Floquet Theory 2-Level Nice Review

Z. Naturforsch.
2018; 73(8)a: 705–731
Heinz-Jürgen Schmidt*
The Floquet Theory of the Two-Level System

Revisited
https://doi.org/10.1515/zna-2018-0211 In the following decades it was realised [3, 4] that the
Received April 24, 2018; accepted May 8, 2018; previously underlying mathematical problem is an instance of the
published online June 14, 2018
Floquet theory that deals with linear differential matrix
equations with periodic coefficients. Accordingly, analyti-
Abstract: In this article, we reconsider the periodically cal approximations for its solutions were devised that were
driven two-level system especially the Rabi problem with the basis for subsequent research. Especially the seminal
linear polarisation. The Floquet theory of this problem can paper of Shirley [4] has been until now cited more than
be reduced to its classical limit, i.e. to the investigation 11,000 times. Among the numerous applications of the the-
of periodic solutions of the classical Hamiltonian equa- ory of periodically driven TLSs are nuclear magnetic res-
tions of motion in the Bloch sphere. The quasienergy is onance [5], ac-driven quantum dots [6], Josephson qubit
essentially the action integral over one period and the res- circuits [7] and coherent destruction of tunnelling [8]. On
onance condition due to Shirley is shown to be equivalent the theoretical level the methods of solving the RPL and
to the vanishing of the time average of a certain compo- related problems were gradually refined to include power
nent of the classical solution. This geometrical approach series approximations for Bloch-Siegert shifts [9, 10], per-
is applied to obtain analytical approximations to physical turbation theory and/or various limit cases [11–16] and the
quantities of the Rabi problem with linear polarisation as hybridised rotating wave approximation [17]. Special ana-
well as asymptotic formulas for various limit cases. lytical solutions of the general Floquet problem of TLS can
be generated by the inverse method [18–20].
Keywords: Bloch-Siegert Shift; Floquet Theory; Rabi
There exists even an analytical solution [21] of the
Problem.
RPL and its generalisation to the Rabi problem where the
angle between the constant field and the periodic field is
1 Introduction arbitrary. This solution bears on a transformation of the
Schrödinger equation into a confluent Heun differential
Many physical experiments can be described as the inter- equation. A similar approach has been previously applied
action of a small quantum system with electromagnetic to the TLS subject to a magnetic pulse [22]. However,
radiation. If one tries to theoretically simplify this situa- the analytical solution is achieved by combining together
tion as far as possible, one arrives at a two-level system three different solutions and does not yield explicit solu-
(TLS) interacting with a classical periodic radiation field. tions for the quasienergy or for the resonance curves. The
The special case of a constant magnetic field into, say, z- ongoing research on Heun functions, (see e.g. [23, 24]),
direction plus a circularly polarised field in the x-y-plane might facilitate the physical interpretation of these analyt-
was solved eight decades ago by Rabi [1] and has found its ical solutions in the future. To summarise, the problem is
way into many text books. This case will be referred to as far from being completely solved and it appears still worth-
the Rabi problem with circular polarisation (RPC). Shortly while to further investigate the general Floquet problem of
after, Bloch and Siegert [2] considered the analogous prob- the TLS and to look for more analytical approximations of
lem of a linearly polarised magnetic field, orthogonal to the RPL.
the direction of the constant field (hence forward called In this paper we will suggest an approach to the Flo-
Rabi problem with linear polarisation, RPL) and suggested quet problem of the TLS via its well-known classical limit,
the so-called rotating wave approximation. Moreover, they see e.g. [25]. It turns out that, surely not in general, but
investigated the shift of the resonance frequencies due to for this particular problem, the classical limit is already
the approximation error of the rotating wave approxima- equivalent to the quantum problem. More precisely, we
tion. Since then it was called the “Bloch-Siegert shift”. will show that to each periodic solution of the classical
equation of motion there exists a Floquet solution of the
original Schrödinger equation that can be explicitly calcu-
*Corresponding author: Heinz-Jürgen Schmidt, Universität
lated via integrations. Especially, the quasienergy is essen-
Osnabrück, Fachbereich Physik, Barbarastr. 7, D – 49069
Osnabrück, Germany, E-mail: [email protected] tially given by the action integral over one period of the
706 | H.-J. Schmidt: The Floquet Theory of the Two-Level System Revisited
classical solution. This is reminiscent of the semi-classical function, we show in subsection 4.2 that the resonance
Floquet theory developed in [26]. In the special case of condition is equivalent to the vanishing of the time aver-
the Rabi problem with elliptical polarisation (RPE), our age of the third component of the classical periodic solu-
approach yields the result that Shirley’s resonance condition X(t) (Assertion 2) and that the slope of the function
tion is equivalent to the vanishing of the time average of ϵ(ω), where ω denotes the frequency of the periodic mag-
the component of the classical periodic solution into the netic field, is equal to the geometric part of the quasienergy
direction of the constant magnetic field. When applied to divided by ω (Assertion 3).
the RPL, our approach suggests to calculate the truncated The third main part deals with the analytical approx-
Fourier series for the classical solution and to obtain from imations to the RPL. If the classical periodic solution X(t)
this the quasienergy by the recipe sketched above. For var- is expanded into a Fourier series, the equation of motion
ious limit cases of the RPL there also exists a classical ver- can be rewritten as an infinite-dimensional matrix prob-
sion that will be analysed and evaluated in order to obtain lem. This is similar to the approach in [3, 14] to the TLS
asymptotic formulas for the quasienergy. Schrödinger equation. As the involved matrix A and any
The structure of the paper is as follows. We have truncation A(N) of it are tri-diagonal, the determinant of
three main parts, Generalities, Resonances and Analytical A(N) and all relevant minors can be determined by recur-
Approximations that refer to problems of decreasing gen- rence relations. Thus we obtain, in subsection 5.1, analyt-
erality: the general TLS with a periodic Hamiltonian, the ical results for the truncated Fourier series of X(t) that are
RPE and the RPL. Moreover, we have four subsections 2.4, arbitrarily close to the exact solution. By means of Asser-
3.2, 4.3 and 3.3, where the explicitly solvable case of the tion 1 these analytical approximations can also be used to
RPC and another solvable toy example is used to illustrate calculate the quasienergy in subsection 5.3. As expected,
certain results of the first two main parts. we observe different branches and avoid level crossing
In subsection 2.1 we start with a short account of at the resonance frequencies. The latter can be approxi-
the well-known Floquet theory of TLS that emphasises mately determined, using Assertion 2, via det A(N) = 0, see
the group theoretical aspect of the theory. This aspect is subsection 5.2.
crucial for the following subsection 2.2 where we show The remainder of the paper, Section 6, is devoted to
how to lift Floquet solutions of the TLS to higher spins the investigation of various limit cases that often require
s > 1/2. Also this lift procedure has been used before but additional ideas for asymptotic solutions and not simply
we present a résumé for the convenience of the readers. the evaluation of the truncated Fourier series. The RPL
The next subsection 2.3 is vital for the remainder of the has three parameters, namely the Larmor frequency ω0 of
paper in so far as it reduces the Floquet problem for the the constant magnetic field into z-direction, the amplitude
TLS to its classical limit. More precisely, the classical equa- F of the periodic field into x-direction and the frequency
tion of motion for a spin X in a periodic magnetic field ω of the periodic field. Accordingly, there are the three
has, in the generic case, exactly two periodic solutions limit cases where F → 0, see subsection 6.1, ω0 → 0, see
±X(t) and the Floquet solutions u± (t) together with the subsection 6.2, and ω → 0, see subsection 6.3. Moreover,
quasienergies ϵ± can be derived from ±X(t). This is the there are also complementary limit cases where ω → ∞,
content of Assertion 1. The next Section 3 closely investi- see subsection 6.4 and ω0 → ∞, see subsection 6.5. The
gates some geometrical aspects of the problem. The Bloch case F → ∞ is somewhat intricate and will be treated in
sphere can either be viewed as the set of one-dimensional Section 6.3 and not in its own subsection. We want to high-
projections of the TLS or as the phase space of its classi- light three features among the various limit cases. First,
cal limit. The first view leads to a scenario that was anal- by using the resonance condition in the form det A(N) = 0
ysed in [27, 28] in the context of the generalised Berry it is a straight-forward task to calculate a finite number
phases. Following this approach, in subsection 3.1, we are of terms of the F-power series for the Bloch-Siegert shifts
led to the splitting of the quasienergy into a geometrical that can be compared with known results from the litera-
and a dynamical part. The classical mechanics approach ture. Second, for small F it is sensible to expand the Fourier
in subsection 3.4 shows that the quasienergy is essentially coefficients of X(t) into power series in F. This leads to the
the integral of the Poincaré-Cartan form over one closed so-called Fourier-Taylor series that are defined in-depth in
orbit. This result is closely connected to the approach to subsection 6.1.2 and also give rise to analytical approxima-
semi-classical Floquet theory in [26]. tions of the quasienergy within their convergence domain.
The second main part on resonances essentially bears Finally, the classical RPL equation of motion has an exact
on the resonance condition due to Shirley [4]. After a “pendulum” solution for ω0 = 0 that can be extended to
short subsection 4.1 on the quasienergy as a homogeneous a solution valid even in linear order w. r. t. ω0 . In this
H.-J. Schmidt: The Floquet Theory of the Two-Level System Revisited | 707
order it is also possible to obtain a simple expression for As a special case of (5), we consider
the quasienergy and to solve the Schrödinger equation, see
subsection 6.2.2. Hence this limit case seems to be suited U2 (t, t0 ) ≡ U(t + T, t0 ), (6)
for further studies. We close with a summary and outlook which due to (2), also solves (3) but has the initial
in Section 7. condition
U2 (t0 , t0 ) = U(t0 + T, t0 ) ≡ ℱ . (7)
2 Generalities Hence (5) implies
2.1 Floquet Theory for SU2 U2 (t, t0 ) = U(t + T, t0 ) = U(t, t0 ) ℱ . (8)
ℱ ∈ SU2 is called the “monodromy matrix”. It can be

