Chapter 80 - Headache Disorders

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DiPiro: Pharmacotherapy A Pathophysiologic Approach, 12e
Chapter 80: Headache Disorders
Kimberly B. Tallian; Natalie T. Heinrich
KEY CONCEPTS
KEY CONCEPTS
Acute migraine therapies should provide consistent, rapid relief, and enable the individual to resume normal activities at home, school, or work.
The selection of initial treatment is based on headacherelated disability, symptom severity, and preference for the individual with migraine.
Strict adherence to maximum daily and weekly doses of antimigraine medication is essential.
Preventive therapy should be considered for recurring migraine attacks that produce significant disability; frequent attacks requiring
symptomatic medication more than twice per week; symptomatic therapies that are ineffective, contraindicated, or produce serious adverse effects;
and uncommon migraine variants that cause profound disruption and/or risk of neurologic injury.
The selection of an agent for headache prophylaxis should be based on individual response, tolerability, convenience of the medication
formulation, and coexisting conditions.
Each prophylactic medication should be given an adequate therapeutic trial (usually 6 months) to judge its maximal efficacy.
A general wellness program that considers headache triggers should be included in the management plan.
After an effective abortive agent and dose have been identified, subsequent treatments should begin with that same regimen.
BEYOND THE BOOK
BEYOND THE BOOK
Read the article by Vandenbussche N, Laterza D, Lisicki M, et al.23
Review other existing literature related to whether medicationoveruse headache is a distinct entity. Summarize two key points on both the pro and
con sides of the issue. Be prepared to discuss or debate in class. (Note to instructors: It would be a good opportunity to assign teams and have an in
class discussion or formal debate.)
INTRODUCTION
Headache is among the top five principal reasons adults 18 to 44 years of age visit US emergency departments and are one of the most common
complaints encountered by healthcare practitioners.1 They can be symptomatic of a distinct pathologic process or can occur without an underlying
cause. In 2018, the International Headache Society (IHS) updated its classification system and diagnostic criteria for headache disorders, cranial
neuralgias, and facial pain.2 The IHS classification provides more precise definitions and standardized nomenclature for both the primary (migraine,
Downloaded 20221031 3:57 P Your IP is 78.97.172.246
tensiontype, and cluster headache) and secondary (symptomatic of organic disease) headache disorders. These criteria are designed to facilitate
Chapter 80: Headache Disorders, Kimberly B. Tallian; Natalie T. Heinrich Page 1 / 41
headache diagnosis in clinical practice, as well as being used for research. This chapter focuses on the management of primary headache disorders.
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Most recurrent headaches result from a benign chronic primary headache disorder, with the most common being tensiontype and migraine
INTRODUCTION
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Headache is among the top five principal reasons adults 18 to 44 years of age visit US emergency departments and are one of the most common
complaints encountered by healthcare practitioners.1 They can be symptomatic of a distinct pathologic process or can occur without an underlying
cause. In 2018, the International Headache Society (IHS) updated its classification system and diagnostic criteria for headache disorders, cranial
neuralgias, and facial pain.2 The IHS classification provides more precise definitions and standardized nomenclature for both the primary (migraine,
tensiontype, and cluster headache) and secondary (symptomatic of organic disease) headache disorders. These criteria are designed to facilitate
headache diagnosis in clinical practice, as well as being used for research. This chapter focuses on the management of primary headache disorders.
Most recurrent headaches result from a benign chronic primary headache disorder, with the most common being tensiontype and migraine
headache.3 The peak prevalence for these headaches occurs during the most productive years of life (1854 years of age).4 Despite this and their
associated disability, most headache sufferers do not obtain appropriate medical care for their headaches.4,5 While most are benign, some headaches
are symptomatic of a serious underlying medical condition, such as an infection, cerebral hemorrhage, or brain mass lesion. Therefore, a thorough
evaluation of the headache history is essential to establish an accurate headache diagnosis and identify individuals who can benefit from these specific
therapeutic options. In addition, advances in the field’s understanding of the diagnosis and pathophysiologic mechanisms of the primary headache
disorders, particularly migraine, have led to the development of medications that provide rapid relief from moderate to severe attacks.
MIGRAINE HEADACHE
Epidemiology
Approximately 20.7% of females and 9.7% of males in the United States experience one or more migraine headaches per year. While the prevalence of
migraine varies by age and sex, the epidemiologic profile has remained stable over the past 8 years. Sex differences in migraine prevalence have been
linked to menstruation, but these differences persist beyond menopause. Prevalence is highest in both males and females between the ages of 18 and
44 years and is inversely related to income and educational attainment. In the American Migraine Prevalence and Prevention Study, 93% of those with
migraine reported some headacherelated disability, and 54% were severely disabled or needed bed rest during an attack.4,5 The economic burden of
migraine is substantial as are the indirect costs from workrelated disability and losses in productivity.6,7 Several neurologic, psychiatric, and
cardiovascular disorders, including stroke, epilepsy, major depression, sleep apnea, obesity, and anxiety, and other pain disorders, show increased
comorbidity with migraine.8,9 Whether this relationship is causal or representative of a common pathophysiologic mechanism is unknown.
Etiology
The etiology of migraine is not entirely understood. Most clinicians now believe that the pathogenesis of migraine may be related to complex
dysfunctions in neuronal and broad sensory processing.2,8,9 However, earlier theories included hypotheses involving intracerebral arterial
vasoconstriction, reactive extracranial vasodilation, in addition to neurovascular mechanisms.
The pain and symptoms of migraine are a combination of altered perceptions resulting from neural suppression and activation of subcortical
structures and trigeminal systems. Migraine pain is believed to result from activity within the trigeminovascular system, a network of visceral afferent
fibers that arises from the trigeminal ganglia and projects peripherally to innervate the painsensitive intracranial extracerebral blood vessels, dura
mater, and large venous sinuses10 (Fig. 801). These fibers also project centrally, terminating in the trigeminal nucleus caudalis in the brain stem and
upper cervical spinal cord, and, thus, provide a pathway for nociceptive transmission from meningeal blood vessels into higher centers of the central
nervous system (CNS). Activation of trigeminal sensory nerves triggers the release of vasoactive neuropeptides, including calcitonin generelated
peptide (CGRP), neurokinin A, and substance P, from perivascular axons. The released neuropeptides interact with dural blood vessels to promote
vasodilation and dural plasma extravasation, resulting in neurogenic inflammation. Orthodromic conduction along trigeminovascular fibers transmits
pain impulses to the trigeminal nucleus caudalis, where information is relayed further to higher cortical pain centers. Continued afferent input can
result in sensitization of these central sensory neurons, producing a hyperalgesic state that responds to previously innocuous stimuli and maintains
the headache.9,10
FIGURE 801
The pathophysiology of migraine headache. Vasodilation of intracranial extracerebral blood vessels (possibly the result of an imbalance in the
brainstem) results in the activation of the perivascular trigeminal nerves that release vasoactive neuropeptides to promote neurogenic inflammation.
Central pain transmission may activate other brainstem nuclei, resulting in associated symptoms (nausea, vomiting, photophobia, and phonophobia).
The antimigraine effects of the 5HT1B/ID receptor agonists are highlighted at areas 1, 2, and 3. (CGRP, calcitonin generelated peptide.) (Reprinted from
Ferrari MD. Migraine. Lancet. 1998 Apr 4;351(9108):104351.)
The pathophysiology of migraine headache. Vasodilation of intracranial extracerebral blood vessels (possibly the result of an imbalance in the
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brainstem) results in the activation of the perivascular trigeminal nerves that release vasoactive neuropeptides to promote neurogenic inflammation.
Central pain transmission may activate other brainstem nuclei, resulting in associated symptoms (nausea, vomiting, photophobia, and phonophobia).
The antimigraine effects of the 5HT1B/ID receptor agonists are highlighted at areas 1, 2, and 3. (CGRP, calcitonin generelated peptide.) (Reprinted from
Ferrari MD. Migraine. Lancet. 1998 Apr 4;351(9108):104351.)
Aura occurs in a subgroup of individuals with migraines and other primary headache disorders. The neurologic changes of the aura parallel those that
occur during cortical spreading depression, a neuronal event characterized by a wave of depressed electrical activity that advances across the brain
cortex, causing inflammation and activation of the trigeminal nucleus caudalis. This neuronal event occurs at a rate consistent with the spread of aura
symptoms.2,9 It is not clear whether this cortical spreading depression and the aura are the substrate of pain or trigger the presentation of migraine.9,11
Pathophysiology
Genetic factors play an important role in susceptibility to migraine attacks. Studies in monozygotic twins suggest a 50% heritability of migraine with a
multifactorial polygenic basis.11 Although it is possible for any individual to experience a migraine attack, their abnormal recurrence can result in a
diagnosis of migraine. Attack occurrence and frequency are governed by CNS sensitivity to migraine specific triggers or environmental factors.
Individuals with migraine appear to have a lowered threshold of response to specific environmental circumstances resulting from genetic factors
governing the balance of CNS excitation and inhibition at various levels. Thus, triggering factors modulate the genetic set point that predisposes to
migraine headache.9,11 The hyperresponsiveness of the individual’s brain may be the result of an inherited abnormality in calcium and/or sodium
channels and sodium/potassium pumps that regulate cortical excitability through serotonin (5hydroxytryptamine [5HT]) and other neurotransmitter
releases. Increased levels of excitatory amino acids such as glutamate and/or alterations in extracellular levels of potassium also can affect the
migraine threshold, resulting in the initiation and propagation of the phenomenon of cortical spreading depression.11
Serotonin (5HT) is an important mediator of migraine headache and specific 5HT receptor subfamilies are involved in the pathophysiology and
treatment of migraine headache.9,12 Acute antimigraine medications such as the ergot alkaloids and triptan derivatives are agonists of vascular and
neuronal 5HT1 receptor subtypes, resulting in vasoconstriction of meningeal blood vessels, inhibition of vasoactive neuropeptide release and pain
signal transmission.12,13 Specifically, triptans bind nonspecifically to 5HT1B/D receptors with variable 5HT1F receptor affinity, resulting in direct
vascular vasoconstriction. In contrast, the ditans selectively bind to 5HT1F receptors without vasoconstrictive effects.14 During a headache, CGRP is
released by the trigeminal ganglion in response to vasoconstriction resulting in dilation and maintenance of cerebral blood flow.15 By blocking CGRP
release, migraine attacks can be either acutely aborted or prevented by antimigraine medications. Other medications used for migraine prophylaxis
also modulate neurotransmitter systems16 consistent with the current understanding of migraine pathophysiology and neurovascular disorders.
CLINICAL PRESENTATION
CLINICAL PRESENTATION: Migraine Headache
General
Common, recurrent, severe headache
Interferes with normal functioning
Divided into two major subtypes
Migraine without aura
CLINICAL PRESENTATION: Migraine Headache Access Provided by:
General
Common, recurrent, severe headache
Interferes with normal functioning
Divided into two major subtypes
Migraine with aura
Symptoms
Recurring episodes of throbbing head pain, frequently unilateral, lasting from 4 to 72 hours if left untreated
Headaches can be severe and associated with nausea, vomiting, as well as sensitivity to light, sound, and/or movement, but not all symptoms
are present in every attack
Diagnostic alarms from evaluation include:
Acute onset of the “first” or “worst” headache ever
Accelerating pattern of headache following subacute onset
Onset of headache after age 50 years
Headache associated with systemic illness (eg, fever, nausea, vomiting, stiff neck, and rash)
Headache with focal neurologic symptoms or papilledema
Newonset headache in an individual with cancer or human immunodeficiency virus infection
Signs
A stable pattern, absence of daily headache
Positive family history for migraine
Normal neurologic examination
Food and menstruation may serve as triggers
Improvement in headache with sleep
Aura can signal the migraine headache but is not required for diagnosis
Laboratory Tests
No one test can diagnose migraine headaches
Possible tests to consider are:
Serum chemistries
Urine toxicology profiles
Thyroid function tests
Lyme disease studies
Complete blood count
Antinuclear antibody titer
Erythrocyte sedimentation rate
Antiphospholipid antibody titer
Thyroid function tests Access Provided by:
Lyme disease studies
Complete blood count
Antinuclear antibody titer
Erythrocyte sedimentation rate
Antiphospholipid antibody titer
Diagnostic Tests
General medical and neurologic physical examination
Vital signs (fever, hypertension)
Funduscopy (papilledema, hemorrhage, and exudates)
Palpation and auscultation of the head and neck (sinus tenderness, hardened or tender temporal arteries, trigger points, temporomandibular
joint tenderness, bruits, nuchal rigidity, and cervical spine tenderness)
Neurologic examination (identify abnormalities or deficits in mental status, cranial nerves, deep tendon reflexes, motor strength, coordination,
gait, and cerebellar function)
Consider neuroimaging studies in individuals with abnormal neurologic examination findings of unknown etiology and those with additional
risk factors warranting imaging
The migraine attack is divided into several phases. Premonitory symptoms are experienced by up to 77% of those with migraine headaches in the
hours or days before the onset of headache.2,7 Premonitory symptoms vary widely among individuals with migraine but usually are consistent within
an individual. Neurologic symptoms (eg, allodynia, phonophobia, photophobia, hyperosmia, and difficulty concentrating) are common, but
psychological (eg, anxiety, depression, euphoria, irritability, drowsiness, fatigue, hyperactivity, and restlessness), autonomic (eg, polyuria, diarrhea,
and constipation), and constitutional (eg, stiff neck, yawning, thirst, food cravings, and anorexia) symptoms also are reported.2,7 The previously
popular terms prodrome and warning symptoms should generally be avoided because these are often used mistakenly to include aura.2
The migraine aura, a complex of positive and negative focal neurologic symptoms that precedes or accompanies an attack, is experienced by
approximately 25% of those with migraine headaches on some occasions.2,9 The aura typically evolves over 5 minutes or longer and lasts less than 60
minutes. Headache usually occurs within the end 60 minutes of the aura; however, sometimes aura symptoms begin at the onset of headache or during
the attack. The aura is most often visual and frequently affects half the visual field.2 Visual auras vary in their complexity and can include both positive
(scintillations, photopsia, teichopsia, or fortification spectrum) and negative (scotoma and hemianopsia) features. Sensory and motor aura symptoms,
such as paresthesias or numbness involving the arms and face, dysphasia or aphasia, weakness, and hemiparesis, also are reported.2,9
Migraine headache pain is usually gradual in onset, peaking in intensity over a period of minutes to hours and lasting between 4 and 72 hours. Pain can
occur anywhere in the face or head but most often involves the frontotemporal region. The headache is typically unilateral and throbbing or pulsating
in nature; however, pain can be bilateral at onset or become generalized during the course of an attack.2,9 Gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms almost
invariably accompany the headache. During an attack, individuals with migraine frequently experience nausea and emesis sometimes occurs. Other
systemic symptoms associated with the headache phase can include anorexia, food cravings, constipation, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, nasal
stuffiness, blurred vision, diaphoresis, facial pallor, and localized facial, scalp, or periorbital edema. Sensory hyperacuity, manifested as photophobia,
phonophobia, or osmophobia, is reported frequently. Because headache pain usually is aggravated by physical activity, most individuals with migraine
headache seek a dark, quiet room for rest and relief. Impaired concentration, depression, irritability, fatigue, or anxiety often accompanies the
headache. Once headache pain wanes, individuals may experience a postdrome or resolution phase characterized by feeling tired, exhausted,
irritable, or listless. Impaired concentration may continue, as well as scalp tenderness or mood changes. Some individuals experience depression and
malaise, whereas others can feel unusually refreshed or euphoric.2,9,17
Diagnosis of migraine can be refined based on the frequency of monthly migraine days (MMDs) and monthly headache days (MHDs). Individuals with
fewer than 15 MMDs or MHDs have episodic migraine, whereas chronic migraine is diagnosed in those with at least 15 MHDs for at least 3 months, of
which at least eight are MMDs.2,18
Although headaches have many potential causes, most are considered primary headache disorders. A comprehensive headache history is the most
essential element in establishing the clinical diagnosis of migraine.2,8 This history should include age at onset, attack frequency and timing, duration of
headache. Once headache pain wanes, individuals may experience a postdrome or resolution phase characterized by feeling tired, exhausted,
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irritable, or listless. Impaired concentration may continue, as well as scalp tenderness or mood changes. Some individuals experience depression and
malaise, whereas others can feel unusually refreshed or euphoric.2,9,17
Diagnosis of migraine can be refined based on the frequency of monthly migraine days (MMDs) and monthly headache days (MHDs). Individuals with
fewer than 15 MMDs or MHDs have episodic migraine, whereas chronic migraine is diagnosed in those with at least 15 MHDs for at least 3 months, of
which at least eight are MMDs.2,18
Although headaches have many potential causes, most are considered primary headache disorders. A comprehensive headache history is the most
essential element in establishing the clinical diagnosis of migraine.2,8 This history should include age at onset, attack frequency and timing, duration of
attacks, precipitating or aggravating factors, ameliorating factors, description of neurologic symptoms, characteristics of the headache pain (quality,
intensity, location, and radiation), associated signs and symptoms, treatment history, family and social history, and the impact of headaches on daily
life.
Secondary headaches can be identified or excluded based on the headache history, as well as the results of general medical and neurologic
examinations. Diagnostic and laboratory testing also can be warranted in the setting of suspicious headache features or an abnormal examination.
Routine neuroimaging (computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging) is generally not indicated in individuals with migraines and a normal
neurologic examination but should be considered in individuals with an unexplained abnormal neurologic examination or an atypical headache
history. Because migraine headaches usually begin by the second or third decade of life, those beginning after age 50 suggest an organic etiology such
as a mass lesion, cerebrovascular disease, or temporal arteritis.2,3,9 Table 801 lists the IHS diagnostic criteria for migraine with and without aura.2
TABLE 801
IHS Diagnostic Criteria for Migraine
At least five attacks
Headache attack lasts 472 hours (untreated or unsuccessfully treated)
Headache has at least two of the following characteristics:
Unilateral location pulsating quality
Moderate or severe intensity
Aggravation by or avoidance of routine physical activity (ie, walking or climbing stairs)
During headache at least one of the following:
Nausea, vomiting, or both
Photophobia and phonophobia
Not attributed to another disorder
Migraine with aura (classic migraine)
At least two attacks
Migraine aura fulfills criteria for typical aura, hemiplegic migraine, retinal migraine, or brainstem aura
Typical aura
Fully reversible visual, sensory, or speech symptoms (or any combination) but no motor weakness
Homonymous or bilateral visual symptoms including positive features (eg, flickering lights, spot, lines) or negative features (eg, loss of vision) or unilateral
sensory symptoms including positive features (eg, pins and needles) or negative features (ie, numbness), or any combination
At least two of the following:
At least one symptom that develops gradually over a minimum of 5 minutes or different symptoms that occur in succession or both
Each symptom lasts for at least 5 minutes and for no longer than 60 minutes
Headache that meets criteria for migraine without aura begins during the aura or follows aura within 60 minutes
Adapted from Parisi P, Belcastro V, Verrotti A, et al. “Ictal epileptic headache” and the revised International Headache Classification (ICHD3) published in Cephalalgia
2018, vol. 38(1) 1211: Not just a matter of definition!
Treatment
Desired Outcome
Routine neuroimaging (computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging) is generally not indicated in individuals with migraines and a normal
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neurologic examination but should be considered in individuals with an unexplained abnormal neurologic examination or an atypical headache
history. Because migraine headaches usually begin by the second or third decade of life, those beginning after age 50 suggest an organic etiology such
as a mass lesion, cerebrovascular disease, or temporal arteritis.2,3,9 Table 801 lists the IHS diagnostic criteria for migraine with and without aura.2
TABLE 801
IHS Diagnostic Criteria for Migraine
At least five attacks
Headache attack lasts 472 hours (untreated or unsuccessfully treated)
Headache has at least two of the following characteristics:
Unilateral location pulsating quality
Moderate or severe intensity
Aggravation by or avoidance of routine physical activity (ie, walking or climbing stairs)
During headache at least one of the following:
Nausea, vomiting, or both
Photophobia and phonophobia
Migraine with aura (classic migraine)
At least two attacks
Migraine aura fulfills criteria for typical aura, hemiplegic migraine, retinal migraine, or brainstem aura
Typical aura
Fully reversible visual, sensory, or speech symptoms (or any combination) but no motor weakness
Homonymous or bilateral visual symptoms including positive features (eg, flickering lights, spot, lines) or negative features (eg, loss of vision) or unilateral
sensory symptoms including positive features (eg, pins and needles) or negative features (ie, numbness), or any combination
At least two of the following:
At least one symptom that develops gradually over a minimum of 5 minutes or different symptoms that occur in succession or both
Each symptom lasts for at least 5 minutes and for no longer than 60 minutes
Headache that meets criteria for migraine without aura begins during the aura or follows aura within 60 minutes
Adapted from Parisi P, Belcastro V, Verrotti A, et al. “Ictal epileptic headache” and the revised International Headache Classification (ICHD3) published in Cephalalgia
2018, vol. 38(1) 1211: Not just a matter of definition!
Treatment
Desired Outcome
Clinicians who care for individuals with migraine must appreciate the impact of this painful and debilitating disorder on the life of the individual,
the individual’s family, and the individual’s employer. Treatment strategies must address both immediate and longterm goals. Acute migraine
therapies should provide consistent, rapid relief and enable the individual to resume normal activities at home, school, or work. Recurrence of
symptoms and treatmentrelated adverse effects should be minimal. Ideally, individuals should be able to manage their own headaches effectively
without a medical visit. In addition, individuals should take an active role in the creation of a longterm formal management plan. An individualized
approach to treatment can result in a reduction in attack frequency and severity; therefore, minimizing headacherelated disability and emotional
distress and improving the individual’s quality of life. Goals of longterm and acute treatment of migraine are listed in Table 802.13,18,19
PATIENT CARE PROCESS
Patient Care Process for Headache Disorders
approach to treatment can result in a reduction in attack frequency and severity; therefore, minimizing headacherelated disability and emotional
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distress and improving the individual’s quality of life. Goals of longterm and acute treatment of migraine are listed in Table 802.13,18,19
PATIENT CARE PROCESS
Patient Care Process for Headache Disorders
Collect
Subjective and Objective Data
Presence of other symptoms
Nausea
Vomiting
Sensitivity to light, sound, and/or movement
Identification of triggers or aura (Table 805)
Patient characteristics (eg, age, sex, pregnant)
Patient medical history (personal and family)
Social history (smoking, diet, physical activity)
Description of migraine/headache pain (including frequency and location)
Presence of diagnostic alarms (see CLINICAL PRESENTATION)
Medication History
Current use, dosage, and frequency of medications (especially overthecounter aspirin/nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug [NSAID] use,
herbal products, and dietary supplements) (Tables 803 and 804)
Diagnostic Tests
Consider neuroimaging studies in individuals with abnormal neurologic examination findings of unknown etiology and in those with additional
Physical Exam
Neurological Exam
Current use, dosage, and frequency of medications (especially overthecounter aspirin/nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug [NSAID] use,
herbal products, and dietary supplements) (Tables 803 and 804) Access Provided by:
Diagnostic Tests
Consider neuroimaging studies in individuals with abnormal neurologic examination findings of unknown etiology and in those with additional
Physical Exam
Neurological Exam
Diagnostic abnormalities (Table 801)
Vital signs (fever, hypertension)
Funduscopy (papilledema, hemorrhage, and exudates)
Palpation and auscultation of the head and neck (sinus tenderness, hardened or tender temporal arteries, trigger points,
temporomandibular joint tenderness, bruits, nuchal rigidity, and cervical spine tenderness)
Deficits in mental status, cranial nerves, deep tendon reflexes, motor strength, coordination, gait, and cerebellar function
Assess
Initial Assessment
Type of headache, acute or chronic2
Other contributing factors (eg, presence of anxiety, depression, or medication overuse)
Medication Assessment
Evaluate the need for therapy
Evaluate current therapy for appropriateness, response, adverse effects, and medication adherence
Evaluate other therapy options (compare/contrast based on safety, efficacy, and cost/coverage by insurance)
Plan*
Acute medication therapy regimen if needed (symptomatic or abortive)
Establish individualized treatment plan for long term
Nonspecific agents for mildtomoderate attacks
Reserve migrainespecific agents for more severe attacks
Use of prophylactic agents
Identify goals of treatment and monitoring parameters (Tables 802 to 804)
Patient education (avoidance of triggers, headache diary, and patient adherence)
Referrals to other providers when appropriate (eg, secondary headache, psychiatry)
Implement*
Provide patient education regarding all elements of treatment plan
Patient education on the risk of medication, as well as caffeine overuse and limits
Use motivational interviewing and coaching strategies to maximize adherence
Schedule followup, sooner if an individual is unable to perform daily activities
Followup: Monitor and Evaluate*
Strive for resolution of pain (Table 802)
Provide patient education regarding all elements of treatment plan
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Patient education on the risk of medication, as well as caffeine overuse and limits
Use motivational interviewing and coaching strategies to maximize adherence
Schedule followup, sooner if an individual is unable to perform daily activities
Followup: Monitor and Evaluate*
Strive for resolution of pain (Table 802)
Aim for absence of adverse effects
Reduce headache frequency, severity, and associateddisability
Improve quality of life
Optimize selfcare and management
* Collaborate with patients, caregiver(s), and other healthcare professionals.
TABLE 802
Goals of Therapy in Migraine Management
Goals of migraine prevention
Reduce migraine frequency, severity, and disability
Reduce reliance on poorly tolerated, ineffective, or unwanted acute pharmacotherapies
Prevent headache
Avoid escalation of headache medication use
Educate and enable individuals to manage their disease
Reduce headacherelated distress and psychological symptoms
Goals of acute migraine treatment
Treat migraine attacks rapidly and consistently without recurrence
Restore the individual’s ability to function
Minimize the use of backup and rescue medicationsa
Optimize selfcare for overall management
Be costeffective in overall management
Cause minimal or no adverse effects
aRescue medications are defined as medications used at home when other treatments fail that permit the individual to get relief without a visit to the physician’s
office or emergency department.
Data from References 12, 18 and 19.
General Approach to Treatment
Optimize selfcare and management Access Provided by:
* Collaborate with patients, caregiver(s), and other healthcare professionals.
TABLE 802
Goals of Therapy in Migraine Management
Goals of migraine prevention
Reduce migraine frequency, severity, and disability
Reduce reliance on poorly tolerated, ineffective, or unwanted acute pharmacotherapies
Prevent headache
Avoid escalation of headache medication use
Educate and enable individuals to manage their disease
Reduce headacherelated distress and psychological symptoms
Goals of acute migraine treatment
Treat migraine attacks rapidly and consistently without recurrence
Restore the individual’s ability to function
Minimize the use of backup and rescue medicationsa
Optimize selfcare for overall management
Be costeffective in overall management
Cause minimal or no adverse effects
aRescue medications are defined as medications used at home when other treatments fail that permit the individual to get relief without a visit to the physician’s
office or emergency department.
Data from References 12, 18 and 19.
General Approach to Treatment
Nonpharmacologic and pharmacologic interventions are available for migraine management; however, medication therapy is the treatment
mainstay for most individuals. Pharmacotherapeutic management can be acute (ie, symptomatic or abortive) or preventive (ie, prophylactic). Therapy
decisions should consider the individual’s response to specific medications, their tolerability, and coexisting illnesses that limit treatment choices.
Abortive or acute therapies can be migrainespecific (eg, ergots, triptans, and CGRP antagonists) or nonspecific (eg, analgesics, antiemetics, NSAIDs,
and corticosteroids). Most effective at relieving pain and associated symptoms when administered at the onset of migraine12,13,16,1820 (Table 803). An
initial treatment based on headacherelated disability and symptom severity is the preferred treatment strategy.12,20 Because attack severity varies in
individuals, individuals may be advised to use nonspecific agents for mildtomoderate headaches not causing disability, while reserving migraine
specific medications for more severe attacks. The gastric stasis or nausea and vomiting that accompany migraine may compromise the absorption and
efficacy of orally administered medications. Pretreatment with antiemetic agents or use of nonoral formulations (eg, suppositories, nasal sprays, or
injections) is advisable when nausea and vomiting are severe.12,20
TABLE 803
Dosing of SelfAdministered Acute Migraine Therapiesa
and corticosteroids). Most effective at relieving pain and associated symptoms when administered at the onset of migraine12,13,16,1820 (Table 803). An
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initial treatment based on headacherelated disability and symptom severity is the preferred treatment strategy.12,20 Because attack severity varies in
individuals, individuals may be advised to use nonspecific agents for mildtomoderate headaches not causing disability, while reserving migraine
specific medications for more severe attacks. The gastric stasis or nausea and vomiting that accompany migraine may compromise the absorption and
efficacy of orally administered medications. Pretreatment with antiemetic agents or use of nonoral formulations (eg, suppositories, nasal sprays, or
injections) is advisable when nausea and vomiting are severe.12,20
TABLE 803
Dosing of SelfAdministered Acute Migraine Therapiesa
Medication Dose Maximum Dose/Comments
Analgesics
Acetaminophena (Tylenol) 5001,000 mg every 46 hours as needed Maximum daily dose is 4 g
Acetaminophen 250 Two tablets every 6 hours as needed Available overthecounter as Excedrin Migraine

