fall in AD and hence national
income. (Savings will hence ironically fall – Paradox of Thrift)
o Saving may hence hurt economic recovery from recessions
BUT if people save during economic booms, it provides funds for investment in capital goods,
allowing for future potential growth in the economy.
18
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
Multiplier Effect
Full explanation needed only if the focus of the question is specifically on fiscal/monetary policy, or how NI
rises from injections. Otherwise, just state the two lines below:
[ The actual increase in national income will be greater than the increase in autonomous expenditure (i.e.
components OTHER than C), due to the multiplier effect. ]
Stage 1: If the government decides to inject $100m into the construction of new highways…
Stage 2: This amount will be received as income by contractors and construction workers. Given that the
MPC is 0.6, they will then spend $60m on consumption of clothes for example, with the remaining
$40m leaking out as savings, taxes and imports.
N I
Stage 3: This spending will in turn raise the income of shop owners by $60m, who will again spend $36m of
it on other goods, with the remaining $24m leaking out as saving, taxes and imports.
H A
As a result, national income will rise with the increase in consumption at every successive stage, resulting in
an overall increase of ($250m) that is far greater than the initial injection of ($100m in government
expenditure), as per the formula ∆Y = ∆G / (1 – MPC).
A K
Evaluation:
L
Enough excess capacity needs to be present for the full multiplier effect to occur. If the economy is
M
already producing at full employment, increasing AD will only create inflationary pressures.
R I
Multiplier effect is very low in countries with low MPC such as Singapore (multiplier = 0.54):
o Our import spending is double our GDP due to our lack of natural resources, resulting in a high
A
import leakage (MPM)
o Significant proportion of Singaporeans’ wealth is “locked up” in the CPF, a form of mandatory
. K
savings, resulting in a high MPS
o Hence, fiscal and monetary policy less effective due to low multiplier.
A
Increasing Short-Run AS (i.e. outward shift): growth, employment, reduce inflation, improves BOP
SRAS may fall due to supply shocks (e.g. natural disasters) or cost-push inflation - refer to Inflation section.
Wage-push inflation can be corrected by a prices and incomes policy, in which a price ceiling or even a
wage freeze is imposed onto wages. Governments can also clamp down on trade unions.
o Evaluation: Distorts market forces in the labour market, and may result in a confrontation with
trade unions. Powerful trade unions may also make negotiations difficult.
Imported inflation can be corrected by appreciating domestic currency, hence making imports
relatively cheaper.
19
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
Increasing both Short-Run and Long-Run AS: growth, employment, reduce inflation, improves BOP
N I
Build industrial parks, to bring R&D personnel from different firms closer together and hence
encourage cooperation.
H A
K
Increase productivity of workforce
Quality of human capital can be increased through re-training => Increases both potential and real output
of firms.
R I
Reducing structural and frictional unemployment - refer to Unemployment section.
Arrival of migrant workers with the intention of settling permanently
Increased female participation in the workforce
A
Increasing future population size by raising fertility rates (e.g. through baby bonus)
K
.
All this increases SRAS by depressing wages, and also increases LRAS by increasing the country’s potential
output.
Evaluation:
A
Foreign workers may face resentment from locals who believe that they are stealing their jobs
o May affect social stability
Cheap foreign labour may give firms less incentive to upgrade from labour-intensive to capital-intensive
methods of production, slowing down the restructuring of the economy.
BUT the influx of foreign workers may serve as an incentive for locals to go for upgrading, to improve
their competitiveness in the job market.
Tax rate
Income effect (Productivity ↑): With higher taxes, people can afford less, so they work more so that
they do not have to cut their consumption as much.
Substitution effect (Productivity ↓): People are discouraged from working as much since the
opportunity cost of leisure – i.e. the wages they could have earned – is now lower.
Both points can be used as evaluation for each other in deciding whether taxes will increase or decrease AS.