It appears that the simplest way to explain the general written as
ideas of the Floquet theory for TLSs is by again proving
its central claim. In doing so we will emphasise the group- ℱ = e−i T F , i F ∈ su2 . (9)
theoretical aspects of the Floquet theory but otherwise will
stick closely to [29]. Now we define
The Schrödinger equation for this system is of the form
𝒫(t, t0 ) ≡ U(t, t0 ) ei(t−t0 )F (10)
∂ ^ ψ(t).
i ψ(t) = H(t) (1) and will show that 𝒫 is T periodic in the first argument:
∂t
Here we have set ~ = 1 and will assume the Hamilto- 𝒫(t + T, t0 ) = U(t + T, t0 ) ei(t+T−t0 )F (11)
^ to be T-periodic in time, iTF i(t−t0 )F
nian H(t) = U(t + T, t0 ) e e (12)
(8,9) −1 i(t−t0 )F
^ + T) = H(t),
^ = U(t, t0 ) ℱ ℱ e (13)
H(t (2)
= 𝒫(t, t0 ). (14)
2π
where throughout in this paper T = > 0, (1) gives rise
ω
Summarising this, we have shown that the evolution oper-
to a matrix equation for the evolution operator U(t, t0 ) that
ator U(t, t0 ) can be written as the product of a periodic
reads
matrix and an exponential matrix function of time, i.e.
∂ ^ U(t, t0 ),
i U(t, t0 ) = H(t) (3) U(t, t0 ) = 𝒫(t, t0 ) e−i(t−t0 )F, (15)
∂t
with the initial condition which is essentially the Floquet theorem for TLSs. Equa-
tion (15) is also called the “Floquet normal form” of U(t,
U(t0 , t0 ) = . (4) t0 ). For an example where an explicit solution for U(t, t0 )
is possible for some limit case, see also subsection 6.2.2.
We will assume that U(t, t0 ) ∈ SU2 , the Lie group of unitary The derivation of (15) can be easily generalised from
2 × 2-matrices with unit determinant. Consequently, the SU2 to any other finite-dimensional matrix Lie group with
Hamiltonian H(t) ^ has to be chosen such that i H(t) ^ lies in the property that the exponential map from the Lie algebra
the corresponding Lie algebra su2 of anti-Hermitean 2 × 2- to the Lie group is surjective, as this has been implicitly
matrices with vanishing trace, closed under commutation used in (9).
[ , ]. The relation between (1) and (3) is obvious: If ψ0 ∈ C2 The matrix F is Hermitean and hence has an eigen-
and U(t, t0 ) is the unique solution of (3) with initial condi- basis |n⟩, n = 1, 2 and real eigenvalues ϵn such that
tion (4), then ψ(t) ≡ U(t, t0 ) ψ0 will be the unique solu-
tion of (1) with initial condition ψ(t0 ) = ψ0 . Conversely, F = ϵ1 |1⟩⟨1| + ϵ2 |2⟩⟨2|. (16)
let ψ1 (t) and ψ2 (t) be the two solutions of (1) with initial
In this eigenbasis, (15) assumes the form
conditions ψ1 (t0 ) = 10 and ψ2 (t0 ) = 01 , then U(t, t0 ) ≡
(︀ )︀ (︀ )︀
(ψ1 (t), ψ2 (t)) will solve (3) and (4). U(t, t0 ) |n⟩ = 𝒫(t, t0 ) e−i(t−t0 ) F |n⟩ (17)
Further, it follows that any other solution U 1 (t, t0 ) of −i(t−t0 )ϵ n
= 𝒫(t, t0 ) e |n⟩ (18)
(3) with initial condition U 1 (t0 , t0 ) = V 0 will be of the form −i(t−t0 )ϵ n
= 𝒫(t, t0 ) |n⟩ e (19)
−i(t−t0 )ϵ n
U1 (t, t0 ) = U(t, t0 ) V0 . (5) ≡ u n (t, t0 ) e , (20)
in which the latter functions are called the “Floquet func- F F + ω and violate the condition Tr F = 0. But this
tions” or “Floquet solutions of (1)” and the eigenvalues uniqueness is achieved by using a complex arg-function
ϵn of F are called “quasienergies”, see [29]. For the TLS, with a discontinuous cut. Consider, for example, a smooth
we have exactly two quasienergies ±ϵ such that ϵ ≥ 0 as 1-parameter family of monodromy matrices ℱ(ω) and the
Tr F = 0. It follows that any solution ψ(t) of (1) with initial corresponding family ϵ1 (ω) of quasienergies. It may hap-
(︀ )︀
condition ψ(t0 ) = a1 |1⟩+a2 |2⟩ can be written in the form pen that exp −i T ϵ1 (ω) crosses the cut and hence ϵ1 (ω)
changes discontinuously. But this discontinuity is not a
2
physical effect and only due to the choice of the arg-
a n u n (t, t0 ) e−i(t−t0 )ϵ n,
∑︁
ψ(t) = U(t, t0 ) ψ(t0 ) = (21)
n=1 function. It could be compensated by, say, passing from
ϵ1 (ω) to ϵ1 (ω) + ω. In this case it would be more appro-
with the time-independent coefficients an . In this respect priate to consider, say, ϵ1 (ω) and ϵ1 (ω) + ω as physically
un (t, t0 ), resp. ϵn , generalise the eigenvectors, resp. eigen- equivalent quasienergies. Generally speaking, the issue
values, of a time-independent Hamiltonian H. ^ The latter is
of continuity is an argument in favour of considering the
trivially T-periodic for every T > 0 hence also in this case quasienergies modulo ω.
the Floquet theorem (15) must hold. Indeed it does so with
𝒫(t, t0 ) = and F = H. ^
We remark that the mere analogy between Floquet 2.2 Lift to Higher Spins
solutions and eigenvectors can be given a precise mean-
ing by considering the “Floquet Hamiltonian” K defined A possible physical realisation of the TLS with Hilbert
on the extended Hilbert space L2 [0, T] ⊗ C2 , see [29] such space C2 is a single spin with spin quantum number
that the quasienergies are recovered as the eigenvalues of s = 12 . Even if the TLS is realised in a different way it
K. This was already anticipated in [3, 4], but we will not go will be convenient to adopt the language of spin systems.
into the details as the extended Hilbert space will not be For example, the Lie algebra su2 is spanned by the Pauli
used in the present paper. matrices σi , i = 1, 2, 3 (times i) or equivalently, by the
In this account of Floquet theory we have stressed the three spin operators ^s i ≡ 21 σ i , i = 1, 2, 3 (times i). Con-
dependence of the various definitions of the choice of an sequently, the Hamiltonian H(t)^ can always be construed
arbitrary initial time t0 . It, hence, remains to investigate as a Zeeman term with a time-dependent dimensionless
the effect of changing from t0 to some other initial time t1 . magnetic field h(t) namely,
A straightforward calculation using the semi-group prop- 3
∑︁
erty of the evolution operator ^ = h(t) · ^s ≡
H(t) h i (t) ^s i , (25)
i=1
U(t, t0 ) = U(t, t1 ) U(t1 , t0 ) (22)
where, following the usual convention, we have omitted a
gives the result minus sign. We will outline the procedure of lifting a solu-
tion of the Schrödinger equation for a spin with s = 21 in
U(t, t1 ) = 𝒫(t, t0 ) 𝒫(t1 , t0 )−1 a time-dependent magnetic field to a solution of the corre-
(︁ )︁
exp −i(t − t1 )𝒫(t1 , t0 ) F 𝒫(t1 , t0 )−1 (23) sponding Schrödinger equation for general s. For this lift
(︁ )︁ the T-periodicity of h(t) is not necessary, but it will later
≡ 𝒫(t, t1 ) exp −i(t − t1 )F̃︀ . (24) be used to draw conclusions about the Floquet state of the
system with general s. The lift procedure is less known but
̃︀ ≡ 𝒫(t1 , t0 ) F 𝒫(t1 , t0 )−1
It follows that the eigenvalues of F has been already applied in 1987 to the problem of an N-
and F coincide, hence the change of the initial time will level system in a periodic laser field [30]. Also see [31] for
modify the Floquet functions but not the quasienergies. a more recent application of the lift procedure to the prob-
In concrete applications there will often be a natural lems of Landau-Zener transitions in a noisy environment.
choice for t0 and the dependence on t0 may be suppressed For the Bloch-Siegert shift in s = 1 systems see also [32].
without danger of confusion. Let, as in Section 2.1, t U(t, t0 ) be a smooth curve
We will add a few remarks on the uniqueness of the in SU2 , such that U(t0 , t0 ) = . It follows that
quasienergies ϵn . It is often argued that the quasiener- (︂ )︂
∂
gies are only unique up to integer multiples of ω, see, e.g. U(t, t0 ) U(t, t0 )−1 ≡ −i H(t)
^ ∈ su2 . (26)
∂t
[29]. It seems at first glance that in our approach unique-
ness is guaranteed by the requirement i F ∈ su2 . For exam- Hence the columns ψ1 (t), ψ2 (t) of U(t, t0 ) are linearly
ple, the replacement ϵn ϵn + ω in (16) would result in independent solutions of the Schrödinger equation (1).
such that 3i=1 |f i |2 = 1. and hence ^s′ = 3i=1 f i ^s i is the