mg/aspirin 250
mg/caffeine 65 mga
(Excedrin Migraine)
Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs
Aspirina 5001,000 mg every 46 hours as needed Maximum daily dose is 4 g
Ibuprofena (Advil, Motrin) 400800 mg every 46 hours as needed Maximum daily dose is 3.2 g
Naproxen sodiuma (Aleve, 220550 mg every 812 hours as needed Avoid doses greater than 1.375 g/day
Anaprox)
Diclofenac potassiuma 50100 mg every 8 hours as needed Avoid doses greater than 150 mg/day
(Cataflam, Cambia)
Ketorolac nasal (Sprix) 31.5 mg (one spray each nostril) every 68 hours Maximum daily dose is 126 mg/day × 5 days

as needed
Ketorolac IMb 3060 mg every 6 hours as needed Maximum daily dose is 120 mg/day × 5 days
Ergotamine tartrate
Oral tablet (1 mg) with 2 mg at onset; can repeat 12 mg every 30 Maximum dose is 6 mg/day or 10 mg/week; consider pretreatment with
caffeine 100 mgb minutes as needed an antiemetic
(Cafergot)
Sublingual tablet (2 mg) 2 mg at onset; can repeat 2 mg every 30 minutes Maximum dose is 4 mg/day or 10 mg/week; consider pretreatment with

(Ergomar) as needed an antiemetic
Rectal suppository (2 mg) Insert half to one suppository at onset; can Maximum dose is 4 mg/day or 10 mg/week; consider pretreatment with
with caffeine 100 mgb repeat after 1 hour if needed an antiemetic
(Cafergot, Migergot)
Dihydroergotamine
Injection 1 mg/mL (D.H.E. 0.251 mg (IM, IV, or subcutaneous) at onset; can Maximum dose is 3 mg/day or 6 mg/week