20
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
Economic Growth
[ Economic growth consists of both actual and potential growth, which are the annual percentage
increase in national output and output capacity respectively. ]
I
Policies
N
Actual Growth: Expansionary fiscal and monetary policies (anything that increases AD)
Potential Growth: Supply side policies (anything that increases AS)
H A
Increased SOL: An increase in real GDP per capita indicates increased consumption levels
A K
BUT higher consumption may not necessarily lead to higher utility, as new wants are
L
Unemployment: Actual growth (increase in AD) and diversification reduces cyclical unemployment,
while potential growth (increase in AS) may be due to a reduction of structural unemployment
M
BUT if growth is from restructuring and the creation of new industries, structural
I
unemployment may result.
Demand-Pull Inflation: If economy is already producing near full employment, any increases in AD
AR
unmatched by similar increases in AS will result in firms competing for the limited resources
available as the economy is already experiencing supply bottlenecks, so prices of inputs and
K
ultimately that of products are pushed up.
Balance of Payments: Increased incomes will result in imports growing faster than exports
A .
assuming import demand is income elastic, hence worsening trade balance and BOP.
Equity: Increased tax revenues collected from the rich through a progressive tax system can be
redistributed to the poor
BUT if growth is enjoyed mainly by the rich elite and the government fails to help the poor,
wealth may not trickle down to them, hence worsening income inequality
Externalities to environment: People feel they can afford to care more about the environment,
and become less concerned about their private consumption
BUT higher consumption levels may still lead to pollution, waste and a depletion of natural
resources.
Opportunity cost of current consumption: To achieve future potential growth, a country must
sacrifice production of consumption goods for that of capital goods (Use PPC to illustrate trade off)
Evaluation of Goal: Economic growth is the most important goal in SG, since in the process of achieving
growth, we can achieve the other goals as well.
Cyclical and structural unemployment is reduced through actual and potential growth respectively.
Our exchange rate centred monetary policy and supply-side policies, aimed at achieving growth,
also help to achieve low inflation.
The exchange rate centred monetary policy also helps us achieve a healthy BOP in the process.
However, if there are other more urgent economic problems (e.g. high inflation) at hand, we may
need to temporarily focus on them instead of economic growth.
21
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
Unemployment
[ Unemployment refers to the number of people of working age who are without work, but willing and
able to take up employment. ]
Causes
Cyclical unemployment
Labour is a derived demand: A lack of AD during downswings of the business cycle also reduces
demand for labour
Greatest concern in Singapore, due to our export-oriented growth model
Structural unemployment
N I
o Economy closely linked to the global business cycle => highly susceptible to global downturns
A
Occurs when changes in technology/industries change the set of skills needed by workers, so
workers without these skills become unemployed
K H
Prevalent in SG, as we are shifting towards a knowledge-based economy
o Manufacturing sector contracting due to other countries like China gaining a comparative
A
advantage in low-skilled labour
L
o Education levels among the older generation are low
Frictional unemployment
M
Due to imperfect information, as time is needed to match people to the right jobs
R I
Less of a concern as it is part of the natural rate of unemployment
Costs
K A
Loss of production: Unemployment implies that the economy is producing inside the PPC, hence
.
representing a loss in potential national income and SOL.
A
Loss of human capital: Prolonged unemployment may cause people to lose their skills and
knowledge, reducing their productivity even if they are re-hired and hence also reducing the
country’s potential output
Welfare of unemployed:
o The unemployed lose their financial security and face low material well-being
o Loss of self-esteem and morale, affecting mental health
Financial cost to government:
o Loss of tax revenue, since the unemployed do not pay income tax
o Increased spending on welfare payments and benefits
Social stability: Unemployment is linked to increased crime and violence.
22
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
Policies
I
Structural unemployment (Supply-side policies)
The government can steer the education system towards nurturing a workforce with the relevant
skills needed in the economy
A N
Provide training grants and subsidies for the retraining of unemployed workers
o E.g. SPUR scheme: Provides subsidies for companies to retrain their workers and redeploys
Evaluation:
retrenched workers to new jobs.
K H
A
Increased government spending required for subsidies
Older workers may put up great resistance to retraining
L
Illiterate people will find it difficult to get new skills.