∑︀ ∑︀
Next we consider the well-known irreducible Lie alge-
bra representation (shortly called “irrep”), see, e.g. [33] s = 21 spin operator into the direction (f1 , f2 , f3 )⊤ . From
Chapter 10–4, this it follows that
3 3
r(s) : su2 su2s+1 (27) (29)
F (s) = 2 ϵ f i r(s) (^s i ) = 2 ϵ
∑︁ ∑︁
f i S^ i . (37)
i=1 i=1
of su2 parametrised by the spin quantum number s such
that 2s ∈ N and the corresponding irreducible group rep- As S^ ′ = 3i=1 f i S^ i is the general s spin operator into the
∑︀
resentation (also called “irrep”) direction (f1 , f2 , f3 )⊤ with eigenvalues m = −s, . . ., s it
further follows that the eigenvalues of F (s) and hence the
R(s) : SU2 → SU2s+1 . (28)
quasienergies of the lifted Schrödinger equation are of the
It follows that form
r(s) (i ^s i ) = i S^ i , i = 1, 2, 3, (29) ϵ(s)

m = 2 ϵ m, m = −s, . . . , s. (38)
where the ^s i is defined above as the three s = 21 spin oper- Also the Floquet functions for the lifted problem can be
ators and the S^ i denotes the corresponding spin operators obtained from those of the TLS, and hence the general
for general s. solution of the lifted Schrödinger equation can be reduced
It follows from (29) that to the general solution of (1).
(︁ )︁ 3
r(s) −i H(t)
∑︁
^ ^ ≡ −i
= −i h(t) · S h i (t) S^ i . (30)
i=1 2.3 Lift to SO3
Hence
We will consider the lift of the two-level problem to the
(s) (s) three-level problem with spin s = 1 with more details. Till
U(t, t0 ) ≡R U(t, t0 ) (31)
the end we will not directly use the irrep R(1) but some other
will be a matrix solution of the lifted time evolution well-known representation R that is, however, unitarily
equation equivalent to R(1) . It is defined by
∂ 3
i U(t, t0 )(s) = h(t) · S
^ U(t, t0 )(s) . (32)
∑︁
∂t u ^s i u* = R(u)ij ^s j , for all i = 1, 2, 3 and u ∈ su2 ,
j=1
Note that U(t, t0 )(s) is a unitary matrix and hence its (39)
columns span the general (2s + 1)-dimensional solution and can be restricted to an irrep R : SU2 → SO3 . The cor-
space of the lifted Schrödinger equation. responding Lie algebra irrep r : su2 → so3 maps i^s i , i =
Next we will use that the Hamiltonian is a T-periodic 1, 2, 3 onto three anti-symmetric real matrices that span
function of time, i.e. that (2) holds. Consequently, we can so3 . Let
apply the irrep R(s) to the Floquet normal form (15) of ⎛ ⎞
U(t, t0 ) and obtain 0 −h3 (t) h2 (t)
H(t) ≡ ⎝ h3 (t) 0 −h1 (t) ⎠, (40)
⎜ ⎟
(︁ )︁
U(t, t0 )(s) = R(s) 𝒫(t, t0 ) R(s) e−i(t−t0 )F
(︀ )︀
(33) −h2 (t) h1 (t) 0
(s)
≡ 𝒫(t, t0 )(s) e−i(t−t0 )F , (34) then the lifted evolution equation can be written as
where ∂
R(t, t0 ) = H(t) R(t, t0 ), (41)
∂t
(s) (s)
iF ≡r (i F ) . (35)
where, as usual, R(t, t0 ) ∈ SO3 and R(t0 , t0 ) = . The
Recall that the eigenvalues of F are of the form ±ϵ where underlying “Schrödinger equation” has the form
ϵ ≥ 0 is the quasienergy of the TLS. Moreover, as i F ∈ su2 , d
F can be written in the form X(t) = h(t) × X(t), (42)
dt
3
∑︁ with X(t) ∈ R3 and can simultaneously be considered as
F = 2ϵ f i ^s i , (36)
i=1
the classical limit of the lifted Schrödinger equation for
s → ∞. A more direct derivation of (42) can be given in the as the initial value X(t0 ) of a solution of (42) we conclude
following way.
Let ψ(t) be a solution of the Schrödinger equation (1) X(t + T) = R(t + T, t0 )X0 (46)
and (15) (1) −i(t+T−t0 )F (1)
= 𝒫 (t + T, t0 ) e X0 (47)
(9) (1) −i(t−t0 )F (1) (1)
= 𝒫 (t, t0 )e ℱ X0 (48)
(1) −i(t−t0 )F (1)
P(t) = |ψ(t)⟩⟨ψ(t)| (43) = 𝒫 (t, t0 ) e X0 (49)
(15)
= R(t, t0 ) X0 (50)
be the corresponding 1-dimensional projector. It can also = X(t). (51)