45)b repeat every hour as needed
Nasal spray 4 mg/mLa One spray (0.5 mg) in each nostril at onset; Maximum dose is 3 mg/day or 6 mg/week; prime sprayer four times
(Migranal, Trudhesa) can repeat sequence 15 minutes later before using; do not tilt head back or inhale through nose while
(total dose is 2 mg or four sprays) spraying; discard open ampules after 8 hours (Migranal)
(Cafergot, Migergot)
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Dihydroergotamine
Injection 1 mg/mL (D.H.E. 0.251 mg (IM, IV, or subcutaneous) at onset; can Maximum dose is 3 mg/day or 6 mg/week

45)b repeat every hour as needed
Nasal spray 4 mg/mLa One spray (0.5 mg) in each nostril at onset; Maximum dose is 3 mg/day or 6 mg/week; prime sprayer four times
(Migranal, Trudhesa) can repeat sequence 15 minutes later before using; do not tilt head back or inhale through nose while

(total dose is 2 mg or four sprays) spraying; discard open ampules after 8 hours (Migranal)
(Migranal) Two (four sprays)/day or three (six sprays)/week (Trudhesa)
0.725 mg (one spray) in each nostril, may
repeat once in 1 hour (Trudhesa)
Triptans
Sumatriptana
Injection (Imitrex, 16 mg subcutaneous at onset; can repeat after Maximum daily dose is 12 mg

Zembrace Symtouch) 1 hour if needed
Oral tablets (Imitrex) 25, 50, 85, or 100 mg at onset; can repeat after 2 Maximum daily dose is 200 mg; combination product with naproxen,

hours if needed 85/500 mg
Nasal spray (Imitrex) 5 or 20 mg at onset; can repeat after 2 hours if Maximum daily dose is 40 mg

needed
Nasal spray (Tosymra) 10 mg intranasally at onset; can repeat after 1 Maximum daily dose is 30 mg

hour if needed
Nasal powder (Onzetra 22 mg (one 11mg nosepiece in each nostril) at Maximum daily dose is 44 mg (four nosepieces, 11 mg each)

Xsail) onset; can repeat after 2 hours if needed
Transdermal (Zecuity) Apply 6.5 mg patch to upper arm or thigh over 4 Maximum daily dose is two patches

hours; can apply second patch after 2 hours
Zolmitriptana
Oral tablets/ODT (Zomig, 1.25, 2.5, or 5 mg at onset; can repeat after 2 Maximum daily dose is 10 mg; do not divide ODT dosage form

ZomigZMT) hours if needed
Nasal spray (Zomig) 2.5 or 5 mg intranasally at onset; can repeat Maximum daily dose is 10 mg

after 2 hours if needed
Naratriptana (Amerge) 1 or 2.5 mg at onset; can repeat after 4 hours if Maximum daily dose is 5 mg

needed
Rizatriptana oral 5 or 10 mg at onset; can repeat after 2 hours if Maximum daily dose is 30 mg; use 5 mg dose (15 mg/day maximum) in

tablets/ODT (Maxalt, needed individuals on propranolol
MaxaltMLT)
Almotriptana (Axert) 6.25 or 12.5 mg at onset; can repeat after 2 hours Maximum daily dose is 25 mg

if needed
Frovatriptana (Frova) 2.5 or 5 mg at onset; can repeat in 2 hours if Maximum daily dose is 7.5 mg

needed
Eletriptana (Relpax) 20 or 40 mg at onset; can repeat after 2 hours if Maximum daily dose is 80 mg
needed
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Almotriptana (Axert) 6.25 or 12.5 mg at onset; can repeat after 2 hours Maximum daily dose is 25 mg
if needed
Frovatriptana (Frova) 2.5 or 5 mg at onset; can repeat in 2 hours if Maximum daily dose is 7.5 mg

needed
Eletriptana (Relpax) 20 or 40 mg at onset; can repeat after 2 hours if Maximum daily dose is 80 mg

needed
Ditans
Lasmiditan (Reyvow) 50, 100, or 200 mg at onset Maximum of one dose per 24 hours; safety of treating more than four

migraine attacks in a 30day period has not been established
CGRP Antagonists
Ubrogepant (Ubrelvy) 50 or 100 mg at onset; can repeat after 2 hours if Maximum daily dose is 200 mg; safety of treating more than eight

needed migraine attacks in a 30day period has not been established
Rimegepant (Nurtec ODT) 75 mg at onset Maximum of one dose per 24 hours; take on an empty stomach
Antiemetics/Miscellaneous
Acetaminophen, Two capsules to start followed by one capsule Maximum five capsules/12 hours

Isometheptene, and every hour until relief is obtained
Dichloralphenazone
(generic Midrin)
Metoclopramideb (Reglan) 10 mg every 46 mg hours as needed Maximum daily dose is 40 mg (also available as ODT)
Metoclopramidea and 10 mg (metoclopramide) and 1,000 mg (aspirin) Maximum daily dose is 40 mg (metoclopramide) + 4 g (aspirin)

every 46 hours as needed
Aspirina
Prochlorperazineb 510 mg orally 34 times daily as needed or 25 Maximum daily dose is 40 mg for oral and 50 mg for suppository
(Compazine) mg via rectal suppository up to twice daily as
needed
Promethazine 25 mg oral or via rectal suppository every 46 Maximum daily dose is 100 mg

(Phenergan) hours as needed
aLevel A—established efficacy (≥2 Class I studies).
b Level B—probably effective (1 Class I or 2 Class II studies). IM, intramuscular; IV, intravenous; ODT, orally disintegrating tablet.
Data from References 12, 19, and 20.
The frequent or excessive use of acute migraine medications can also result in medicationoveruse headache (or rebound headache),
characterized by increased headache frequency and medication consumption.2,21 This syndrome evolves as a selfsustaining headachemedication
cycle in which the headache returns as the medication wears off, leading to more medication consumption for relief. The headache history often
reflects the gradual onset of an atypical daily or neardaily headache with superimposed episodic migraine attacks. Medication overuse is one of the
most common causes of chronic daily headache.2123 Agents most commonly implicated include simple and combination analgesics and opiates, and
triptans.2123 Discontinuation of the offending agent leads to a gradual decrease in headache frequency and severity and a return of the original
headache characteristics. Although detoxification can be accomplished on an outpatient basis, hospitalization may be necessary for refractory
rebound headache and other withdrawal symptoms (eg, nausea, vomiting, asthenia, restlessness, and agitation).21,22 Regulation of nociceptive
systems and renewed responsiveness to therapy usually occur within 2 months of medication withdrawal.2 Most experts recommend individuals limit
triptan, ergotamine, and ditan use to fewer than 10 days per month, or 2 days per week. Exceptions include limiting aspirin, acetaminophen, and
NSAIDs to 15 days or less per month with recommended.2,6,24 Those with chronic migraine may be instructed to restrict all abortive therapy to fewer
than 10 days per month. Additionally, they may be advised to limit the time period in which one or more medications are regularly taken to less than 3
cycle in which the headache returns as the medication wears off, leading to more medication consumption for relief. The headache history often
reflects the gradual onset of an atypical daily or neardaily headache with superimposed episodic migraine attacks. Medication overuse is one of the
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most common causes of chronic daily headache.2123 Agents most commonly implicated include simple and combination analgesics and opiates, and
triptans.2123 Discontinuation of the offending agent leads to a gradual decrease in headache frequency and severity and a return of the original
headache characteristics. Although detoxification can be accomplished on an outpatient basis, hospitalization may be necessary for refractory
rebound headache and other withdrawal symptoms (eg, nausea, vomiting, asthenia, restlessness, and agitation).21,22 Regulation of nociceptive
systems and renewed responsiveness to therapy usually occur within 2 months of medication withdrawal.2 Most experts recommend individuals limit
triptan, ergotamine, and ditan use to fewer than 10 days per month, or 2 days per week. Exceptions include limiting aspirin, acetaminophen, and
NSAIDs to 15 days or less per month with recommended.2,6,24 Those with chronic migraine may be instructed to restrict all abortive therapy to fewer
than 10 days per month. Additionally, they may be advised to limit the time period in which one or more medications are regularly taken to less than 3
months to avoid the development of medicationoveruse headache. One exception to this recommendation is with the CGRP antagonists, which have
not caused medicationoveruse headache.25
Preventive migraine therapies are administered daily on a routine basis to reduce the frequency, severity, and duration of attacks and
improve responsiveness to symptomatic migraine therapies26,27 (Table 804). Preventive therapy should be considered in the setting of recurring
migraine attacks that produce significant disability despite acute therapy; for frequent attacks occurring more than twice per week with the risk of
developing medicationoveruse headache; for symptomatic therapies that are ineffective or contraindicated, or produce serious adverse effects; or for
uncommon migraine variants that cause profound disruption and/or risk of permanent neurologic injury (eg, hemiplegic migraine, basilar migraine,
and migraine with prolonged aura); and individual preference to limit the number of attacks.18,24 Preventive therapy may also be administered
preemptively or intermittently when headaches recur in a predictable pattern (eg, exerciseinduced migraine or menstrual migraine).18 The various
agents used for migraine prophylaxis are reviewed. Only propranolol, timolol, divalproex sodium, topiramate, erenumabaooe, fremanezumabvfrm,
galcanezumabgnlm, eptinezumabjjmr, atogepant, and rimegepant are currently FDA approved, although other agents have established or have
probable efficacy for this indication.28 Guidelines identify which agents might be effective, but the preference for one therapy over another is not
advised due to lack of established results. Thus, the agent selection is based on adverse effect profiles and the individual’s coexisting/comorbid
conditions.18,26,27 A therapeutic trial of 2 to 3 months is necessary to achieve clinical benefit, but reductions in attack frequency can be evident by the
first month with maximal benefits observed within 6 months.16,18,26 Medication therapy should be initiated with low doses and gradually increased to
therapeutic effect or intolerable adverse effects. Doses for migraine prophylaxis are often lower than those necessary for other indications.18,27
Overuse of acute headache medications will interfere with preventative treatment effects.2,18 Prophylactic treatment usually is continued for at least 6
to 12 months after the frequency and severity of headaches have diminished. After that time, based on discussions with the individual, gradual
tapering or discontinuation may be reasonable.16,2426 Many individuals with migraine headache experience fewer and less severe attacks for lengthy
periods following discontinuation of prophylactic medications or taper to a lower dose. Figures 802 and 803 identify treatment and management
algorithms for migraine headache.
FIGURE 802
Mechanism of action of migraine medications. Nerve activity in the trigeminovascular pain pathway leads to the release of neuropeptides (ie, CGRP)
and neurotransmitters (ie, serotonin and glutamate) that can hyperexcite neurons. CGRP release leads to activation of cyclic adenosine
monophosphate (cAMP) signaling, which results in vasodilation of cerebrovascular smooth muscle, as well as pain signaling via Aδ fibers. Thus,
injectable CGRP antagonists known as antiCGRP antibodies bind to the CGRP receptor or CGRP ligand to block the effects of CGRP on vasodilation and
neurogenic inflammation. Similarly, oral CGRP antagonists (“gepants”) also inhibit the action of CGRP at the receptor. Serotonin (or serotonin agonist)
binding to 5HT receptors can inhibit presynaptic vesicular release of CGRP and inhibit postsynaptic cAMP signaling cascades.
monophosphate (cAMP) signaling, which results in vasodilation of cerebrovascular smooth muscle, as well as pain signaling via Aδ fibers. Thus,
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injectable CGRP antagonists known as antiCGRP antibodies bind to the CGRP receptor or CGRP ligand to block the effects of CGRP on vasodilation and
neurogenic inflammation. Similarly, oral CGRP antagonists (“gepants”) also inhibit the action of CGRP at the receptor. Serotonin (or serotonin agonist)
binding to 5HT receptors can inhibit presynaptic vesicular release of CGRP and inhibit postsynaptic cAMP signaling cascades.
FIGURE 803
Treatment algorithm for migraine headaches.
TABLE 804
Dosing of Prophylactic Migraine Therapies
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FIGURE 803
Treatment algorithm for migraine headaches.
TABLE 804
Dosing of Prophylactic Migraine Therapies
Medication Initial Dose Usual Range Comments
βAdrenergic antagonists
Atenolola (Tenormin) 2550 mg/day 50200 mg/day
Metoprololb (Toprol, 25100 mg/day in divided doses 100200 mg/day in divided doses Dose shortacting two to four times a day

Toprol XL) and extendedrelease one to two times a
day
Nadolola (Corgard) 4080 mg/day 80240 mg/day
Propranololb (Inderal, 40 mg/day in divided doses 40160 mg/day in divided doses Dose shortacting two to three times a day
Inderal LA) and extendedrelease one to two times a
day
Timololb (Blocadren) 20 mg/day in divided doses 2060 mg/day in divided doses

Chapter 80: Headache Disorders, Kimberly B. Tallian; Natalie T. Heinrich
Antidepressants Page 17 / 41
Amitriptylinea (Elavil) 10 mg at bedtime 2050 mg at bedtime

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Propranololb (Inderal, 40 mg/day in divided doses 40160 mg/day in divided doses Dose shortacting two to three times a day
Inderal LA) and extendedrelease one to two times a
day
Timololb (Blocadren) 20 mg/day in divided doses 2060 mg/day in divided doses
Antidepressants
Amitriptylinea (Elavil) 10 mg at bedtime 2050 mg at bedtime
Venlafaxinea (Effexor, 37.5 mg/day 75150 mg/day Dose shortacting two times a day and
EffexorXR) extendedrelease once daily
Antiseizure Medications
Topiramateb (Topamax) 12.525 mg/day 50200 mg/day in divided doses Increase by 12.525 mg/week

or only at bedtime
Valproic acid/divalproex 250500 mg/day in divided doses, or 5001,500 mg/day Dose shortacting two times a day and
sodiumb (Depakene, daily for extended release extendedrelease once daily; monitor levels
Depakote, Depakote ER) if compliance is an issue
CGRP Antagonists (AntiCGRP Antibodies)
Erenumabaooe (Aimovig) 70 mg subcutaneously monthly 70140 mg subcutaneously

every month
Fremanezumabvfrm 225 mg subcutaneously monthly or 225 mg subcutaneously

(Ajovy) 675 mg subcutaneously every 3 monthly or 675 mg
months subcutaneously every 3 months
Galcanezumabgnlm 240 mg subcutaneous loading dose, 120 mg subcutaneously every

(Emgality) followed by 120 mg subcutaneously month
monthly
Eptinezumabjjmr (Vyepti) 100 mg via IV infusion over 30 minutes 100300 mg IV infusion over 30

every 3 months minutes every 3 months
CGRP Antagonists (“gepants”)
Atogepant (Quilpta) 10 mg/day 60 mg/day Taken with or without food
Rimegepant (Nurtec ODT) 75 mg every other day 75 mg/day No titration required and taken on an empty

stomach
Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs – For prevention of menstrual migraine only
Ibuprofena (Motrin) 200 mg/day in three to four divided 200800 mg/day in three to four Use intermittently only; daily or prolonged

doses divided doses (maximum daily use may lead to medicationoveruse
dose is 3,200 mg) headaches
Ketoprofena (Orudis) 150 mg/day in divided doses 150 mg/day in divided doses Use intermittently only; daily or prolonged

use may lead to medicationoveruse
headaches
a
Naproxen sodium (Aleve, 550 mg/day in divided doses 5501,100 mg/day in divided Use intermittently only; daily or prolonged
doses
Anaprox) use may lead to medicationoverusePage 18 / 41
©2022 McGraw Hill. All Rights Reserved. Terms of Use • Privacy Policy • Notice • Accessibility headaches
Triptans – For prevention of menstrual migraine only
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Ketoprofena (Orudis) 150 mg/day in divided doses 150 mg/day in divided doses Use intermittently only; daily or prolonged
use may lead to medicationoveruse
headaches
Naproxen sodiuma (Aleve, 550 mg/day in divided doses 5501,100 mg/day in divided Use intermittently only; daily or prolonged