M
Frictional unemployment
I
More job fairs and better job information services to remedy imperfect information in job market.
R
Evaluation of Goal:
K A
.
Reducing cyclical through expansionary fiscal policy will result in demand-pull inflation.
However, achieving high employment is still more important than keeping prices stable. If consumers
A
have at least a stable income from a job to fall back on, they will be less affected by higher prices.
That said, we achieve low unemployment through economic growth, hence actual growth (to prevent
cyclical via diversification) and potential growth (to prevent structural via supply side policies) remain
SG’s most important macroeconomic goal.
23
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
Inflation
[ Inflation is a sustained increase in the general price level. ]
Causes
Demand-pull inflation
Increase in AD: When unmatched by an increase in AS, especially if the economy is already producing
near full employment.
Increase in monetary supply: When banks hand out loans too freely or the government prints too much
money such that people have more money to increase their consumption, hence increasing AD.
Cost-Push Inflation (Basically factors that shift SRAS with fancy names)
N I
Wage-push inflation: If trade unions push up wages without a corresponding increase in labour
productivity.
H A
Imported inflation: Due to inflation in other countries, or a weakening of domestic currency.
K
o Prices of imported goods and services rise (Direct effect)
o Prices of locally produced goods that use imported factors of production rise (Indirect effect)
o
L
as a result of our lack of natural resources.
A
Main cause of inflation in Singapore, due to the high import content of our goods and services
Tax-push inflation: Indirect taxes increase costs of production for firms, with some tax burden passed
M
to consumers.
R I
Wage-Price Spiral: A rise in prices due to continual shifts in AD and SRAS.
from AS to AS1
K A
1. Trade unions demand higher wages, decreasing AS Price Level
.
2. Firms respond to the rising cost of production by
cutting back on the workers they hire. Real national
A
income and employment levels fall from Y to Y1.
3. To prevent a rise in unemployment, the
government boosts AD from AD to AD1. Output and
P2
P1 AD1
employment return to their initial levels at Y,
P
however price levels will rise even further from P1 AS1 AD
to P2.
4. Trade unions will again demand higher wages to Real National
AS Income
offset the rising costs of living... vicious cycle occurs.
Y1 Y
Effects
Mild demand-pull inflation increases firms’ profits, stimulating investment and growth
Low inflation encourages investment:
o Encourages savings, a key source of funds for investment, as people are confident the real
value of their money will not fall
o Low cost-push inflation also makes investors more confident of returns
o BUT even if inflation is high, as long as it is not unexpected, investors’ confidence will not
be affected much
Unemployment: Demand-pull increases employment if economy is not already at full employment;
Cost-push always causes unemployment.
24
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
BOP: If we have lower inflation than other countries, our exports become more competitive while
imports are relatively more expensive, therefore trade balance and BOP improves. Exchange rate
also appreciates.
Inflation also results in income redistribution:
o Winners: Variable income earners, Debtors, Firms (firms win in demand-pull, but will lose
as well if cost-push)
o Losers: Fixed income earners, Creditors, Consumers (consumers always lose, since their
purchasing power always falls during inflation)
Policies
Cost-push inflation: Supply-side policy
N I
Demand-pull inflation: Contractionary fiscal and monetary policy, Supply-side policy
A
Imported inflation: Exchange rate policy
K
Balance of Payments H
L A
[ The Balance of Payments records all economic transactions between the residents of a country and the
rest of the world during a specified period, usually one year. ]
M
The two most/only important categories of BOP are: the Current Account which shows trade balances, and
I
the Financial Account which shows investment flows.
AR
BOP will naturally return to equilibrium through exchange rates and national income. E.g. If BOP deficit:
Domestic exchange rate depreciates => exports become more price-competitive
(X-M) ↓ => national income ↓ => import spending falls
K
Therefore, trade deficit eliminated! [vice versa for BOP surpluses]
.