be written in the form
This means that this special solution X(t) will be T-
periodic. We may hence ask whether it can be obtained as
1 ∑︁
the lift of a Floquet solution of the Schrödinger equation,
P(t) = + X i (t) ^s i . (44)
2 and, if so, how this Floquet solution can be reconstructed
i=1,2,3
from X(t).
To this end we will start with a given T-periodic solu-
⊤
(︁ = (X1 (t), X)︁
We will write X(t) 2 (t), X 3 (t)) and note that tion X(t) of (42) and want to construct a corresponding
1 2
0 = det P(t) = 4 ‖X(t)‖ − 1 . Hence the 1-parameter Floquet solution of (1). It is not necessary to assume the
2
family P(t) corresponds to a curve X(t) on the “Bloch condition ‖X(t)‖ = 1 from the outset. We may rather use
2 the fact that (42) admits the constant of motion
sphere”, defined by ‖X(t)‖ = 1.
The projector P(t) satisfies the von-Neumann equation
R2 = X1 (t)2 + X2 (t)2 + X3 (t)2 , (52)
d [︁
^
]︁
and hence the solutions of (42) are trajectories on the Bloch
P(t) = −i H(t), P(t) . (45)
dt sphere of radius R. Then the T-periodic 1-parameter family
P(t) of one-dimensional projectors defined by
Using the commutation relations of the spin operators (︃ )︃
^si one easily derives from (45) the differential equation 1 R + X3 (t) X1 (t) − i X2 (t)
P(t) ≡ , (53)
2R X1 (t) + i X2 (t) R − X3 (t)
(42) for X(t). In the special case where ψ(t) = ψ1 (t) =
u1 (t, t0 ) e−i(t−t0 )ϵ1 is a Floquet solution of (1) the curve X(t)
is a T-periodic solution of (42) and can be visualised as satisfies the von-Neumann equation (45) that is equiv-
a closed trajectory on the Bloch sphere. The second Flo- alent to (42). As P(t) is a projector and hence satisfies
quet solution ψ2 (t) = u2 (t, t0 ) e−i(t−t0 )ϵ2 is orthogonal to P(t)2 = P(t), each non-vanishing column of P(t) will be an
ψ2 (t) for all t and hence must correspond to the “antipode” eigenvector of P(t) corresponding to the eigenvalue 1. After
periodic solution −X(t) of (42). normalising we thus obtain the T-periodic one-parameter
It will be instructive to check the consistency of our family of vectors
representation by directly applying the Floquet theory to (︃ )︃
(1) 1 R + X3 (t)
(41). The corresponding )︁monodromy matrix ℱ = R(t0 + φ(t) = √︀ , (54)
2R(R + X3 (t)) X1 (t) + i X2 (t)
(︁
(1)
T, t0 ) = exp −i T F has as any matrix in SO3 , three
eigenvalues of the form 1, eiρ , e−iρ . Consequently, F (1)
such that |φ(t)⟩⟨φ(t)| = P(t). We note in passing that (54)
has the eigenvalues 0, +ρ/T, −ρ/T which is in accor-
is undefined at the south pole of the Bloch sphere where
dance with (38) if 2ϵ = ρ/T. We note in passing that these
X 3 (t) = −R. We cannot expect that φ(t) is already a solu-
considerations suggest a simple numerical procedure to
tion of the Schrödinger equation (1) but only that φ(t) dif-
determine the quasienergy ϵ: solve (41) numerically over
fers from a solution ψ(t) of (1) by a time-dependent phase
one period T and find the eigenvalues of the corresponding
factor ei α(t) . After some calculations using (42) we obtain
monodromy matrix ℱ (1) .
As a byproduct of the Floquet theory for SO3 we will
(︂ )︂
^ − i d φ(t)
H(t)
prove the existence of periodic classical solutions of (42). dt
Let X0 be the eigenvector of the monodromy matrix ℱ (1) = 1
(︂
h1 (t)X1 (t) + h2 (t)X2 (t)
)︂
R(t0 +T, t0 ) corresponding to the eigenvalue 1. If we use X0 = h3 (t) + φ(t) (55)
2 R + X3 (t)
a n ei n ω t φ(t),
(︀ )︀ ∑︁
≡ χ X(t) φ(t) = (56) and the an in (64) are the Fourier coefficients of the
(︀ )︀
n∈Z T-periodic function t χ X(t) defined in (55) and
(56).
where the infinite sum in (56) represents the Fourier series
(︀ )︀
of the T-periodic function t χ X(t) . By integrating this
Fourier series over t we obtain
2.4 The RPC Example I
∑︁ ei n ω t
α(t) ≡ a0 t + an , (57)
n∈Z
inω We will check the results of Assertion 1 for the exactly solv-
n=0
/
able case of the circularly polarised Rabi problem (RPC)
(neglecting an additional integration constant that would where
only yield a constant phase factor) and further ⎛ ⎞
(︂ )︂ F cos ω t