Anaprox) doses use may lead to medicationoveruse
headaches
Triptans – For prevention of menstrual migraine only
Frovatriptanb (Frova) 2.5 mg/day or 5 mg/day in divided 5 mg/day in divided doses Use intermittently only; daily or prolonged

doses; start 6 days prior to anticipated use may lead to medicationoveruse
start of menstruation headaches
Naratriptana (Amerge) 2 mg/day in divided doses; start 6 days 2 mg/day in divided doses Use intermittently only; daily or prolonged

prior to anticipated start of use may lead to medicationoveruse
menstruation headaches
Zolmitriptana (Zomig) 57.5 mg/day in divided doses; start 6 57.5 mg/day in divided doses Use intermittently only; daily or prolonged

days prior to anticipated start of use may lead to medicationoveruse
menstruation headaches
Miscellaneous
Histaminea (Histatrol) 110 ng 2 times/week Same as initial dose May cause transient itching and burning at

injection site
Magnesiuma 400 mg/day 800 mg/day in divided doses May be more helpful in migraine with aura

and menstrual migraine
MIG99a (feverfew) 10100 mg/day in divided doses Same as initial dose Withdrawal may be associated with

increased headaches
Petasitesb 100150 mg/day in divided doses 150 mg/day in divided doses Use only commercial preparations, plant is

carcinogenic
Riboflavina 400 mg/day in divided doses 400 mg/day in divided doses Benefit only after 3 months
aLevel B—probably effective (1 Class I or 2 Class II studies).
b Level A—established efficacy (≥2 Class I studies).
FIGURE 804
Treatment algorithm for prophylactic management of migraine headaches. (NSAID, nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug).
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FIGURE 804
Treatment algorithm for prophylactic management of migraine headaches. (NSAID, nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug).
Nonpharmacologic Therapy
Nonpharmacologic therapy of acute migraine headache is limited but can include application of ice to the head and periods of rest or sleep, usually
in a dark, quiet environment. Preventative measures typically suggest individuals identify and avoid individual factors or triggers that consistently
provoke migraine attacks, although some triggers are not modifiable2,3,18,24,30 (Table 805). Changes in estrogen levels associated with menarche,
menstruation, pregnancy, menopause, oral contraceptive use, and other hormone therapies can trigger, intensify, or alleviate migraine.3,31 A
headache diary that records the frequency, severity, and duration of attacks can facilitate identification of migraine triggers. In appropriate situations,
some individuals may learn to cope with triggers after a process of controlled exposure and approach/confront strategies.32 Individuals also can
benefit from wellness programs that include regular sleep, exercise, and eating habits, smoking cessation, and limited caffeine intake. Behavioral
interventions, such as acupuncture, relaxation therapy, biofeedback (often used in combination with relaxation therapy), neuromodulation devices
that use currents or magnets to modulate or change brain activity such as Cefaly® and Nerivio®, and cognitive therapy, are preventive treatment options
for individuals who prefer nonmedication therapy or when symptomatic therapies are poorly tolerated, contraindicated, or ineffective.18,30,33,34 A
multimodal approach with nonpharmacologic interventions has Level A evidence for migraine management and should be recommended to
individuals.
TABLE 805
Commonly Reported Triggers of Migraine
Food triggers
Alcohol
Caffeine (greater than 200 mg/day)/caffeine withdrawal
Chocolate
Fermented and pickled foods
Monosodium glutamate (eg, in Chinese food, seasoned salt, and instant foods)
Nitratecontaining foods (eg, processed meats)
Saccharin/aspartame (eg, diet foods or diet sodas)
Tyraminecontaining foods
Environmental triggers
Glare or flickering lights
High altitude
Loud noises
multimodal approach with nonpharmacologic interventions has Level A evidence for migraine management and should be recommended to
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individuals.
TABLE 805
Commonly Reported Triggers of Migraine
Food triggers
Alcohol
Caffeine (greater than 200 mg/day)/caffeine withdrawal
Chocolate
Fermented and pickled foods
Monosodium glutamate (eg, in Chinese food, seasoned salt, and instant foods)
Nitratecontaining foods (eg, processed meats)
Saccharin/aspartame (eg, diet foods or diet sodas)
Tyraminecontaining foods
Environmental triggers
Glare or flickering lights
High altitude
Loud noises
Strong smells and fumes
Tobacco smoke
Weather changes*
Behavioral–physiologic triggers
Excess or insufficient sleep
Fatigue
Menstruation, menopause*
Sexual activity
Skipped meals/fasting*
Strenuous physical activity (eg, prolonged overexertion)
Stress or poststress*
*Not easily modified triggers.
Pharmacologic Therapy
Stress or poststress* Access Provided by:
*Not easily modified triggers.
Abortive Treatments
Analgesics and NSAIDs
Simple analgesics and NSAIDs are effective medications for managing many migraine attacks (see Table 803). They offer a reasonable firstline choice
for mildtomoderate migraine attacks or severe attacks that have been responsive to similar NSAIDs or nonopiate analgesics in the past. Of the
NSAIDs, aspirin, diclofenac, ibuprofen, naproxen sodium, and the combination of acetaminophen plus aspirin and caffeine have established efficacy in
controlled clinical trials.12,19,20 Oral acetaminophen alone also has efficacy for nonincapacitating migraine attacks.19 The comparable efficacy of
NSAIDs and triptans in acute migraine is known, although comparisons with other therapeutic classes are limited. Baseline headache intensity does
not predict aspirin or other NSAID therapy success or failure.2,36 No studies have compared the relative efficacy of different NSAIDs.12,20
NSAIDs prevent neurogenically mediated inflammation in the trigeminovascular system through the inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis.
Metoclopramide can speed the absorption of analgesics and alleviate migrainerelated nausea and vomiting.37 Moreover, when metoclopramide is
combined with aspirin, the combination has similar efficacy to sumatriptan and is an alternative for individuals where triptans are contraindicated.12,13
Suppository analgesic preparations are an option when nausea and vomiting are severe.20 Acute NSAID therapy is associated with GI (eg, dyspepsia,
nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea) and CNS (eg, somnolence, dizziness) adverse effects. These agents should be avoided or used cautiously in individuals
with previous ulcer disease, renal disease, severe cardiovascular disease, or hypersensitivity to aspirin.12,20
The nonprescription combination of acetaminophen, aspirin, and caffeine was approved for migraine treatment in the United States given its efficacy
in relieving pain and associated symptoms.19,20 Aspirin and acetaminophen are also available in prescription combination products containing a short
acting barbiturate (butalbital) or narcotic (codeine). While butalbital or butalbitalcontaining products are possibly effective for acute migraine, these
analgesics or narcotics should be limited due to overuse, medicationoveruse headache, and withdrawal concerns.19–21 Frequent consumption of
aspirin or acetaminophen alone can result in medicationoveruse headache, and combination analgesics appear to pose a greater risk.21
Triptans
The 5HT receptor agonists, or triptans, represented a significant advance in migraine pharmacotherapy. The first member of this class, sumatriptan,
and the secondgeneration agents zolmitriptan, naratriptan, rizatriptan, almotriptan, frovatriptan, and eletriptan are selective agonists of the 5HT1B
and 5HT1D receptors. With these agents, relief from migraine headache results from three key actions: (1) normalization of dilated intracranial arteries
through enhanced vasoconstriction, (2) inhibition of vasoactive peptide release from perivascular trigeminal neurons, and (3) inhibition of
transmission through secondorder neurons ascending to the thalamus.12,20 The triptans all have established efficacy and are appropriate firstline
therapy for mild to severe migraine. They are also used for rescue therapy when nonspecific medications are ineffective.19,20
Sumatriptan, the most extensively studied acute therapy, is available for subcutaneous, oral, and intranasal administration. Subcutaneous
sumatriptan is consistently superior to placebo in alleviating migraine headache and associated symptoms, with relief reported in 70% of individuals at
2 hours.19 It also has a more rapid onset of action when compared with the oral formulation and is packaged as an autoinjector device for self
administration. Intranasal sumatriptan provides a faster onset of effect than the oral formulation and produces similar response rates in placebo
controlled studies.12,20
Triptan selection is based on headache characteristics, convenience of dosing, and the individual’s preference. At all marketed doses, oral triptans are
effective and generally well tolerated20 and differ in their pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles (Table 806). In general, they can be divided
into those with a faster onset and higher efficacy and those with a slower onset and lower efficacy. A metaanalysis summarizes the efficacy and
tolerability of the oral triptans across published and unpublished studies. Using 100 mg of sumatriptan as the reference dose and based on 2hour
response rates, most of the triptans show similar therapeutic gains at manufacturer recommended doses. Exceptions to this were frovatriptan and
naratriptan with lower efficacy. These agents also have the longest halflives, the slowest onset of action, and less headache recurrence, making them
more suitable for individuals who have migraine attacks with slow onset and longer duration. Fasteracting triptans are more efficacious when a rapid
onset is necessary. Subcutaneous, intranasal, or orally dissolving tablets may be useful in individuals with prominent early nausea or vomiting or those
who have difficulty in swallowing tablets. Most individuals prefer oral formulations even though oral absorption can be delayed during attacks.12,20
TABLE 806
Triptan selection is based on headache characteristics, convenience of dosing, and the individual’s preference. At all marketed doses, oral triptans are
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effective and generally well tolerated20 and differ in their pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles (Table 806). In general, they can be divided
into those with a faster onset and higher efficacy and those with a slower onset and lower efficacy. A metaanalysis summarizes the efficacy and
tolerability of the oral triptans across published and unpublished studies. Using 100 mg of sumatriptan as the reference dose and based on 2hour
response rates, most of the triptans show similar therapeutic gains at manufacturer recommended doses. Exceptions to this were frovatriptan and
naratriptan with lower efficacy. These agents also have the longest halflives, the slowest onset of action, and less headache recurrence, making them
more suitable for individuals who have migraine attacks with slow onset and longer duration. Fasteracting triptans are more efficacious when a rapid
onset is necessary. Subcutaneous, intranasal, or orally dissolving tablets may be useful in individuals with prominent early nausea or vomiting or those
who have difficulty in swallowing tablets. Most individuals prefer oral formulations even though oral absorption can be delayed during attacks.12,20
TABLE 806
Pharmacokinetic Characteristics of Triptans
Medication HalfLife Time to Maximal Bioavailability Elimination

(hours) Concentration (t m a x) (%)
Almotriptan 34 1.43.8 hours 80 MAOA, CYP3A4, CYP2D6
Eletriptan 45 12 hours 50 CYP3A4
Frovatriptan 25 24 hours 2430 Mostly unchanged, CYP1A2
Naratriptan 56 23 hours 6374 Largely unchanged, CYP450 (various isoenzymes); primary