A
However, persistent BOP deficits may still occur in one country due to:
1. Fixed exchange rate regime
2. Higher inflation rates than other countries – Exports become less competitive
3. Higher growth than other countries – Imports will grow faster than exports with rising income
4. Long-term structural changes – Trade restrictions, Emergence of new substitutes and rivals
Technically, BOP surpluses are bad as well since they may result in demand-pull inflation (due to high I and
X-M) and also indicate a deficit in another country, which may hence adopt protectionist measures.
However, it seems exam questions are only concerned with deficits, since they are much more harmful.
25
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
H A
1. Expenditure Reducing Policies – i.e. contractionary fiscal and monetary policies
K
o Producers will turn to overseas markets => Exports increase as well
Raise interest rates to draw in hot money
L A
Reduces inflation as well, but at expense of economic growth
o Exports become more price competitive => X ↑ (this may slightly offset the fall in AD)
M
2. Expenditure Switching Policies – i.e. protectionism or lowering exchange rate
R I
Protectionism to restrict imports: Refer to Protectionism and its evaluations.
Devaluation of domestic currency: Exports get cheaper while imports get more expensive, and
Evaluation:
K A
assuming the Marshall-Lerner condition holds this will improve trade balance.
.
May be ineffective if export and import demand is price inelastic (i.e. M-L condition does
A
not hold)
Trading partners may retaliate by devaluing their currencies
Spare resources must be available to meet the increase in demand for exports
May result in imported inflation Surplus
J-Curve Effect: Current account may actually worsen
in short-run after devaluation with a reduction in
Balance of Trade
3. Supply-side Policies – To increase output and quality of exports and hence their competitiveness.
** MOST EFFECTIVE but takes time to work!
26
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
Taxation
Direct taxes: Taxes on the income and capital owned by individuals or firms, e.g. income tax. Tax burden
cannot be shifted.
Indirect taxes: Taxes on goods and services, e.g. GST, customs duties. Tax burden is shared between seller
and buyer, with the party that has a more price elastic curve bearing less of the burden.
Specific tax: Fixed tax per unit of good, regardless of price. Supply curve shifts up evenly.
Ad valorem tax: Tax is a fixed proportion of the price of good. Supply curve shifts up, but also
becomes steeper.
1. Redistributes Income
N I
A
Progressive taxes: Help to distribute income more equally, as they take into account one’s ability to pay. As
one’s income increases, the proportion of it paid in taxes increases.
Direct taxes are usually progressive, e.g. income tax
K H
Indirect taxes may be progressive, if they are levied on luxury goods
A
Tax revenue can be used to help the poor through subsidies and welfare benefits, e.g. Workfare
L
Regressive taxes: Less equitable. As one’s income increases, the proportion of it paid in taxes decreases.
Lump-sum taxes are regressive
Indirect taxes like GST are also regressive, as the poor bear a heavier burden since they tend to
I M
spend a larger proportion of their income on necessities.
R
2. Corrects Negative Externalities
A
If there are negative externalities involved in the consumption or production of a good, taxes can help to
change consumption patterns or encourage producers to switch to other methods of production.
. K
Evaluation: Taxes distort the price mechanism and hence affect the allocation of resources.
3. Influences Productivity
A
Depending on the income and substitution effect, a rise an taxes will either cause people to work more to
make up for the fall in income or discourage them from working since they earn less for the same amount
of work, hence affecting productivity and the AS curve.
5. Reduces Investment – The reason why SG has been shifting from direct taxes (personal, corporate tax)
towards indirect taxes (GST). Due to taxes:
Savings ↓: Reduces funds available for investment.
Expected rate of return ↓: Reduces firms’ incentive to invest, as per the MEI.
Supernormal profits ↓: Reduces firms’ ability to invest. (Dynamic efficiency reduced)
o Evaluation: Not a problem if government reallocates tax revenue into R&D (SG does this)
27
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
GDP / GNP: Total market value of all final goods and services produced within the geographical boundaries
of a country / produced by productive factors owned by residents of a country during a specified period.
High GDP, low unemployment => high overall per capita income levels => increased availability and
I
accessibility of material goods and services, so people can enjoy more of them => high standard of
living [vice versa for negative NI figures]
GDP statistics might also be unreliable.