d h(t) = ⎝ F sin ω t ⎠.
⎜ ⎟
(66)
H(t) − i ψ(t) = 0, (58)
dt ω0
where
We obtain T = 2π
ω -periodic solutions X(t) of (42) by the
(︀ )︀
ψ(t) ≡ exp −i α(t) φ(t) (59) following argument. Obviously,
⎛ ⎞
inωt
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜ ∑︁ e −ωF sin ω t 0 F cos ω t
= exp ⎝−i an ⎠ φ(t) exp (−ia0 t) (60)
⎟
dh ⎜
n∈Z
i n ω = ⎝ ω F cos ω t ⎠ = ⎝ 0 ⎠ × ⎝ F sin ω t ⎠ ≡ ω × h.
⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
n=0
/ dt
0 ω ω0
≡ u(t) exp (−i ϵ t) . (61) (67)
We set X(t) = h(t) − ω and conclude
According to (61) and (58), ψ(t) is indeed a Floquet solu-
tion of (1) with quasienergy ϵ = a0 modulo ω since u(t) is dX dh (67)
T-periodic. The quasienergy ϵ is the time average of χ(X(t)) = = ω × h = h × (−ω) = h × (h − ω) = h × X,
dt dt
denoted by an overbar: (68)
(︂ )︂ and analogously for X(t) = ω − h(t). Hence one finds two
1 h1 (t)X1 (t) + h2 (t)X2 (t) T-periodic solution of (42) of the form
ϵ = a0 = h3 (t) + . (62)
2 R + X3 (t)
⎛ ⎞
F cos ω t
Thus we have proven the following:
X± (t) = ± ⎝ F sin ω t ⎠. (69)
⎜ ⎟
Assertion 1. There exists a 1:1 correspondence between T- ω0 − ω
2
periodic solutions X(t) of (42) such that ‖X(t)‖ = 1 and
Floquet solutions ψ(t) = u(t) exp(−i ϵ t) of (1) satisfy the In this case the function χ(X(t)), see (56), turns out to be
following conditions: time-independent which directly yields the quasienergies
(i) If ψ(t) is a Floquet solution of (1) then
1
(︃ )︃ ϵ± = (ω ± Ω), (70)
1 1 + X3 (t) X1 (t) − i X2 (t) 2
|ψ(t)⟩⟨ψ(t)| = ,
2 X1 (t) + i X2 (t) 1 − X3 (t)
where Ω is the Rabi frequency
(63)
(ii) If X(t) is a normalised T-periodic solution of (42) then √︁
2
ψ(t) = u(t) exp (−i ϵ t) will be a Floquet solution of (1) Ω≡R= F 2 + (ω0 − ω) . (71)
where
⎛ ⎞ Moreover, the corresponding two Floquet solutions ψ± (t)
∑︁ e inωt of the Schrödinger equation (1) can be obtained by (60)
u(t) = exp ⎝−i an ⎠ ×
⎜ ⎟
i n ω with the result:
n∈Z
n=0
/ ⎛√ 1
−ω + Ω + ω0 e− 2 it(ω+Ω)
⎞
(︃ )︃
1 1 + X3 (t) √ √
, (64) 2 Ω
⎜ ⎟
√︀ ⎜ ⎟
2(1 + X3 (t)) X 1 (t) + i X 2 (t) ψ+ (t) = ⎜
⎜ 1
Fe 2 it(ω−Ω) ⎟,
⎟
(72)
(︂ )︂ ⎜ √ √︀ ⎟
1 h1 (t)X1 (t) + h2 (t)X2 (t) ⎝ 2 Ω(−ω + Ω + ω0 ) ⎠
ϵ = h3 (t) + , (65)
2 1 + X3 (t)
⎛√ 1
ω + Ω − ω0 e− 2 it(ω−Ω)
⎞
see (56), into a “dynamical” and a “geometrical part”. The
√ √
⎜
⎜ 21 Ω
⎟
⎟ dynamical part is defined as
ψ− (t) = ⎜ Fe 2 it(ω+Ω) ⎟, (73)
⎜ ⎟
− √ √︀
⃒ ⃒
(︀ )︀ ⃒^ ⃒
χ d X(t) ≡ ⟨φ(t) ⃒H(t) ⃒ φ(t)⟩ (75)
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 Ω(ω + Ω − ω0 ) ⎠
1
= (h1 X + h2 Y + h3 Z ) (76)
2R
in accordance with the well-known result, see, e.g. [34]. and represents the expectation value of the energy. Its
time average yields the dynamical part of the quasienergy:
(︀ )︀ 1
ϵ d ≡ χ d X(t) = (h1 X + h2 Y + h3 Z ). (77)
2R
3 Geometry of the Two-Level The geometrical part of χ(X(t)) is defined as
System ⟨ ⃒ ⟩
(︀ )︀ ⃒ d
χ g X(t) ≡ φ(t) ⃒−i ⃒ φ(t) (78)
The correspondence between T-periodic solutions X(t) of dt
(42) and Floquet solutions ψ(t) of (1) that has been for- X(t)Ẏ(t) − Y(t)Ẋ(t)
= . (79)
mulated in Assertion 1 can be further analysed w. r. t. 2R(R + Z(t))
two different geometric perspectives: either the map
Using spherical coordinates θ, ϕ for the Bloch sphere with
ψ(t) X(t) can be viewed as the restriction of the map
radius 1, we may write the differential χg dt in the form
of a Hilbert space ℋ onto the corresponding projective
Hilbert space P(ℋ) and the quasienergy as a phase change (︀ )︀ X dY − Y dX
χ g X(t) dt = (80)
during a cyclic quantum evolution in the sense of [27]. Or 2R(R + Z)
the Bloch sphere can be construed as the phase space of 1 − cos θ
= dϕ ≡ α. (81)
the classical limit of the TLS and the quasienergy can be 2
related to its semi-classical limit in the sense of [26]. We
This yields a differential 1-form α on the Bloch sphere and
will treat both aspects in the following subsections.
the time average of χ g X(t) is, up to the factor T1 = 2πω
(︀ )︀
,
the integral of α over the closed curve 𝒞 parametrised by
X(t). By applying Stoke’s theorem we obtain
3.1 Geometry of the Fibre Bundle