sulfa medication
Rizatriptan 23 45 MAOA
Oral tablets 11.2 hours
Disintegrating 1.62.5 hours
Sumatriptan 2 MAOA; primary sulfa medication
Subcutaneous 1215 minutes 97
injection
Oral tablets 2.5 hours 14
Nasal spray 10 minutes 17
Nasal powder 45 minutes
Patch 1.1 hours 45
Zolmitriptan 3 4048 CYP1A2, MAOA
Oral 2 hours
Disintegrating 3.3 hours
Nasal 4 hours
CYP, cytochrome P450; MAOA, monoamine oxidase type A.
Data from References 12, 13, and 37–40.
Triptan clinical response can vary considerably among individuals and responses cannot be predicted. If one triptan fails, an individual can be
switched successfully to another.12,13 After an effective agent and dose are identified, subsequent treatments with that same regimen should begin.
Combination therapy may improve response rates and diminish migraine recurrence. A proprietary single tablet formulation of sumatriptan 85 mg
plus naproxen 500 mg was more effective in clinical trials for headache relief and sustained painfree response than either agent as monotherapy.19,20
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CYP, cytochrome P450; MAOA, monoamine oxidase type A.
Data from References 12, 13, and 37–40.
Triptan clinical response can vary considerably among individuals and responses cannot be predicted. If one triptan fails, an individual can be
switched successfully to another.12,13 After an effective agent and dose are identified, subsequent treatments with that same regimen should begin.
Combination therapy may improve response rates and diminish migraine recurrence. A proprietary single tablet formulation of sumatriptan 85 mg
plus naproxen 500 mg was more effective in clinical trials for headache relief and sustained painfree response than either agent as monotherapy.19,20
Triptan adverse effects are common but are usually mild to moderate in nature, of short duration, and common among the class; including
paresthesias, fatigue, dizziness, flushing, warm sensations, and somnolence. Local adverse effects are reported with the subcutaneous (minor
injection site reactions) and intranasal (taste perversion, nasal discomfort) routes. Up to 25% of individuals report “triptan sensations,” including
tightness, pressure, heaviness, or pain in the chest, neck, or throat. The mechanism of these symptoms is unknown, but a cardiac source seems
unlikely in most individuals; however, all triptans are partial agonists of human 5HT coronary artery receptors in vitro, resulting in a small but
significant vasoconstrictor response. Other adverse cardiac events are rare, with only isolated cases of myocardial infarction and coronary vasospasm
with ischemia reported. The triptans are contraindicated in individuals with a history of ischemic heart disease (eg, angina pectoris, Prinzmetal’s
angina, or previous myocardial infarction), uncontrolled hypertension, and cerebrovascular disease. Individuals at risk for unrecognized coronary
artery disease should use triptans with caution. Postmenopausal females, males older than 40 years of age, and individuals with uncontrolled risk
factors should receive a cardiovascular assessment prior to triptan use and have initial doses administered under medical supervision. These agents
are also contraindicated in individuals with hemiplegic and basilar migraine and should not be used routinely in pregnancy.20,23
The triptans should not be given within 24 hours of the ergotamine derivatives. Administration of sumatriptan, rizatriptan, and zolmitriptan within 2
weeks of therapy with monoamine oxidase inhibitors is not recommended. Eletriptan should not be administered with cytochrome P4503A4 (CYP3A4)
inhibitors such as macrolide antibiotics, antifungals, and some antiviral therapies. Concomitant therapy with the selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitors (SSRIs) or serotoninnorepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) (eg, duloxetine, venlafaxine, and mirtazapine) has been reported to cause
serotonin syndrome based on several case reports. This interaction has been doubted as triptans are serotonin 1B and 1D agonists, whereas serotonin
syndrome is hypothesized to involve 2A and 1A receptors.41 Regulatory agencies, including the FDA, caution against concurrent administration,
although it appears the likelihood of CNS adverse events is extremely low. The potential risk of these combinations should be carefully considered and
discussed with the individual.12,13,20 Frequent use of the triptans has been associated with the development of medicationoveruse headache.6,21
Ergot Alkaloids and Derivatives
Ergotamine tartrate and dihydroergotamine can treat moderatetosevere migraine attacks (see Table 804). These medications are nonselective 5HT1
receptor agonists that constrict intracranial blood vessels, centrally inhibit the trigeminovascular system, and prevent neurogenic inflammation
development.12,13 These agents also have agonist activity at dopaminergic receptors. Venous and arterial constriction occur with therapeutic doses,
but ergotamine tartrate exerts more potent arterial effects than dihydroergotamine.12,20
The oral and rectal preparations of ergotamine tartrate containing caffeine, to enhance absorption and potentiate analgesia, are probably effective.19
The dosage should be strictly titrated to establish an effective subnauseating dose for future attacks. The efficacy of ergotamine alone in migraine is
inconsistent, despite its clinical use for decades.12,20
Dihydroergotamine is probably effective and available for intranasal and parenteral administration by the IM, subcutaneous and IV routes.13,19,20
Parenteral dihydroergotamine was previously used as an inpatient or emergency department treatment for moderatetosevere migraine or
intractable headache, but individuals can be trained to selfadminister either IM or subcutaneously. Clinical studies support the nasal spray and
pulmonary inhaler (still in development) as effective.13,19
Nausea and vomiting resulting from chemoreceptor trigger zone stimulation are among the most common ergotamine derivative adverse effects.
Pretreatment with an antiemetic agent should be considered with ergotamine and IV dihydroergotamine therapy. Other common adverse effects
include abdominal pain, weakness, fatigue, paresthesias, muscle pain, diarrhea, and chest tightness. Rarely, symptoms of severe peripheral ischemia
(ergotism), including cold, numb, painful extremities, continuous paresthesias, diminished peripheral pulses, and claudication, can result from their
vasoconstrictor effects. Gangrenous extremities, myocardial infarction, hepatic necrosis, and bowel and brain ischemia have also been reported;
however, dihydroergotamine is rarely associated with such adverse effects. Triptans and ergot derivatives should not be used within 24 hours of each
other,12,20 and they are contraindicated in individuals with renal or hepatic failure; coronary, cerebral, or peripheral vascular disease; uncontrolled
hypertension; and sepsis; or in individuals who are pregnant or nursing. Dihydroergotamine does not appear to cause rebound headache, but dosage
restrictions for ergotamine tartrate should be strictly observed to prevent this complication.20
Antiemetics
include abdominal pain, weakness, fatigue, paresthesias, muscle pain, diarrhea, and chest tightness. Rarely, symptoms of severe peripheral ischemia
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(ergotism), including cold, numb, painful extremities, continuous paresthesias, diminished peripheral pulses, and claudication, can result from their
vasoconstrictor effects. Gangrenous extremities, myocardial infarction, hepatic necrosis, and bowel and brain ischemia have also been reported;
however, dihydroergotamine is rarely associated with such adverse effects. Triptans and ergot derivatives should not be used within 24 hours of each
other,12,20 and they are contraindicated in individuals with renal or hepatic failure; coronary, cerebral, or peripheral vascular disease; uncontrolled
hypertension; and sepsis; or in individuals who are pregnant or nursing. Dihydroergotamine does not appear to cause rebound headache, but dosage
restrictions for ergotamine tartrate should be strictly observed to prevent this complication.20
Antiemetics
Adjunctive antiemetic therapy is useful for the nausea and vomiting accompanying migraine headaches and the medications used to treat attacks (eg,
ergotamine tartrate). A single antiemetic dose, such as metoclopramide or prochlorperazine, administered 15 to 30 minutes before migraine oral
abortive treatment is often sufficient. Suppository preparations are available when nausea and vomiting are particularly prominent. Metoclopramide
is also useful to reverse gastroparesis and improve absorption from the GI tract during severe attacks.12
In addition to antiemetic effects, dopamine antagonists have also been used successfully as monotherapy to treat intractable headaches (see Table 80
4). Prochlorperazine administered IV, IM, or rectal routes and IV metoclopramide provide more effective pain relief than placebo. Chlorpromazine and
droperidol also provide migraine headache relief when administered parenterally at doses of 0.1 mg/kg and 2.75 to 8.25 mg, respectively. Their precise
mechanism of action is unknown; however, they offer an alternative to the narcotic analgesics for refractory migraine treatment. Drowsiness and
dizziness were reported occasionally, and extrapyramidal adverse effects were reported infrequently in migraine trials. Most of these medications have
a risk for QT prolongation and torsades de pointes.12,19,20
Ditans
Lasmiditan is in a new class of abortive migraine medications known as “ditans.” Unlike the triptan mechanism of agonists at 5HT1B and 5HT1D,
lasmiditan is a highly selective 5HT1F agonist whereby vasoconstrictive activity is minimized.41 Ditans act by blocking both neurogenic inflammation in
the dura and stimulation of the trigeminal nucleus caudalis. In clinical trials, all doses of lasmiditan were significantly superior to placebo both for
headachefree days and improvement in most bothersome symptoms (eg, nausea, phonophobia, or photophobia) 2 hours postdose, for individuals
with three to eight migraine attacks per month.42,43 Common adverse effects reported in 2% of individuals or more were dizziness, paresthesia,
sedation, and nausea/vomiting. Lasmiditan is associated with significant driving impairment where sleepiness has been reported after each dose. This
adverse effect has prompted specific labeling warnings and precautions regarding not driving a motor vehicle or operating heavy machinery for at
least 8 hours following each dose.
Two smallmolecule CGRP antagonists, ubrogepant and rimegepant, which are also known as “gepants,” have been FDA approved for the acute
treatment of migraine. During a migraine attack, CGRP levels rise resulting in vasodilation and neurogenic inflammation.44,45 Thus, the blockade of
CGRP receptors has become a breakthrough treatment for individuals with migraines. The clinical data regarding the efficacy of these medications is
similar to triptans and lasmiditan, though they tend to have improved tolerability, and in contrast to triptans, the presence or history of cardiovascular
disease is not a contraindication. Furthermore, medication overuse headache does not occur as a result of gepant use.46
The primary outcomes evaluated in clinical trials for these agents were pain freedom and reduction in most bothersome symptoms, two hours after
dosing. Using these outcomes, ubrogepant (50mg and 100mg doses) and rimegepant (75mg dose) have efficacy in pain freedom and freedom from
most bothersome symptoms (photophobia, phonophobia, or nausea) at two hours. The incidence of adverse effects was very low (less than 5%) but
included nausea for rimegepant and nausea, xerostomia, and somnolence for ubrogepant. Rimegepant is a relatively longacting acute medication
with a halflife of 11 hours, and thus, it is not recommended to repeat a dose within 24 hours. Ubrogepant has a shorter halflife of 5 to 7 hours, and the
dose can be repeated two hours after the initial administration. These two medications have significant medication interactions, and concomitant use
with strong CYP3A4 inhibitors, Pgp inhibitors, and BCRP inhibitors should be avoided; otherwise, dose adjustments may need to be made.
Additionally, these agents should be avoided in severe renal or hepatic impairment and dose adjustments may need to be made in mild to moderate
renal or hepatic impairment.
Opiate Analgesics
There is inadequate evidence supporting narcotic analgesic use (ie, parenteral butorphanol, meperidine, methadone, and tramadol or oral codeine) in
the treatment of acute migraine. However, oral codeine or tramadol combinations with acetaminophen are probably effective and butorphanol nasal
spray has established efficacy.19 Opiates have no vasopressor or antiinflammatory effects and can cause central sensitization, increasing the risk of
medicationoveruse headache and interfering with the efficacy of other treatments even with intermittent use.12,19,21 These agents should generally be
reserved for individuals with moderatetosevere infrequent headaches in whom conventional therapies are contraindicated, or as “rescue
medication” after individuals have failed to respond to conventional therapies. Opioid therapy should be supervised closely because of the risk of
12,20
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Opiate Analgesics
There is inadequate evidence supporting narcotic analgesic use (ie, parenteral butorphanol, meperidine, methadone, and tramadol or oral codeine) in
the treatment of acute migraine. However, oral codeine or tramadol combinations with acetaminophen are probably effective and butorphanol nasal
spray has established efficacy.19 Opiates have no vasopressor or antiinflammatory effects and can cause central sensitization, increasing the risk of
medicationoveruse headache and interfering with the efficacy of other treatments even with intermittent use.12,19,21 These agents should generally be
reserved for individuals with moderatetosevere infrequent headaches in whom conventional therapies are contraindicated, or as “rescue
medication” after individuals have failed to respond to conventional therapies. Opioid therapy should be supervised closely because of the risk of
sedation and the potential for unhealthy use.12,20
Miscellaneous Nonspecific Medications
Corticosteroids can be considered rescue therapy for status migrainous (a severe, continuous migraine that can last up to 1 week) or to reduce
migraine recurrence. Intravenous (IV) dexamethasone at a 4 to 16mg dose has been used as an adjunct to abortive therapy, although evidence is
incomplete.19,20 IV valproate 400 to 1,000 mg also plays a role in moderate or severe intensity headaches, although data to support this is limited. When
used the majority of individuals report improvement after one dose. Lastly, magnesium sulfate 1,000 to 2,000 mg IV (in migraine with aura) and generic
isometheptene combinations are probably effective. A more defined role for these agents in migraine management must be established.19
Prophylactic Pharmacologic Therapy
Antiseizure Medications
Antiseizure medications have emerged as important therapeutic options for migraine prophylaxis with valproate, divalproex, and topiramate all having
established efficacy.25 The beneficial effects of these agents are likely due to multiple mechanisms of action, including enhancement of γaminobutyric
acid–mediated inhibition, modulation of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate, and inhibition of sodium and calcium ion channel activity.
Antiseizure medications are particularly useful in individuals with migraine and comorbid seizures, anxiety disorder, or bipolar illness.18,26,47,48 The
use of sodium valproate and divalproex sodium (a 1:1 molar combination of valproate sodium and valproic acid) is effective based on multiple
placebo‐controlled studies. In most headache prophylaxis trials, there were no significant differences in treatmentemergent adverse effects between
these agents and placebo. Nausea and vomiting are the most common early adverse effects but are selflimited and appear to be less common with
divalproex sodium and gradual dose titration. Alopecia, tremor, asthenia, somnolence, and weight gain are also complaints.18,26 The extendedrelease
formulation of divalproex sodium is administered once daily and is better tolerated than the entericcoated formulation. Hepatotoxicity is the most
serious adverse effect associated with valproate, but the risk appears to be low in individuals with migraine headache (eg, individuals older than 10
years of age who are receiving monotherapy and have no underlying metabolic or neurologic disorder). Baseline liver function tests should be
obtained, but routine followup is not necessary for asymptomatic adults on monotherapy. Regular followup is needed for dosage adjustments and
adverse effect monitoring. Valproate when used for migraine prophylaxis, is contraindicated in pregnant individuals due to potential teratogenicity
and for individuals with a history of pancreatitis or chronic liver disease.18,26
Topiramate is the most extensively studied antiseizure medication for migraine prophylaxis. Its efficacy shows improvements in health‐related quality
of life such as daily work, home, and social activities.. To minimize adverse effects, topiramate should be initiated at a low dose and slowly titrated
upward. The benefits of topiramate are observed as early as 2 weeks after therapy initiation, with significant reductions in migraine frequency within
the first month. Approximately half of the individuals treated to target doses are responders, defined as a 50% or greater reduction in mean headache
frequency. Treatmentemergent adverse events include paresthesia, fatigue, anorexia, diarrhea, weight loss, hypesthesia, difficulty with memory,
language problems, taste perversion, and nausea. Paresthesia, the most common adverse event, occurs in about half of the individuals at target doses.
Weight loss, occurring in 9% to 12% of individuals, is a unique adverse effect, as weight gain is a common reason to discontinue other preventive
medications. Topiramate should be used with caution or avoided in individuals with a history of kidney stones or cognitive impairment.18,26
Carbamazepine is possibly effective for migraine phophylasis and gabapentin has modest impact.49 Lamotrigine is classified as possibly or probably
ineffective.26
Additional information regarding all antiseizure medications can be found in Chapter 75, “Epilepsy.”
Antidepressants
The beneficial effects of antidepressants in migraine are independent of their antidepressant activity and may be related to downregulation of central
5HT2 receptors resulting in increased levels of synaptic norepinephrine, and enhanced endogenous opioid receptor actions.9 The tricyclic
antidepressant (TCA) amitriptyline and SNRI venlafaxine have demonstrated efficacy in placebocontrolled and comparative studies and are classified
as probably effective for migraine prophylaxis (see Table 804).18,26 Use of other antidepressants is based primarily on clinical and anecdotal
experience. There is neither support nor refusal regarding the efficacy of other antidepressants, such as protriptyline, fluoxetine, or fluvoxamine, for
Additional information regarding all antiseizure medications can be found in Chapter 75, “Epilepsy.” Access Provided by:
Antidepressants
The beneficial effects of antidepressants in migraine are independent of their antidepressant activity and may be related to downregulation of central
5HT2 receptors resulting in increased levels of synaptic norepinephrine, and enhanced endogenous opioid receptor actions.9 The tricyclic
antidepressant (TCA) amitriptyline and SNRI venlafaxine have demonstrated efficacy in placebocontrolled and comparative studies and are classified
as probably effective for migraine prophylaxis (see Table 804).18,26 Use of other antidepressants is based primarily on clinical and anecdotal
experience. There is neither support nor refusal regarding the efficacy of other antidepressants, such as protriptyline, fluoxetine, or fluvoxamine, for
migraine prophylaxis.26
Anticholinergic adverse effects are common with the TCAs and limit their use in individuals with benign prostatic hyperplasia and glaucoma. Evening
doses are preferred because of associated sedation. Increased appetite and weight gain can also occur. Orthostatic hypotension and slowed
atrioventricular conduction are also occasionally reported.18,26 Venlafaxine’s most common adverse effects are nausea, vomiting, and drowsiness.
Again, the potential risk of 5HT syndrome should be considered in individuals using SSRIs or SNRIs along with a triptan.20,26 Additional information
about the adverse effects of antidepressants can be found in Chapter 88.
βAdrenergic Antagonists
βAdrenergic antagonists are among the most widely used medications for migraine prophylaxis. Metoprolol, propranolol, and timolol have
established efficacy and reduce the frequency of attacks by half in more than 50% of individuals.18,26 Atenolol and nadolol are probably effective, while
nebivolol and pindolol are possibly effective (see Table 805).25 Because the individual agent’s relative efficacy has not been established, βblocker
selection can be based on βselectivity, formulation, and tolerability. βblockers may raise the migraine threshold by modulating adrenergic or
serotonergic neurotransmission in cortical or subcortical pathways, although their precise mechanism is unknown. Although not firstline treatment