A N
BUT such figures do not indicate non-material goods and services available
K H
Disproving GDP figures: (mostly applicable to both comparisons over time AND between countries)
Changes in price level: Nominal GDP is misleading as it may rise due to a rise in prices (inflation)
A
but not output
L
o Real GDP more accurate since it accounts for price differences, so any rise must be from a
rise in output.
M
Changes in population: Even if absolute GDP grows, if population grows faster than it, then GDP
I
per capita will actually fall.
R
Changes in exchange rate: Since GDP figures are converted to US$ for international comparison,
they will be affected by fluctuations in the exchange rate, especially that due to governmental
K A
manipulation or capital flows
o GDP per capita adjusted for Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) more accurate, as it reflects
.
actual purchasing power of residents
GDP Composition
A
o GDP includes both consumption and investment goods but current living standards depend
only on consumption goods.
o Large proportion of GDP may actually be spent on goods which do not directly improve the
welfare of the people (e.g. defence), rather than goods like infrastructure.
GDP Distribution: Most of national income may be concentrated within the rich elite
o Gini coefficient more reliable - measures inequality of income
Reliability of Data: Firms and individuals might under-report their incomes in order to evade
income taxes.
Non-monetised sector: Services that do not pass through a market are not counted in the GDP
o E.g. Charity work or Barter trade, especially in developing countries
Intangibles: Externalities are unpriced by the price mechanism, hence not captured by GDP figures.
o Factories might add to GDP, but create pollution
o More jobs need not mean improved SOL, since people might be subjected to long working
hours accompanied by stress from the workplace
Evaluation: Composite indicators provide more accurate reflection of standards of living, e.g. Physical
Quality of Life Index which measures life expectancy, infant mortality rate and literacy rate.
28
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
International Trade
[ Free trade is a policy of imposing no artificial restrictions on the movements of goods and services
between countries. ]
The pattern of trade describes who trades what, and is based on the theory of comparative advantage.
A country is said to have comparative advantage in the production of a good if she can produce the good
at a lower opportunity cost than another country; the Law of Comparative Advantage states that trade
I
can benefit all countries if they specialise in the production of goods where they have the lowest
N
opportunity cost.
A
Assumptions Limitations (when applying to real life)
H
Constant opportunity costs of production => Law of Increasing Opportunity Cost: Countries will
Straight-line PPC lose their comparative advantage as they specialise
K
further, since the resources in the economy are not
This implies perfect factor mobility within each perfectly homogenous. Hence, complete
country, i.e. resources can be easily transferred
from the production of one good to another
L A
specialisation not possible.
Lack of Factor Mobility: Factors of production may
not be quickly or efficiently moved into other uses
M
Factor immobility between different countries, i.e.
I
each country can only use her own resources
No transport costs nor trade restrictions, so full Transport costs may be very high in
AR
benefits of specialisation and trade can be felt international trade, making it cheaper to
produce goods domestically than import them
Protectionism: Free trade does not always exist,
K
and countries may want to protect certain
.
industries even if they do not have a
comparative advantage in them
We assume that two countries devote exactly half their resources to the production of each of two goods,
with output as shown in the table and indicated on their PPC curves:
Wheat
29
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
2. Hence, both countries should specialise completely in its area of comparative advantage, so China and
USA produce 60 cloth and 20 wheat respectively.
N I
60 20
H A
30
PPC CPC
10
A K PPC
CPC
L
15 5
China USA
Cloth Cloth
60
M
30 45 5 10 15 20
R I
5. Explaining benefits from trade:
China can now consume 15 wheat and 45 cloth, 15 more cloth than before specialisation. Hence,
specialisation and trade has allowed her to enjoy a higher level of consumption and standard of living.
K A
Similarly, USA can now consume at a point outside her PPC that was previously unattainable. She has
also gained from specialisation and trade.
A .