∮︁
(︀ )︀ ω
2 ϵ g = χ g X(t) = α (82)
π : C|1| 𝒮2 2π
𝒞
∫︁
ω ω
The map of wave functions to projectors ψ |ψ⟩⟨ψ| can = dα = |𝒜| , (83)
2π 4π
be viewed as a surjective map π from the unit sphere of 𝒜
C2|1| of C2 to the unit sphere of R3 , i.e. as π : C2|1| 𝒮 2.
2 ∼ 3
where 𝒜 denotes the oriented area enclosed by 𝒞 and |𝒜|
Since C|1| = 𝒮 this is essentially the Hopf fibration [35].
the correspondingly signed solid angle. Here we have used
The fiber π −1 (X) consists of the set of all phase factors eiα that the 2-form
and can hence be identified with the one-dimensional uni-
tary group U 1 . Then the map σ : X φ(t) according to 1
dα = sin θ dθ ∧ dϕ (84)
2
(54) can be viewed as a local section of the principal fiber
bundle π : C2|1| 𝒮 2 with structure group U 1 . The above equals 12 times the surface element on the unit sphere.
remark that σ is undefined at the south pole of the Bloch Thus we obtain the following interpretation of the
sphere means that σ cannot be extended to a global section quasienergy ϵ = ϵd + ϵg as composed of two parts: the
due to topological obstacles. The group SU2 operates in a dynamical part ϵd is the time average of the energy (76) and
natural fashion on C2|1| as well as on 𝒮 2 via rotations R(u) ω
the geometrical part ϵg is 4π times the solid angle enclosed
defined in (39) by the T-periodic solution of (42).
Following [27] we may split the function We refer to [27] for the differential-geometric back-
ground of this scenario. Obviously, 1-form α is the retract
of the canonical connection 1-form γ of the principal
⃒(︂ )︂⃒
(︀ )︀ ⃒
^ d ⃒⃒
χ X(t) = ⟨φ(t) ⃒ H(t) − i
⃒ φ(t)⟩, (74) fiber bundle π : C2|1| 𝒮 2 w. r. t. the local section σ :
dt ⃒
𝒮2 C2|1| described above. Hence the non-vanishing of 3.3 Another Solvable Example
ϵg is due to the curvature of this principal fiber bundle and
generalises Berry’s phase. Recall further that, by defini- The idea of a “reverse engineering of the control” h(t), see
tion, γ has values in the Lie algebra of U 1 . This Lie alge- [18–20], can also be applied to the classical Floquet prob-
bra is isomorphic to R and an analogous identification lem. Given a normalised T-periodic function X(t) we may
has been made by considering above α as a usual real- choose h(t) ≡ X(t) × Ẋ(t) such that (42) is satisfied. This
valued 1-form. However, ϵg as the integral over α should special choice of h entails h · X = 0 and hence the dynam-
properly have values in U 1 and not in R and this subtle dif- ical part χd of χ vanishes according to (76). The geometri-
ference is in turn in accordance with the general claim that cal part χg = χ will be calculated according to (79) for the
quasienergies are only defined modulo ω. following example:
(︂ )︂)︂ ⎞ (︂
ωt
⎛
2
⎜ cos(ωt) sin f sin 2
3.2 The RPC Example II ⎜ (︂ (︂ )︂)︂ ⎟
⎟
⎜ sin(ωt) sin f sin2 ωt
⎜ ⎟
⎟
X(t) = ⎜ 2 ⎟, (89)
⎜ ⎟
We will illustrate the results of the preceding subsection ⎜ (︂ (︂ )︂)︂ ⎟
by the explicitly solvable case of RPC. The calculation ⎜ 2 ωt ⎟
⎜ cos f sin ⎟
is essentially identical with that in [27]. It follows from
⎝ 2 ⎠
(66) and (69) that the dynamical part of the quasienergy
assumes the value (note that the involved functions are
f being a real parameter, which leads to
constant and taking the time average is superfluous)
1 (︁
⎛ )︁⎞
h1 X + h2 Y + h3 Z F 2 + ω0 (ω0 − ω) − ω f sin2 (ωt) + cos(ωt) sin(f − f cos(ωt))
ϵd = = √︁ . (85) ⎜ 2 ⎟
2R 2
⎜ ⎟
2 F 2 + (ω0 − ω) ⎜ 1
⎜ ⎟
ω sin(ωt)(f cos(ωt) − sin(f − f cos(tω))) ⎟
⎟
⎜
h(t) = ⎜ 2 ⎟,
On the other hand, the vector X+ (t) prescribes a cir- ⎜
⎜ (︂ (︂ )︂)︂
⎟
⎟
cle on the Bloch sphere with constant Z = ω0 − ω, see
⎜ 2 2 ωt ⎟
⎜ ω sin f sin ⎟
(69). Consider first the case of Z > 0. The correspond-
⎝ 2 ⎠
ing spherical segment has an area of 2πR(R − Z) corre-

(90)
sponding to a solid angle of |𝒜| = 2π(R−Z)
R , where R =
√︁ and
2
Ω = F 2 + (ω0 − ω) is the radius of the Bloch sphere. (︂ (︂ )︂)︂
Hence 1 ωt
χ(t) = ω sin2 f sin2 , (91)
2 2
ω 2π(R − Z) ω (R − ω0 + ω)
ϵg = = , (86)
4π R 2R see Figure 1 visualising the example f = 1, ω = 1. The
Fourier series of χ(t) can be explicitly calculated:
and
∞
F 2 + ω0 (ω0 − ω) ω (R − ω0 + ω) χ(t) = ϵ +
∑︁
b n cos n ω t, (92)
ϵ+ = ϵ d + ϵ g = + (87)
2R 2R n=1
1
= (ω + R), (88)
2 where
in accordance with (70). For the second periodic solution ω
(︂ (︂ )︂ (︂ )︂)︂
f f
X− (t) it follows that both terms ϵd and ϵg acquires a minus ϵ = 1 − cos J0 , (93)
2 2 2
sign, the latter as the spherical segment encircled by X− (t) ⎧ n+1
(︁ )︁
(−1) 2 sin 2f : n odd,
(︂ )︂ ⎨
has a negative orientation. Hence ϵ− = −ϵ+ mod ω in f
bn = ω Jn n+2
(︁ )︁ . (94)
accordance with (70). 2 ⎩ (−1) 2 cos f : n even,
2
In the case of Z < 0 the dynamical part ϵd remains
unchanged whereas the solid angle of the spherical Here the J n (. . .) denote the Bessel functions of the first
segment encircled by X+ (t) assumes the form |𝒜| = kind and integer order. The constant term of (92) is the
− 2π(R+Z)
R . This yields ϵ+ = 21 (−ω + R) which differs from quasienergy ϵ according to (93) that only depends lin-
(88) only by −ω and is thus equivalent. Analogous early on ω. The Fourier series of χ(t) could be utilised
arguments hold for ϵ− . to explicitly determine the Floquet solutions u± (t)e∓i ϵ t
as Hamiltonian equations of motions in a two-dimensional

phase space isomorphic to 𝒮 2 with canonical coordinates
p = z, q = φ. (102)
We will hence forward often use p and q instead of z

and φ. Following [36] we consider the extended phase
space 𝒫 = 𝒮 2 × R with coordinates p, q, t and the
Poincaré-Cartan form
α ≡ p dq − H dt (103)
defined on 𝒫 (not to be confounded with the 1-form α