for hypertension, βblockers may be useful along with other therapy in individuals with comorbid hypertension or angina. Adverse effects can include
drowsiness, fatigue, sleep disturbances, vivid dreams, memory disturbance, depression, impotence, bradycardia, and hypotension. The βblockers
should be used with caution in individuals with congestive heart failure, peripheral vascular disease, atrioventricular conduction disturbances,
asthma, depression, and diabetes.18,26
CGRP Antagonists (AntiCGRP Antibodies)
Inhibition of the CGRP receptor is the newest target in the prophylaxis of migraine.9,18,46,47 Several antiCGRP receptor monoclonal antibodies have
been FDA approved in recent years such as erenumabaooe, fremanezumabvfrm, galcanezumabgnlm, and eptinezumabjjmr. While erenumab
targets the CGRP receptor, the others target the CGRP ligand. These biologic agents have efficacy, safety, and tolerability for the prevention of episodic
and chronic migraine.17 Erenumab, fremanezumab, and galcanezumab are all administered as monthly subcutaneous injections and fremanezumab
has a quarterly (every 3 months) dosing option. Eptinezumab is a quarterly IV infusion. The lack of hepatic metabolism or renal clearance for these
agents avoids medication interactions with this medication class. Injection site reactions are the most common adverse event for all of the
subcutaneous agents. For erenumab worsening of preexisitng hypertension can occur within 7 day of initiation and constipation has been reported in
less than 5% of users. For eptinezumab, nasopharyngitis is reported in less than 10% of individuals and hypersensitivity is reported in less than 3%.
The cost of these biological medications is higher than the oral preventive medications, and it is recommended that they are reserved for individuals
who have been unable to tolerate or who did not respond to at least two of the preventive oral medications with highest level of evidence (topiramate,
divalproex/valproate sodium, beta blockers, tricyclic antidepressants, or venlafaxine/duloxetine).
Unlike the largemolecule, injectable, preventative monoclonal antibodies, the “gepants” are smallmolecule agents that block the ability of CGRP to
bind to the CGRP docking station, which prevents prolonged migraine attacks. There are two “gepants,” atogepant and rimegepant, that are FDA
approved for preventative treatment of episodic migraine headaches in adults.
Atogepant (placebo, 10 mg daily, 30 mg daily, 60 mg daily) was evaluated in two, 12week, multicenter, randomized, placebocontrolled trials for
episodic migraine headache prevention.50,51 IA decrease of approximately 4 mean migraine days a month over a 12‐week period for atogepant was
seen compared with a decrease of approximately 2.5 days in the placebo group. Fatigue, nausea, and constipation appeared to increase at the higher
doses, and some adverse effects were noted at about 2% compared with a placebo. No liver abnormalities above the placebo rate were seen.51 Like
rimegepant and ubrogepant, atogepant has significant medication interactions, and concomitant use with strong CYP3A4 inhibitors, strong as well as
moderate CYP3A4 inducers, and OATP inhibitors should be avoided; otherwise, dose adjustments may be needed. Additionally, atogepant should be
avoided in severe renal or hepatic impairment. Rimegepant (75 mg every other day) was used in the prevention of episodic migraine headache for over
12 weeks in a multicenter, randomized, placebocontrolled study. Overall the difference in the reduction of migraine days was 0.8 days per month with
rimegepant versus placebo.52 Two percent of adverse medication effects associated with rimegepant included nasopharyngitis, nausea, urinary tract
infection, and upper respiratory tract infection were mild to moderate in severity. Adverse rimegepant effects include reversible alanine
Atogepant (placebo, 10 mg daily, 30 mg daily, 60 mg daily) was evaluated in two, 12week, multicenter, randomized, placebocontrolled trials for
episodic migraine headache prevention.50,51 IA decrease of approximately 4 mean migraine days a month over a 12‐week period for atogepant was
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seen compared with a decrease of approximately 2.5 days in the placebo group. Fatigue, nausea, and constipation appeared to increase at the higher
doses, and some adverse effects were noted at about 2% compared with a placebo. No liver abnormalities above the placebo rate were seen.51 Like
rimegepant and ubrogepant, atogepant has significant medication interactions, and concomitant use with strong CYP3A4 inhibitors, strong as well as
moderate CYP3A4 inducers, and OATP inhibitors should be avoided; otherwise, dose adjustments may be needed. Additionally, atogepant should be
avoided in severe renal or hepatic impairment. Rimegepant (75 mg every other day) was used in the prevention of episodic migraine headache for over
12 weeks in a multicenter, randomized, placebocontrolled study. Overall the difference in the reduction of migraine days was 0.8 days per month with
rimegepant versus placebo.52 Two percent of adverse medication effects associated with rimegepant included nasopharyngitis, nausea, urinary tract
infection, and upper respiratory tract infection were mild to moderate in severity. Adverse rimegepant effects include reversible alanine
aminotransferase or aspartate aminotransferase greater than three times the upper limit of normal, reversible asymptomatic elevation of
aminotransferases with alanine aminotransferase greater than 10 times the upper limit of normal, and hereditary liver disorder related where bilirubin
levels greater than two times the upper limit of normal.
Nonsteroidal AntiInflammatory Drugs
NSAIDs are modestly effective for reducing the frequency, severity, and duration of migraine attacks, but potential GI and renal toxicity limit the daily or
prolonged use of these agents. Consequently, NSAIDs have been used intermittently to prevent headaches recurring in a predictable pattern, such as
menstrual migraine. NSAID administration in the perimenstrual period can be beneficial in females with true menstrual migraine. They should be
initiated up to 1 week prior to the expected onset of headache and continued for no more than 10 days.27 If longterm NSAID therapy is initiated, renal
function and occult blood loss should be monitored. The evidence for efficacy is strongest for naproxen and weakest for aspirin.27,32
Triptans
Triptans are also useful for the prevention of menstrual migraine. Frovatriptan has established efficacy, while naratriptan and zolmitriptan are
probably effective. These agents are usually started 1 or 2 days before the expected onset of headache and continued during the period of
vulnerability.27,32 Regulatory authorities are currently deliberating a separate indication for pure menstrual migraine.26
Miscellaneous Prophylactic Agents
At least two placebocontrolled studies show that petasites, an extract from the butterbur plant Petasites hybridus, is an effective preventive treatment
for migraine.18,29 There is a probable efficacy of riboflavin (vitamin B2) 400 mg daily in migraine prophylaxis, based on double‐blind, placebo‐
controlled study. Riboflavin is well tolerated and associated with a 50% or greater improvement in attack frequency in most individuals. However, these
benefits were only significant after 3 months.18,29 The relatively stable extract of feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium), MIG99, is the most studied herbal
preparation for migraine prevention and it reduces migraine frequency by almost two attacks per month and is classified as probably effective.18,29 As
CNS levels of magnesium are significantly low during migraine attacks, magnesium supplementation may be particularly effective for prevention of
menstrual migraine.31 The evaluation of various formulations of magnesium has yielded mixed results, but there is probable efficacy.18,29
Subcutaneous histamine has been compared with placebo, sodium valproate, and topiramate, with favorable results indicating probable efficacy in
improving headache frequency, duration, and intensity. Transient burning and itching at the injection site were the only reported adverse effects with
histamine administration.29
Other agents are also possibly effective for migraine prevention.26,29 The angiotensinconverting enzyme inhibitor lisinopril and the angiotensin II
receptor blocker candesartan provided effective migraine prophylaxis in recent clinical trials.18,26 Clonidine and guanfacine also have possible efficacy,
although adverse effects limit their use.26 Coenzyme Q10 was effective for migraine prevention and welltolerated in a small, randomized, double
blind, controlled study.18,29 Cyproheptadine (4 mg/day) was as effective as propranolol (80 mg/day) in reducing migraine frequency, duration, and
severity, while the combination was more effective in attack frequency reduction.26,29
The calcium channel blockers, primarily verapamil, have been widely used for preventive treatment, although the results of their use is inadequate or
conflicting.18,26 Extensive clinical experience and verapamil’s ease of use suggest a possible role in migraine prevention. Adverse effects include
constipation, hypotension, bradycardia, atrioventricular block, and exacerbation of congestive heart failure.26
Localized injections of botulinum toxin type A have been used for various conditions and pain syndromes, including chronic migraines. This agent is
FDA approved for individuals who have 15 or more headache days per month lasting 4 or more hours daily. The American Academy of Neurology
concludes that a 6week trial of botulinum toxin is effective as a secondline agent after inadequate response or adverse effects to at least two of the
following agents: topiramate, divalproex sodium/valproate sodium, betablocker, tricyclic antidepressant, or SNRI.18
TENSIONTYPE HEADACHE
Epidemiology
constipation, hypotension, bradycardia, atrioventricular block, and exacerbation of congestive heart failure.26 Access Provided by:
Localized injections of botulinum toxin type A have been used for various conditions and pain syndromes, including chronic migraines. This agent is
FDA approved for individuals who have 15 or more headache days per month lasting 4 or more hours daily. The American Academy of Neurology
concludes that a 6week trial of botulinum toxin is effective as a secondline agent after inadequate response or adverse effects to at least two of the
following agents: topiramate, divalproex sodium/valproate sodium, betablocker, tricyclic antidepressant, or SNRI.18
TENSIONTYPE HEADACHE
Epidemiology
Tensiontype headache is the most common type of primary headache, with an estimated 1year prevalence of 38% to 86%.3,53 It peaks in the fourth
decade of life and is higher among females; however, the incidence decreases with age.32 Although most individuals with tensiontype headaches
experience some degree of functional impairment during their attacks, few seek medical attention, likely because they have intermittent attacks. These
headaches are classified as either episodic (infrequent or frequent) or chronic based on the frequency and duration of the attacks.2 Infrequent
episodic tensiontype headache (defined as fewer than one episode per month) is experienced by 64% of sufferers, while 22% have a frequent episodic
tensiontype headache for about 114 days per month). The prevalence of chronic tensiontype headache (defined as 15 or more days/month, perhaps
without recognizable episodes) is estimated at 0.9% to 2.2%.2,53 Risk factors associated with a poor outcome include coexisting migraine, depression,
anxiety, poor stress management, and the presence of chronic tensiontype headache.55
Pathophysiology
Although tensiontype headache is the most common type of headache, it is the least studied primary headache disorder, and there is limited
understanding of key pathophysiologic concepts.2,53 Migraine and tensiontype headaches represent a continuum of headache severity with
similarities in mechanisms and pathophysiology. However, tensiontype headache has been recognized as a distinct disorder.2,53 The mechanism of
pain in chronic tensiontype headache is thought to originate from myofascial factors and peripheral sensitization of nociceptors. Central mechanisms
also are involved, with heightened sensitivity of CNS pain pathways.53 Mental stress, nonphysiologic motor stress, a local myofascial release of
irritants, or a combination of these may be the initiating stimulus. Following activation of supraspinal pain perception structures, a selflimiting
headache results in most individuals owing to central modulation of the incoming peripheral stimuli. Chronic tensiontype headache can evolve from
episodic headaches in predisposed individuals due to changes in central circuits and nociceptive processing along the brain stem reflex pathway and
subsequent CNS sensitization.53 Other pathophysiologic mechanisms also contribute to the development of tensiontype headache.
Clinical Presentation
Premonitory symptoms and aura are absent with this headache, and the pain usually is mild to moderate in intensity. It is often is described as bilateral
dull, nonpulsatile tightness, or pressure classically described as having a “hatband” pattern.2,53 Associated symptoms generally are absent, but mild
photophobia or phonophobia may be reported. The disability associated with tensiontype headache is typically minor compared to migraine
headaches, and routine physical activity does not affect severity.2,49 Palpation of the pericranial or cervical muscles can reveal tender spots or localized
nodules in some individuals.2
Treatment
Desired Outcomes
While pain relief and prevention of further headaches are the main desired outcomes of treatment, the vast majority of episodic tensiontype
headache sufferers selfmedicate with nonprescription medications and do not consult a healthcare professional. Although pharmacologic and
nonpharmacologic treatments are available, simple analgesics and NSAIDs are the mainstay of acute therapy. Most agents used for tensiontype
headache have not been studied in controlled clinical trials.54
Psychophysiologic therapy and physical therapy have been used in their management. Behavioral treatments can consist of cognitivebehavioral
therapy (ie, stress management), relaxation training, and biofeedback.55 These therapies (alone or in combination with pharmacotherapy) can result
in a 33% to 64% reduction in headache activity. Relaxation training combined with biofeedback is more effective than other behavioral therapy
options.55 The effect of physical therapeutic options, such as heat or cold packs, ultrasound, electrical nerve stimulation, stretching, exercise,
massage, acupuncture, manipulations, ergonomic instruction, and trigger point injections or occipital nerve blocks, is somewhat inconsistent.
However, individuals may benefit from selected modalities in reducing the frequency of tensiontype headache or during an acute episode.54,55
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Psychophysiologic therapy and physical therapy have been used in their management. Behavioral treatments can consist of cognitivebehavioral
therapy (ie, stress management), relaxation training, and biofeedback.55 These therapies (alone or in combination with pharmacotherapy) can result
in a 33% to 64% reduction in headache activity. Relaxation training combined with biofeedback is more effective than other behavioral therapy
options.55 The effect of physical therapeutic options, such as heat or cold packs, ultrasound, electrical nerve stimulation, stretching, exercise,
massage, acupuncture, manipulations, ergonomic instruction, and trigger point injections or occipital nerve blocks, is somewhat inconsistent.
However, individuals may benefit from selected modalities in reducing the frequency of tensiontype headache or during an acute episode.54,55
Simple analgesics (alone or in combination with caffeine) and NSAIDs are effective for the acute treatment of most mildtomoderate tensiontype
headaches. Acetaminophen, aspirin, diclofenac, ibuprofen, naproxen, ketoprofen, and ketorolac have efficacy in placebocontrolled and comparative
studies.54 Failure of nonprescription agents can warrant therapy with prescription medications. The combination of aspirin or acetaminophen with
butalbital or, rarely, codeine can be effective options in selected individuals; however, use of butalbital and codeine combinations should be avoided
when possible owing to the high potential for overuse and unhealthy use.
Acute medications should be taken for episodic tensiontype headache no more than 10 days a month for butalbitalcontaining or combination
analgesics, or 15 days a month for NSAIDs. This practice helps prevent the development of medicationoveruse or chronic tensiontype headache.54
The efficacy of muscle relaxants in episodic tensiontype headache management is not known.2,54 Preventive treatment is appropriate for most
individuals with chronic tensiontype headache and should be considered in those whose episodic headache occur more than twice per week, last
more than 3 to 4 hours, or their severity results in medication overuse or substantial disability.55
Preventive treatment for tensiontype headaches is similar to migraine headaches. The TCAs are prescribed most often for prophylaxis, but other
medications can also be selected after considering comorbid medical conditions and medication adverse effect profiles. In general, the SSRIs are only
effective in individuals with tensiontype headache and depression, and limited studies support the mirtazapine and venlafaxine use in individuals
with chronic tensiontype headache without depression.55 Topiramate, gabapentin, and tizanidine may have benefits in chronic tensiontype
headache; however, randomized clinical trials need to be done. Lidocaine trigger point injections may reduce headache frequency for frequent
episodic or chronic tensiontype headache. Injection of botulinum toxin into pericranial muscles has inconsistent efficacy in the prophylaxis, and
because of this, it is of uncertain benefit.55
CLUSTER HEADACHE
Epidemiology
Cluster headache is the most severe of the primary headache disorders and is characterized by attacks of excruciating, unilateral head pain that occur
in series lasting for weeks or months. These cluster periods are separated by remission periods, usually lasting months or years.2,56 These headaches
can be episodic or chronic2 and are relatively uncommon among the primary headache disorders. However, the exact prevalence is uncertain.
Estimates from pooled population studies show a lifetime prevalence of 124 per 100,000 or 0.12%.56,57 The maletofemale ratio for cluster headache is
approximately 4:1 with onset typically in the second to third decade of life. Up to 85% of individuals with cluster headaches are tobacco smokers or
have a smoking history. Tobacco cessation, however, does not seem to improve the course of headaches. Recent genetic epidemiologic surveys
support a predisposition for cluster headache in certain families.5658
Pathophysiology
The etiologic and pathophysiologic mechanisms of these headaches are not entirely understood. Neuroimaging studies performed during acute
attacks show activation of the ipsilateral hypothalamic gray area, implicating the hypothalamus as a modulator. The hypothalamus secondarily
activates trigeminalautonomic reflexes, leading to the ipsilateral pain and cranial autonomic features characteristic of cluster headache.5658 The
cyclic and circadian rhythmicity of attacks also implicates pathogenesis of hypothalamic dysfunction.57,58 Cluster headache may result from
inflammation of the nerves traversing the cavernous sinus resulting in injury to sympathetic fibers of the internal carotid artery.57
One hallmark of cluster headaches is the circadian rhythm of painful attacks. Episodic cluster headaches are the most common cluster headache
subtype, occurring in up to 90% of individuals.57 These episodic attacks occur daily for a week to several months, followed by long painfree intervals.
Headache remission averages 2 years in length but can range from 2 months to 20 years in duration. Approximately 15% of individuals have chronic
symptoms with attacks recurring for over 1 year without remission or with remission periods lasting less than 1month. 56,57
Cluster headache attacks occur commonly at night and frequently in the spring and fall. These attacks occur suddenly and pain peaks quickly after
inflammation of the nerves traversing the cavernous sinus resulting in injury to sympathetic fibers of the internal carotid artery.57 Access Provided by:
One hallmark of cluster headaches is the circadian rhythm of painful attacks. Episodic cluster headaches are the most common cluster headache
subtype, occurring in up to 90% of individuals.57 These episodic attacks occur daily for a week to several months, followed by long painfree intervals.
Headache remission averages 2 years in length but can range from 2 months to 20 years in duration. Approximately 15% of individuals have chronic
symptoms with attacks recurring for over 1 year without remission or with remission periods lasting less than 1month.56,57
Cluster headache attacks occur commonly at night and frequently in the spring and fall. These attacks occur suddenly and pain peaks quickly after
onset. The pain is excruciating, penetrating, and of a boring (ie, deep, nonpulsating, behind the eye) intensity in orbital, supraorbital, and temporal