30
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
I
b. Factor Price Equalisation: Prices of inputs in different countries are brought closer together
Firms can import inputs from the cheapest markets worldwide, since their supply is now
perfectly price elastic
3. Consumers: Increased competition from foreign firms
a. Prevention of monopolies
A N
K H
b. Promotes X-efficiency among firms => Lower prices, higher quality products
4. Consumers: Greater amount and variety of goods and services available
Can consume outside of PPC => Increased SOL, reduced scarcity
5. Overall: Efficient allocation of world resources
L A
By the Law of Comparative Advantage, if all country specialise in area of CA and trade, everyone
gains from higher world output and consumption, given favourable Terms of Trade (TOT) for all
OVERALL:
I M
R
PPC shifts outwards (due to increased efficiency and lower costs), CPC shifts outside PPC,
Consumption point shifts outside PPC => Increased SOL, reduced scarcity
K A
AD rises (from X), AS rises => Improved BOP, ECONOMIC GROWTH!
A .
Arguments for Protectionism
Improve BOP (Expenditure-switching policy)
Evaluation
(see overall evaluations for protectionism below!)
Protectionism is a “beggar-thy-neighbour” policy:
Restriction of imports to curb excessive import Trade partners’ incomes reduced
expenditure over export revenue => they import less (if demand is income elastic)
Reduce Cyclical Unemployment => export revenue falls
Importing foreign goods may mean creating jobs => BOP worsens, AD ↓
for foreign markets that would otherwise go to At best a stop-gap measure, as this will cause
domestic labour, in effect “exporting jobs”. retaliation from trade partners in the form of
Protectionism will divert demand from foreign protectionism
goods to domestically-produced goods, protecting Should opt for supply side or expenditure-
employment in those industries. reducing policies instead (see BOP policies)
For unemployment: If it is the result of a
recession, domestic recovery may eventually be
delayed since it can no longer be triggered by
multiplier effects from exports.
Reduce Structural Unemployment May actually hinder the restructuring of the
Allow declining industries to decline slowly, to economy, by preventing it from growing through
prevent sudden structural unemployment by the development of new sectors
providing some buffer time for workers to be
retrained and seek other jobs.
31
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
A
market at a price below marginal cost, to destroy prices, which may actually be so due to them being
local competition. more efficient.
The firm becomes a monopoly in that market, and
can charge consumers higher prices.
Improve TOT
K H
Only works if a country can dictate world prices
Restrict imports, so foreign firms lower prices and
the country gains from higher TOT.
Protection of strategic industries
L A
(monopsonistic power), not if it is a price taker.
M
To remain self-sufficient especially for times for war,
I
even if country has no CA in those industries.
Protection against harmful goods
AR
Political objectives – e.g. embargoes
Trade Diversion (applies ONLY to FTAs)
K
Members of an FTA may import goods from other
members instead of more efficient producers
tariffs.
.
elsewhere in the world, simply due to the lack of
A
Just a diversion from an external source to a new
source within the FTA, so little gains from trade
may be made.
32
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg
Distributed by A. KARIM LAKHANI (0333- TUTOR 4U) (0333- 888 67 48) (www.tutor4u.com.pk)
Price
Sd (domestic supply)
I
P2 Sw + tariff
C
N
A B (tax revenue) D
P1 Sw (world supply)
H A Dd (domestic demand)
Quantity
QS QS ’ QD ’
A K QD
Tariffs or quotas can be set to reduce imports from (QD - QS) to (QD’ - QS’), but at the cost of a deadweight
L
loss to society equal to the loss in consumer surplus not transferred to other sectors, shown by areas B + D.
A + B + C + D: Total loss in consumer surplus
I M
A: Increased producer surplus for domestic producers (Redistribution Effect)
B: Deadweight loss from the extra cost incurred by domestic producers to produce (QS’ - QS),
AR
which could have been imported at P1 instead. (Protective Effect)
C: Tax revenue collected by government (Revenue Effect)
D: Deadweight loss due to under-consumption. (Consumption Effect)
. K
A Tariff
Still allows market to operate
Provides tax revenue
Effectiveness depends on price elasticity of
More restrictive
Quota
No revenue to government
Foreign producers may gain by raising prices
demand
33
Shared by Lim Zhicong
On owlcove.sg