defined in Section 3.4). The Hamiltonian equations (100),
(101) can be geometrically construed as the direction field
Figure 1: A periodic solution X(t) of the classical equation of motion
(42) according to (89) with f = 1, ω = 1 represented by a closed on 𝒫 that is given by the unique null direction field of the
trajectory on the Bloch sphere (blue curve). The corresponding mag- exterior derivative of the Poincaré-Cartan form
netic field h(t) according to (90) is visualised by the red curve. At
the time t = π the three vectors X(π), h(π) and Ẋ(π) = h(π) × X(π) ω ≡ dα = dp ∧ dq − dH ∧ dt, (104)
are indicated by the coloured arrows.
see Section 44 of [36] for the details.
of the corresponding Schrödinger equation according to Periodic solutions of (100), (101) correspond to curves
Assertion 1. γ in 𝒫 that are not closed as after one period T the coor-
Note further that Assertion 3 of Section 4.2 can be dinate t has changed from t = 0 to t = T. This can be
∂ϵ
sharpened to ∂ω = ωϵ as ϵ d = 0 in this example. repaired by defining another extended phase space 𝒫 ′
via identifying points with t-coordinates that differ by an
integer multiple of T, or, more formally,
3.4 Classical Mechanics of the Two-Level
System 𝒫 ′ ≡ 𝒮 2 × R/TZ. (105)
First we will introduce some concepts of classical mechan- Of course, R/TZ is isomorphic to 𝒮 1 . Locally the manifolds
ics suited for the present case. Let z and φ be coordinates 𝒫 and 𝒫 ′ are isomorphic, but globally they are not. The
of the unit Bloch sphere defined by differential forms α and ω can be transferred to 𝒫 ′ as all
√︀ functions involved in α and ω are T-periodic. Now peri-
X/R = 1 − z2 cos φ, (95) odic solutions of (100), (101) correspond to closed curves γ
in 𝒫 ′ .
√︀
Y /R = 1 − z2 sin φ, (96)
Z/R = z. (97) Next we will rewrite the expression (62) for the
quasienergy ϵ. By (76) and (81) we obtain
Further we define the classical Hamiltonian
1
1 χ d dt = H dt, (106)
H = 2
(h1 X + h2 Y + h3 Z ) (98)
R 1 1
√︀ χ g dt = (1 − z) dφ = (1 − p) dq. (107)
= 1 − z2 (h1 cos φ + h2 sin φ) + h3 z, (99) 2 2
Hence
and rewrite the differential equation (42) in terms of the
∮︁
two functions z(t) and φ(t): ω n
ϵ = χg + χd = − (p dq − H dt) + ω, (108)
4π 2
√︀ ∂H γ
ż = 1 − z2 (h1 sin φ − h2 cos φ) = −
, (100)
∂φ
where the n in the last term denotes the winding number
z ∂H
φ̇ = h3 − √ (h1 cos φ + h2 sin φ) = . (101) of γ around the z-axis. This result is in close analogy to
1−z 2 ∂z
equation (2.35) of [26] that represents the semi-classical
Note that due to (76), H is twice the expectation value of limit of the quasienergy for integrable Floquet systems. It
^ Obviously, (100)–(101) can be viewed
the Hamiltonian H. thus seems that for the TLS, similar as in the case of the
driven harmonic oscillator, the semi-classical limit of the 4.1 Homogeneity of the Quasienergy
quasienergy and the exact quantum-theoretical expres-
sion coincide. However, it has not yet been shown that the For the RPE the classical equation of motion (42) reduces
quantisation procedure adopted in [26] yields the quan- to
tum TLS when starting from its classical limit.
Ẋ = G sin(ωt) Z − ω0 Y , (115)
Ẏ = ω0 X − F cos(ωt) Z, (116)
Ż = F cos(ωt) Y − G sin(ωt) X. (117)
4 Resonances
It is invariant under the transformation
In this and the following sections we will restrict the
ω0 λ ω0 , (118)
Hamiltonian (25) to the following special case
F λ F, (119)
h1 = F cos ωt, (109) G λ G, (120)
h2 = G sin ωt, (110) ω λ ω, (121)

1
h3 = ω0 , (111) t t, (122)
λ
for all λ > 0. Under this transformation the quasienergy
that will be referred to as the RPE. It includes the two limit
(62) scales with λ and hence is a positively homogeneous
cases G → 0, the RPL, and G → F, the RPC. Hence the
function of degree 1:
quasienergy ϵ can be written as a function ϵ(ω0 , F, G, ω)
of the four parameters ω0 , F, G, ω that will be assumed to ϵ(λ ω0 , λ F, λ G, λ ω) = λ ϵ(ω0 , F, G, ω) (123)
have positive values.
The corresponding classical Hamiltonian (99) reads for all λ > 0. This could be used to eliminate the vari-
able ω0 (by choosing λ = ω−1 0 which transforms ω 0 into
√︀ 1) but for some purposes, e.g. the investigation of the limit
H(z, φ) = 1 − z2 (F cos ωt cos φ
ω0 → 0 or the analysis of the resonance condition (114),
+ G sin ωt sin φ) + ω0 z. (112) the elimination of ω0 is not appropriate.
By the Euler theorem the positive homogeneity of ϵ
If the TLS is coupled to a second weak electromagnetic implies
field there may occur transitions between the two different
∂ϵ ∂ϵ ∂ϵ ∂ϵ
Floquet states, analogously as in the case of two energy ϵ(ω0 , F, G, ω) = ω0 +F +G +ω . (124)
∂ω0 ∂F ∂G ∂ω
levels for a time-independent Hamiltonian. Shirley has
computed the time-averaged probability P of such a tran-
sition, see (26) in [4], with the remarkably simple result 4.2 Calculation of ∇ϵ
∂ϵ
We first consider ∂ω . For the sake of simplicity we assume
(︃ (︂ )︂2 )︃
1 ∂ϵ 0
P= 1−4 . (113) that the classical equations of motion (115)–(117) for the
2 ∂ω0
RPE has two unique normalised T-periodic solutions of the
form ±X(t). The latter assumption is, for example, violated
Although Shirley’s derivation of (113) refers to the RPL in the case ω0 = 0, see Section 6.2, where we have a 1-
case, see (1) in [4], one can easily check that it also holds parameter family of periodic solutions and a quasienergy
in the more general RPE case. It implies that the transition ϵ = 0. Under these assumptions we will prove the follow-
probability assumes its maximal value P max = 12 for ing:
Assertion 2.
∂ϵ
= 0. (114)
∂ω0 ∂ϵ Z(t)
= . (125)
∂ω0 2R
Hence the condition (114) will be called the “resonance
∂ϵ
condition”. It will be further analysed in the following Hence the resonance condition ∂ω0 = 0 is equivalent to
subsections. Z(t) = 0.
For the proof of this assertion we will adopt the language γ2