unilateral locations. They generally lasts 15 to 180 minutes and are accompanied by cranial autonomic symptoms such as conjunctival injection,
lacrimation, nasal stuffiness, rhinorrhea, eyelid edema, facial sweating, and miosis/ptosis. Most sufferers also describe restlessness or agitation;
however, all of these symptoms resolve when the headache ceases. While individuals with migraine retreat to a quiet, dark room, individuals with
cluster headache generally sit and rock or pace about the room clutching their head. Auras are not present and during the cluster period, attacks occur
from once every other day to eight times per day.56,57 Specific diagnostic criteria for cluster headaches are provided within the IHS classification
system.2
Treatment
Desired Outcomes
As in migraine, therapy for cluster headaches involves both abortive and prophylactic therapy with the overall desired outcomes being resolution or
prevention of pain and disability. Abortive therapy is directed at managing the acute attack, whereas prophylactic therapies are started early in the
cluster period in an attempt to induce remission. Individuals with chronic cluster headache can require prophylactic medications indefinitely.
Abortive Therapy
Oxygen
The standard acute treatment of cluster headache is inhalation of 100% oxygen by a nonbreather facial mask at a rate of at least 12 to 15 L/min, with
effects usually starting 15 to 20 minutes after treatment.5861 Repeat or frequent administration over a short period of time should be avoided, as
overuse may increase the frequency or merely delay rather than abort the attack in some individuals.59,60 No adverse effects have been reported with
the use of oxygen, but caution should be used for those who smoke or have chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
Triptans
The quick onset of subcutaneous and intranasal triptans makes them safe and effective abortive agents for cluster headaches. Subcutaneous
sumatriptan (6 mg) is the most effective agent, whereas nasal sprays, which are less effective than subcutaneous administration, may be better
tolerated in some individuals. Adverse events reported with triptan use in individuals with cluster headache are similar to those seen in individuals
with migraine. Orally administered triptans have limited use in cluster attacks because of their relatively slow onset of action; oral zolmitriptan (10 mg),
however, was modestly effective in individuals with episodic cluster headache.55
Ergotamine Derivatives
All forms of ergotamine have been used in cluster headaches, although no controlled clinical trials support their use.38,39 In clinical use, IV
dihydroergotamine may be given as a bolus followed by repeated administration over several days to break the cycle of frequent attacks. In addition,
ergotamine tartrate has provided effective relief from cluster headache attacks when administered sublingually.59 Dosing guidelines are similar to
those for migraine headache therapy.
Prophylactic Therapy
Verapamil
The preferred firstline treatment for cluster headaches prevention is verapamil, a calcium channel blocker with antianginal and antiarrhythmic
properties.58,60,61 Its beneficial effects often appear within 2 to 3 weeks of therapy, starting with a dose of 240 mg/day, titrated to a target dose of 360 to
960 mg/day. Rarely, individuals with refractory cluster headaches require doses as high as 1,200 mg/day. In such individuals, an electrocardiogram
should be obtained as the dose is increased, due to concerns for bradycardia or heart block.59,61
Galcanezumab
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Verapamil
The preferred firstline treatment for cluster headaches prevention is verapamil, a calcium channel blocker with antianginal and antiarrhythmic
properties.58,60,61 Its beneficial effects often appear within 2 to 3 weeks of therapy, starting with a dose of 240 mg/day, titrated to a target dose of 360 to
960 mg/day. Rarely, individuals with refractory cluster headaches require doses as high as 1,200 mg/day. In such individuals, an electrocardiogram
should be obtained as the dose is increased, due to concerns for bradycardia or heart block.59,61
Galcanezumab
Galcanezumab is a monoclonal antibody that binds to the CGRP ligand that FDA approved for episodic cluster headache. It has a modest benefit in
reducing the number of cluster headaches per week for one to three weeks for individuals with episodic cluster headaches in a randomized controlled
trial. Galcanezumab is dosed subcutaneously (300 mg) at the onset of the cluster period, and then continued monthly until the end of the cluster
period. It should be reserved for individuals with prior episodic cluster headache periods lasting longer than 1 month when firstline preventive
medications are ineffective, poorly tolerated, or contraindicated. It was well tolerated with injection site reaction (less than 10%) being the most
frequently reported adverse event.62
Lithium
Lithium carbonate is effective for episodic and chronic cluster headache attacks and can be used when other medications are ineffective or
contraindicated. A positive response is seen in up to 78% of individuals with chronic cluster headache and in up to 63% of individuals with episodic
cluster headache. The usual dose is 600 to 1,200 mg/day, with a suggested starting dose of 300 mg twice daily. Lithium levels should be monitored and
maintained between 0.4 and 1.2 mEq/L (mmol/L).59
Major adverse effects include tremors, thyroid, and renal dysfunction, and rarely cardiac arrhythmias. Liver, thyroid, and renal function must be
carefully monitored during therapy. Lithium should be administered with caution to individuals with significant renal or cardiovascular disease,
dehydration, pregnancy, or concomitant diuretic or NSAID use.59,61 Additional details regarding lithium administration can be found in Chapter 86,
“Substance Use Disorders II: Alcohol Nicotine and Caffeine.”
Corticosteroids
Corticosteroids can be used effectively for inducing cluster headache remission, although clinical trial data are lacking.59 Therapy is initiated as 60 to
100 mg/day prednisone for 5 days and then tapered by approximately 10 mg/day. Longterm use is generally not recommended to avoid steroid
induced complications, and headaches can recur when therapy is tapered or discontinued.59,61
Miscellaneous Agents
Other therapies used in the acute management of cluster headache include intranasal lidocaine and subcutaneous octreotide. There is limited support
for the use of topiramate, divalproex sodium, melatonin, indomethacin, longacting triptans, and intranasal capsaicin for cluster headache
prevention.5961
For individuals refractory to pharmacologic therapy, neurosurgical interventions to relieve debilitating chronic cluster headaches may be
considered.59 Neurostimulation has gained attention in the last several years, and vagal nerve stimulation and sphenopalatine stimulation have
positive results in small clinical trials.58,59,63
EVALUATION OF THERAPEUTIC OUTCOMES
Pharmacologic treatment should occur with medications that have the highest level of efficacy and management should be individualized based on the
individual’s clinical presentation and medical history, using the lowest effective doses titrated to clinical benefit and absence of adverse events. Avoid
medications that increase headache frequency or severity. Nonpharmacologic or nonprescription treatments for headache management can be used
either before or concurrently with other pharmacologic therapy. However, individuals may not know how to use these products optimally and often
need instructions and dosing limits.
Analgesics and NSAIDs are considered the medications of choice for infrequent mildtomoderate and severe attacks. The triptans or
dihydroergotamine can be used if initial therapies prove ineffective or as firstline therapy in moderatetosevere migraine headache. Abortive therapy
should be instituted early in the course of the attack to optimize efficacy and minimize migrainerelated pain and disability. Preventive therapy should
be considered for recurring migraine attacks that produce significant disability or frequent attacks requiring symptomatic medication more than twice
per week. Additionally, preventative therapy should be considered if symptomatic therapies that are ineffective or contraindicated or produce serious
adverse effects and in the case of uncommon migraine variants that cause risk of neurologic injury. The efficacy of any prescribed prophylactic
regimen should be periodically assessed for efficacy and adverse effects. Therapeutic interventions require an adequate trial to achieve clinical
either before or concurrently with other pharmacologic therapy. However, individuals may not know how to use these products optimally and often
Access Provided by:
need instructions and dosing limits.
Analgesics and NSAIDs are considered the medications of choice for infrequent mildtomoderate and severe attacks. The triptans or
dihydroergotamine can be used if initial therapies prove ineffective or as firstline therapy in moderatetosevere migraine headache. Abortive therapy
should be instituted early in the course of the attack to optimize efficacy and minimize migrainerelated pain and disability. Preventive therapy should
be considered for recurring migraine attacks that produce significant disability or frequent attacks requiring symptomatic medication more than twice
per week. Additionally, preventative therapy should be considered if symptomatic therapies that are ineffective or contraindicated or produce serious
adverse effects and in the case of uncommon migraine variants that cause risk of neurologic injury. The efficacy of any prescribed prophylactic
regimen should be periodically assessed for efficacy and adverse effects. Therapeutic interventions require an adequate trial to achieve clinical
benefit, and maximal benefit may not be seen for 6 months or more. A prolonged headachefree interval could allow for gradual dosage reduction and
discontinuation of therapy.
Monitor individuals for headache frequency, intensity, and duration, as well as any change in the headache pattern. To this end, they should be
encouraged to keep a headache diary, documenting the frequency, severity, and duration of attacks and response to medication and potential trigger
factors. Careful monitoring is essential to initiate the most appropriate pharmacotherapy, document therapeutic successes and failures, identify
medication contraindications, and prevent or minimize adverse events. Individuals using acute therapies should be monitored for prescription and
nonprescription medication use frequency to identify potential medicationoveruse headache.
Although migraine is widely recognized as a disease that exacts an enormous toll on the sufferer, healthcare providers often do not recognize the
degree and scope of functional impairment imposed on the individual. Approximately one out of every six healthcare visits for migraine occurs in the
emergency department, although management in this setting is often suboptimal. The use of opioids for the acute migraine treatment in the
emergency department is increasing, and the likelihood of unnecessary radiation exposure is greater.5 Although most episodic migraine sufferers take
medications for their headaches, only twothirds of individuals who have been diagnosed consult with a healthcare provider regarding use of
migrainespecific treatments. Just 11% of those eligible for medications to prevent migraines currently use them, although approximately 38% would
benefit from prophylaxis.14 Patient counseling is necessary to allow for proper medication use (eg, selfinjection with sumatriptan), to encourage
medication use early in the headache cycle, and enhance individual compliance. Strict adherence to dosing guidelines should be stressed to minimize
potential toxicity. Patterns of abortive medication use should be documented to establish the need for prophylactic therapy. Prophylactic therapies
also should be monitored closely (every 36 months until stable) for adverse reactions, abortive therapy needs, adequate dosing, and compliance.
Since many individuals with migraine who receive inadequate care experience substantial levels of pain and disability, improvement in migraine
diagnosis, care, and treatment potentially could result in lower direct and indirect disease costs. Consultation with other healthcare practitioners
should be encouraged when changes in headache patterns or medication use occur.
CONCLUSION
Even though headache disorders result from neuronal dysfunction, the precise etiology and nature of the dysfunction are unknown. Serotonergic
neurotransmission and the trigeminovascular system appear to play important roles. A careful individual workup, including patient history, physical
examination, and appropriate laboratory tests, should identify most headache individuals with major disease. Various strategies can help manage
migraine, tensiontype, and cluster headaches to suppress acute attacks and prevent recurrences. Continuing research in existing and newly identified
pathways will better define pathophysiologic mechanisms and aid the search for less toxic and more efficacious pharmacologic agents.
ABBREVIATIONS
5HT 5hydroxytryptamine
CGRP calcitonin generelated peptide
CNS central nervous system
CYP Cytochrome P450
FDA Food and Drug Administration
GABA γaminobutyric acid
GI gastrointestinal
5HT serotonin, 5hydroxytryptamine
migraine, tensiontype, and cluster headaches to suppress acute attacks and prevent recurrences. Continuing research in existing and newly identified
Access Provided by:
pathways will better define pathophysiologic mechanisms and aid the search for less toxic and more efficacious pharmacologic agents.
ABBREVIATIONS
5HT 5hydroxytryptamine
CGRP calcitonin generelated peptide
CNS central nervous system
CYP Cytochrome P450
FDA Food and Drug Administration
GABA γaminobutyric acid
GI gastrointestinal
5HT serotonin, 5hydroxytryptamine
IHS International Headache Society
IM intramuscular
IV intravenous
MHD monthly headache days
MMD monthly migraine days
NSAIDs nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs
OATP organic anion transporting polypeptides
ODT orally disintegrating tablet
OTC over the counter
SNRI serotoninnorepinephrine reuptake inhibitor
SSRI selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor
TCA tricyclic antidepressant
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SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. Which one of the following is NOT a type of primary headache disorder?
A. Migraine
B. Tension
C. Cluster
D. Vascular
2. Migraine pain is believed to result from activity in which one of the following systems?
A. Perivascular
B. Trigeminovascular
C. Extravascular
D. Tuberofundibular
3. The migraine aura is defined by which one of the following?
A. Positive focal neurologic symptoms that follow an attack
B. Negative focal neurologic symptoms that precede an attack
C. Positive and negative focal neurologic symptoms that follow an attack
D. Positive and negative focal neurologic symptoms that precede or accompany an attack
4. Migraine aura typically lasts:
A. Less than 20 minutes
B. Less than 60 minutes
C. More than 60 minutes
D. More than 120 minutes
5. Which one of the following is not part of International Headache Society diagnostic criteria for migraine without aura?
A. At least two attacks
B. Headache that lasts 4 to 72 hours (untreated or unsuccessfully treated)
C. At least two of the following characteristics: unilateral location, pulsating quality, moderate or severe intensity, aggravation by or avoidance of
routine physical activity
C. More than 60 minutes
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D. More than 120 minutes
5. Which one of the following is not part of International Headache Society diagnostic criteria for migraine without aura?
A. At least two attacks
B. Headache that lasts 4 to 72 hours (untreated or unsuccessfully treated)
C. At least two of the following characteristics: unilateral location, pulsating quality, moderate or severe intensity, aggravation by or avoidance of
routine physical activity
D. During headache at least nausea, vomiting, or both or photophobia and phonophobia
6. Which one of the following drug or drug classes is not used in the acute treatment of migraine headaches?
A. Ergot alkaloids
B. Antidepressants
C. NSAIDs
D. Serotonin agonists
7. Individuals may benefit from adherence to a wellness program that may include all of the following except:
A. Regular exercise
B. Regular eating habits
C. Smoking cessation
D. Increasing caffeine intake
8. Medicationoveruse headache is commonly implicated with the use of all of the following except:
A. Simple analgesics
B. CGRP antagonists
C. Opiates
D. Triptans
9. Which of the following is the most common adverse effect of the ergotamine derivatives?
A. Painful extremities
B. Peripheral ischemia
C. Nausea and vomiting
D. Continuous paresthesias
10. Which of the following preventive treatments for migraine is associated with weight loss?
A. Propranolol
B. Divalproex sodium
C. Topiramate
D. Amitriptyline
11. Which one of the following oral triptans has the longest halflife, but the slowest onset of action?
A. Sumatriptan
B. Eletriptan
B. Divalproex sodium
Access Provided by:
C. Topiramate
D. Amitriptyline
11. Which one of the following oral triptans has the longest halflife, but the slowest onset of action?
A. Sumatriptan
B. Eletriptan
C. Naratriptan
D. Frovatriptan
12. Which triptan has established efficacy in migraine prevention?
A. Naratriptan
B. Sumatriptan
C. Frovatriptan
D. Eletriptan
13. Which of the following would not be appropriate for migraine prophylaxis?
A. Metoprolol
B. Acebutolol
C. Atenolol
D. Propranolol
14. Which of the following medications does not target calcitonin generelated peptide?
A. Galcanezumab
B. Ubrogepant
C. Lasmiditan
D. Eptinezumab
15. Which of the following vitamins has evidence to support efficacy in migraine prevention?
A. Ascorbic acid
B. Riboflavin
C. Cyanocobalamin
D. Pyridoxine
SELFASSESSMENT QUESTIONANSWERS
1. D . Vascular headache is an outdated term that is not considered a primary headache disorder. The other options listed are primary headache
disorders. See “Etiology” section.
2. B . Migraine pain is associated with the trigeminovascular system that includes neurons in the trigeminal nerve and the cerebral blood vessels they
innervate. See “Etiology” section under “Migraine.”
3. D . Migraine aura may include positive and negative neurologic symptoms that occur before or during a migraine attack. See “Clinical Presentation”
section under “Migraine.”
4. B . Headache usually occurs within 60 minutes of the end of the aura. See “Clinical Presentation” section under “Migraine.“
1. D . Vascular headache is an outdated term that is not considered a primary headache disorder. The other options listed are primary headache
disorders. See “Etiology” section. Access Provided by:
2. B . Migraine pain is associated with the trigeminovascular system that includes neurons in the trigeminal nerve and the cerebral blood vessels they
innervate. See “Etiology” section under “Migraine.”
3. D . Migraine aura may include positive and negative neurologic symptoms that occur before or during a migraine attack. See “Clinical Presentation”
section under “Migraine.”
4. B . Headache usually occurs within 60 minutes of the end of the aura. See “Clinical Presentation” section under “Migraine.“
5. A . Minimum criteria include at least five attacks. See Table 801.
6. B . Antidepressants are not used for the acute treatment of migraine; they may be used for preventive therapy or for secondary psychological
symptoms. See “Prophylactic Pharmacologic Therapy” section under “Migraine.”
7. D . Caffeine is a stimulant that could potentially worsen or exacerbate migraine. Regular exercise, proper diet, and smoking cessation may be
beneficial for individuals with migraines. See “Nonpharmacologic Therapy” section under “Migraine.”
8. B . Agents most commonly implicated in medicationoveruse headache include simple and combination analgesics, opiates, and triptans. CGRP
antagonists have not been associated with medicationoveruse. See “Abortive Treatments” section under “Migraine.“
9. C . The use of ergotamine derivatives is most commonly associated with gastrointestinal adverse effects. These effects result from the stimulation of
the chemoreceptor trigger zone. See “Ergotamine Derivatives” section.
10. C . Topiramate can lead to weight loss in approximately 10% of individuals, while some other prophylactic agents, especially divalproex, can cause
weight gain. See “Antiseizure Medications” section.
11. D . Frovatriptan has a long halflife of 25 hours, and an onset action of up to 4 hours when compared to other agents in the same class. See Table
806.
12. C . Frovatriptan has established efficacy, particularly in the prevention of menstrual migraine. Naratriptan and zolmitriptan are probably effective.
See “Triptans” section.
13. B . Acebutolol is a selective beta antagonist that would not be as likely to prevent migraine attacks. Metoprolol, atenolol, and propranolol would be
more appropriate choices. See “βAdrenergic Antagonists” section.
14. C . Lasmiditan is a 5HT1F receptor agonist, while galcanezumab and eptinezumab are CGRP monoclonal antibodies and ubrogepant is a CGRP
antagonist. See “Pharmacologic Therapy” section.
15. B . Riboflavin has probable efficacy in migraine prophylaxis; however, the benefits of therapy became significant only after 3 months. See Table 80
4.

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Medication Dose Maximum Dose/Comments

Acetaminophena (Tylenol) 500­1,000 mg every 4­6 hours as needed Maximum daily dose is 4 g

Acetaminophen 250 Two tablets every 6 hours as needed Available over­the­counter as Excedrin Migraine

Aspirina 500­1,000 mg every 4­6 hours as needed Maximum daily dose is 4 g

Ibuprofena (Advil, Motrin) 400­800 mg every 4­6 hours as needed Maximum daily dose is 3.2 g

Naproxen sodiuma (Aleve, 220­550 mg every 8­12 hours as needed Avoid doses greater than 1.375 g/day

Diclofenac potassiuma 50­100 mg every 8 hours as needed Avoid doses greater than 150 mg/day

Ketorolac nasal (Sprix) 31.5 mg (one spray each nostril) every 6­8 hours Maximum daily dose is 126 mg/day × 5 days

Ketorolac IMb 30­60 mg every 6 hours as needed Maximum daily dose is 120 mg/day × 5 days

Oral tablet (1 mg) with 2 mg at onset; can repeat 1­2 mg every 30 Maximum dose is 6 mg/day or 10 mg/week; consider pretreatment with

caffeine 100 mgb minutes as needed an antiemetic

Sublingual tablet (2 mg) 2 mg at onset; can repeat 2 mg every 30 minutes Maximum dose is 4 mg/day or 10 mg/week; consider pretreatment with

Rectal suppository (2 mg) Insert half to one suppository at onset; can Maximum dose is 4 mg/day or 10 mg/week; consider pretreatment with

with caffeine 100 mgb repeat after 1 hour if needed an antiemetic

Injection 1 mg/mL (D.H.E. 0.25­1 mg (IM, IV, or subcutaneous) at onset; can Maximum dose is 3 mg/day or 6 mg/week

Injection 1 mg/mL (D.H.E. 0.25­1 mg (IM, IV, or subcutaneous) at onset; can Maximum dose is 3 mg/day or 6 mg/week

Nasal spray 4 mg/mLa One spray (0.5 mg) in each nostril at onset; Maximum dose is 3 mg/day or 6 mg/week; prime sprayer four times

(Migranal, Trudhesa) can repeat sequence 15 minutes later before using; do not tilt head back or inhale through nose while

Injection (Imitrex, 1­6 mg subcutaneous at onset; can repeat after Maximum daily dose is 12 mg

Oral tablets (Imitrex) 25, 50, 85, or 100 mg at onset; can repeat after 2 Maximum daily dose is 200 mg; combination product with naproxen,

Nasal spray (Imitrex) 5 or 20 mg at onset; can repeat after 2 hours if Maximum daily dose is 40 mg

Nasal spray (Tosymra) 10 mg intranasally at onset; can repeat after 1 Maximum daily dose is 30 mg

Nasal powder (Onzetra 22 mg (one 11­mg nosepiece in each nostril) at Maximum daily dose is 44 mg (four nosepieces, 11 mg each)

Transdermal (Zecuity) Apply 6.5 mg patch to upper arm or thigh over 4 Maximum daily dose is two patches

Oral tablets/ODT (Zomig, 1.25, 2.5, or 5 mg at onset; can repeat after 2 Maximum daily dose is 10 mg; do not divide ODT dosage form

Nasal spray (Zomig) 2.5 or 5 mg intranasally at onset; can repeat Maximum daily dose is 10 mg

Naratriptana (Amerge) 1 or 2.5 mg at onset; can repeat after 4 hours if Maximum daily dose is 5 mg

Rizatriptana oral 5 or 10 mg at onset; can repeat after 2 hours if Maximum daily dose is 30 mg; use 5 mg dose (15 mg/day maximum) in

Almotriptana (Axert) 6.25 or 12.5 mg at onset; can repeat after 2 hours Maximum daily dose is 25 mg

Frovatriptana (Frova) 2.5 or 5 mg at onset; can repeat in 2 hours if Maximum daily dose is 7.5 mg

Frovatriptana (Frova) 2.5 or 5 mg at onset; can repeat in 2 hours if Maximum daily dose is 7.5 mg

Eletriptana (Relpax) 20 or 40 mg at onset; can repeat after 2 hours if Maximum daily dose is 80 mg

Lasmiditan (Reyvow) 50, 100, or 200 mg at onset Maximum of one dose per 24 hours; safety of treating more than four

Ubrogepant (Ubrelvy) 50 or 100 mg at onset; can repeat after 2 hours if Maximum daily dose is 200 mg; safety of treating more than eight

Rimegepant (Nurtec ODT) 75 mg at onset Maximum of one dose per 24 hours; take on an empty stomach

Acetaminophen, Two capsules to start followed by one capsule Maximum five capsules/12 hours

Metoclopramideb (Reglan) 10 mg every 4­6 mg hours as needed Maximum daily dose is 40 mg (also available as ODT)

Metoclopramidea and 10 mg (metoclopramide) and 1,000 mg (aspirin) Maximum daily dose is 40 mg (metoclopramide) + 4 g (aspirin)

Prochlorperazineb 5­10 mg orally 3­4 times daily as needed or 25 Maximum daily dose is 40 mg for oral and 50 mg for suppository

Promethazine 25 mg oral or via rectal suppository every 4­6 Maximum daily dose is 100 mg

Medication Initial Dose Usual Range Comments

Atenolola (Tenormin) 25­50 mg/day 50­200 mg/day

Metoprololb (Toprol, 25­100 mg/day in divided doses 100­200 mg/day in divided doses Dose short­acting two to four times a day

Nadolola (Corgard) 40­80 mg/day 80­240 mg/day

Propranololb (Inderal, 40 mg/day in divided doses 40­160 mg/day in divided doses Dose short­acting two to three times a day

Timololb (Blocadren) 20 mg/day in divided doses 20­60 mg/day in divided doses

Amitriptylinea (Elavil) 10 mg at bedtime 20­50 mg at bedtime

Timololb (Blocadren) 20 mg/day in divided doses 20­60 mg/day in divided doses

Amitriptylinea (Elavil) 10 mg at bedtime 20­50 mg at bedtime

Venlafaxinea (Effexor, 37.5 mg/day 75­150 mg/day Dose short­acting two times a day and

Topiramateb (Topamax) 12.5­25 mg/day 50­200 mg/day in divided doses Increase by 12.5­25 mg/week

Valproic acid/divalproex 250­500 mg/day in divided doses, or 500­1,500 mg/day Dose short­acting two times a day and

sodiumb (Depakene, daily for extended release extended­release once daily; monitor levels

Erenumab­aooe (Aimovig) 70 mg subcutaneously monthly 70­140 mg subcutaneously

Fremanezumab­vfrm 225 mg subcutaneously monthly or 225 mg subcutaneously

Galcanezumab­gnlm 240 mg subcutaneous loading dose, 120 mg subcutaneously every

Eptinezumab­jjmr (Vyepti) 100 mg via IV infusion over 30 minutes 100­300 mg IV infusion over 30

Atogepant (Quilpta) 10 mg/day 60 mg/day Taken with or without food

Acetaminophena (Tylenol) 5001,000 mg every 46 hours as needed Maximum daily dose is 4 g

Acetaminophen 250 Two tablets every 6 hours as needed Available overthecounter as Excedrin Migraine

Aspirina 5001,000 mg every 46 hours as needed Maximum daily dose is 4 g

Ibuprofena (Advil, Motrin) 400800 mg every 46 hours as needed Maximum daily dose is 3.2 g

Naproxen sodiuma (Aleve, 220550 mg every 812 hours as needed Avoid doses greater than 1.375 g/day

Diclofenac potassiuma 50100 mg every 8 hours as needed Avoid doses greater than 150 mg/day

Ketorolac nasal (Sprix) 31.5 mg (one spray each nostril) every 68 hours Maximum daily dose is 126 mg/day × 5 days

Ketorolac IMb 3060 mg every 6 hours as needed Maximum daily dose is 120 mg/day × 5 days

Oral tablet (1 mg) with 2 mg at onset; can repeat 12 mg every 30 Maximum dose is 6 mg/day or 10 mg/week; consider pretreatment with

Injection 1 mg/mL (D.H.E. 0.251 mg (IM, IV, or subcutaneous) at onset; can Maximum dose is 3 mg/day or 6 mg/week

Injection 1 mg/mL (D.H.E. 0.251 mg (IM, IV, or subcutaneous) at onset; can Maximum dose is 3 mg/day or 6 mg/week

Injection (Imitrex, 16 mg subcutaneous at onset; can repeat after Maximum daily dose is 12 mg

Nasal powder (Onzetra 22 mg (one 11mg nosepiece in each nostril) at Maximum daily dose is 44 mg (four nosepieces, 11 mg each)

Metoclopramideb (Reglan) 10 mg every 46 mg hours as needed Maximum daily dose is 40 mg (also available as ODT)

Prochlorperazineb 510 mg orally 34 times daily as needed or 25 Maximum daily dose is 40 mg for oral and 50 mg for suppository

Promethazine 25 mg oral or via rectal suppository every 46 Maximum daily dose is 100 mg

Atenolola (Tenormin) 2550 mg/day 50200 mg/day

Metoprololb (Toprol, 25100 mg/day in divided doses 100200 mg/day in divided doses Dose shortacting two to four times a day

Nadolola (Corgard) 4080 mg/day 80240 mg/day

Propranololb (Inderal, 40 mg/day in divided doses 40160 mg/day in divided doses Dose shortacting two to three times a day

Timololb (Blocadren) 20 mg/day in divided doses 2060 mg/day in divided doses

Amitriptylinea (Elavil) 10 mg at bedtime 2050 mg at bedtime

Timololb (Blocadren) 20 mg/day in divided doses 2060 mg/day in divided doses

Amitriptylinea (Elavil) 10 mg at bedtime 2050 mg at bedtime

Venlafaxinea (Effexor, 37.5 mg/day 75150 mg/day Dose shortacting two times a day and

Topiramateb (Topamax) 12.525 mg/day 50200 mg/day in divided doses Increase by 12.525 mg/week

Valproic acid/divalproex 250500 mg/day in divided doses, or 5001,500 mg/day Dose shortacting two times a day and

sodiumb (Depakene, daily for extended release extendedrelease once daily; monitor levels

Erenumabaooe (Aimovig) 70 mg subcutaneously monthly 70140 mg subcutaneously

Fremanezumabvfrm 225 mg subcutaneously monthly or 225 mg subcutaneously

Galcanezumabgnlm 240 mg subcutaneous loading dose, 120 mg subcutaneously every

Eptinezumabjjmr (Vyepti) 100 mg via IV infusion over 30 minutes 100300 mg IV infusion over 30

Ibuprofena (Motrin) 200 mg/day in three to four divided 200800 mg/day in three to four Use intermittently only; daily or prolonged

Naproxen sodiuma (Aleve, 550 mg/day in divided doses 5501,100 mg/day in divided Use intermittently only; daily or prolonged

Zolmitriptana (Zomig) 57.5 mg/day in divided doses; start 6 57.5 mg/day in divided doses Use intermittently only; daily or prolonged

Histaminea (Histatrol) 110 ng 2 times/week Same as initial dose May cause transient itching and burning at

MIG99a (feverfew) 10100 mg/day in divided doses Same as initial dose Withdrawal may be associated with

Petasitesb 100150 mg/day in divided doses 150 mg/day in divided doses Use only commercial preparations, plant is

Medication HalfLife Time to Maximal Bioavailability Elimination

Almotriptan 34 1.43.8 hours 80 MAOA, CYP3A4, CYP2D6

Eletriptan 45 12 hours 50 CYP3A4

Frovatriptan 25 24 hours 2430 Mostly unchanged, CYP1A2

Naratriptan 56 23 hours 6374 Largely unchanged, CYP450 (various isoenzymes); primary

Rizatriptan 23 45 MAOA

Zolmitriptan 3 4048 CYP1A2, MAOA

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