of classical mechanics introduced in 3.4. In order to calcu-
∂ϵ
late ∂ω 0
we have to vary the parameter ω0 . To this end we
define still another extension of the phase space by τ
𝒫 ′′ ≡ 𝒮 2 × R/TZ × R>0 , (126)
ω0
–γ1
with coordinates p, q, t and ω0 > 0. Again the differen-
tial forms α and ω can be transferred to 𝒫 ′′ but instead
of dα = ω we now have
Figure 2: The tube τ in extended phase space 𝒫 ′′ generated by
the family of closed curves γ(ω0 ), where ω(1) (2)
0 ≤ ω 0 ≤ ω 0 . The
two curves −γ1 and γ2 that form the boundary of τ are displayed
∂H (112) together with their orientations.
dα = ω − dω0 ∧ dt = ω − z dω0 ∧ dt. (127)
∂ω0
Then
⎛ ⎞
∮︁ ∮︁
ω ⎝
The closed curves γ corresponding to periodic solu- ϵ2 − ϵ1 = − α − α⎠ (129)
4π
tions of (100), (101) smoothly depend on ω0 and hence γ2 γ1
will be denoted by γ(ω0 ). Geometrically, this defines a tube
⎛ ⎞
∮︁
ω ⎝
τ in 𝒫 ′′ parametrised by γ(ω0 , t), see Figure 2. We will = − α⎠ (130)
4π
consider values of ω0 running through some closed inter- γ2 −γ1
val ω0 ∈ [ω(1) (2)
0 , ω 0 ] and restrict the tube τ to these val-
⎛
∮︁
⎞
ues. Hence the boundary ∂τ of the tube can be identified ω ⎝
= − α⎠ (131)
4π
with γ2 − γ1 , where γi ≡ γ(ω(i)0 ), i = 1, 2 and the minus ∂τ
sign in γ2 − γ1 accounts for the correct orientation. We ⎛
∫︁
⎞
consider the difference between the quasienergies ω ⎝
= − dα⎠ (132)
4π
τ
⎛ ⎞
∫︁ ∫︁
(127) ω ⎝
= − ω − (z dω0 ∧ dt)⎠, (133)
ϵ2 − ϵ1 ≡ ϵ(ω(2) (1)
0 ) − ϵ(ω 0 )
4π
⎛ ⎞ τ τ
∮︁ ∮︁
(103),(108) ω ⎝ δn
= − α − α⎠ + ω, (128) invoking Stokes theorem in (132). Now we use the fact that
4π 2 ∫︀
γ2 γ1 τ ω = 0 as the tangent plane at any point x ∈ τ contains
a null vector of ω, namely the vector tangent to the curve γ
passing through x ∈ τ. Here we have employed the above-
mentioned results of analytical mechanics according to
where δn denotes the difference of the winding numbers. [36]. It follows that
In this paper we will make the general assumption that the
∫︁
quasienergy can be chosen as a smooth function ϵ(ω0 ) of ω
ϵ2 − ϵ1 = z dω0 ∧ dt (134)
ω0 taking into account that it is only defined up to inte- 4π
τ
ger multiples of ω. Hence a discontinuous change of the (2)
winding number by an even number can be compensated ∫︁ω0
1
by the choice of the right branch of ϵ(ω0 ). In the RPL exam- = z(ω0 , t) dω0 , (135)
2
ple there are only even changes of the winding number due ω(1)
0
to the symmetry of the periodic solution but, according to

our general assumption, this must hold generally. Hence where z(ω0 , t) denotes the time average w. r. t. the curve
we can neglect the term δn 2 ω in (128). γ(ω0 ) and hence depends on ω0 . Choosing ω(1)
0 = ω0 − δ
and ω(2)
0 = ω 0 + δ we obtain the limit δ → 0: Together with an analogous calculation as in the proof
of Assertion 2 this implies
∂ϵ 1
= z(ω0 , t), (136)
∂ω0 2
∫︁2π
∂ϵ ϵ ω ∂H
which concludes the proof of Assertion 2. = + dτ (147)
∂ϵ ∂ϵ
∂ω ω 4π ∂ω
The calculation of ∂F and ∂G can be performed analo- 0
gously. For example, the analogue of (135) reads ∫︁2π
ϵ 1
= − Hdτ (148)
ω
∫︁
∂H ω 4πω
ϵ2 − ϵ1 = dF ∧ dt (137) 0
4π ∂F ϵ 1
τ = − H (149)
(2) ω 2ω
∫︁F √︀
1 (77) ϵ g
= 1 − z2 cos ωt cos φ dF (138) = , (150)
2 ω
F (1)
∂H
= − ω12 H in (148). An alternative derivation of
(2)
∫︁F using ∂ω
1
= x c cos2 ωt dF (139) (149) would consist in the evaluation of the Euler relation
2
F (1) (124) using (125), (141) and (142). Hence the calculation of
(F (2)
− F (1) ) x c the partial derivatives of ϵ does not lead to a simplified for-
→ , (140) mula for ϵ itself. However, the relation (150) can be used for
4
a geometrical interpretation of the splitting ϵ = ϵ g + ϵ d ,
and hence see Figure 3. We will formulate this result separately and
∂ϵ xc stress the fact that the above proof is independent the
= , (141) particular form (109)–(111) of H.
∂F 4
where xc is the coefficient of the term cosωt in the Fourier Assertion 3. Under the assumptions of Sections 2 and 3 the
series of x(t). xc depends on F and hence (140) only holds following holds:
asymptotically for F (2) − F (1) → 0.
Similarly, ∂ϵ ϵg
= . (151)
∂ω ω
∂ϵ ys
= , (142)
∂G 4 ∂ϵ
Hence ∂ω equals the solid angle |𝒜| encircled by the cor-
where ys is the coefficient of the term sinωt in the Fourier responding periodic solution of the classical RPE equation
series of y(t). divided by 4π.
∂ϵ
In order to calculate ∂ω it is advisable first to sim-
plify the ω-dependence of ϵ by the coordinate transfor-
mation t τ ≡ ω t together with H H≡ H ω . The latter
transformation insures that the Hamiltonian equations of
motion retain their canonical form
dφ ∂H
= , (143)
dτ ∂z
dz ∂H
= − . (144)
dτ ∂φ
After the coordinate transformation the Poincaré-Cartan

form reads
α = p dq − H dτ. (145)
Figure 3: The quasienergy ϵ as a function of ω for fixed ω0 , F and G
Recall that according to (108) is considered as the sum of the geometrical part ϵg and the dynam-
∮︁ ical part ϵd satisfying (150). Hence the values of ϵg and ϵd can be
ω n geometrically determined by the intersection of the tangent to the
ϵ(ω) = − (p dq − H dτ) + ω. (146)
4π 2 graph of ϵ(ω) with the ϵ axis.
γ
4.3 The RPC Example III One easily derives that also both sides of (159) are odd cos-
series, and hence probably there exists a solution of (158)–
The quasienergies (160) that fulfills the above requirements concerning the
(︂ )︂ subspaces in which X, Y and Z lie.
1
√︁
(70,71) 2
ϵ± = ω± F2 + (ω0 − ω) (152) On the basis of these considerations and numerical
2 investigations we obtain the following ansatz of a (not nec-
are obviously positively homogeneous functions of ω0 , F, essarily normalised) Fourier series solution of (158)–(160):
ω.
Further, the normalised third component of X(t) has ∞
∑︁
the constant value X(t) = ω0 x2n+1 cos(2n + 1)ωt, (161)
n=0
ω0 − ω ∞
z = √︁ = z(t), (153) ∑︁
Y(t) = x2n+1 (2n + 1) ω sin(2n + 1)ωt, (162)
F 2 + ( ω 0 − ω )2
n=0
∞
∑︁
see (69). On the other hand, by (152), Z(t) = z0 + x2n cos 2nωt. (163)
n=1
∂ϵ+ 1 ∂Ω 1 ω0 − ω
= = √︁ , (154)
∂ω0 2 ∂ω0 2
F 2 + (ω0 − ω)2
The form of (162) is already uniquely determined by the
which confirms Assertion 2. The resonance condition differential equation Ẋ = −ω0 Y. The Fourier coefficients
∂ϵ+ x2n of Z(t) in (163) are written in such a way that the vec-
∂ω0 = 0 is equivalent to ω res = ω 0 .
Moreover, Assertion 3 is confirmed by the following tor of unknown Fourier coefficients assumes the form x =
calculation: (x1 , x2 , . . .). The validity of the ansatz (161)–(163) will not
be rigorously proven but appears highly plausible due to
(︃ )︃
∂ϵ+ (152) 1 ω − ω0 the investigation of the analytical approximations to these
= 1 + √︀ (155)
∂ω 2 F 2 + (ω − ω0 ) 2 solutions in what follows.
1 (︁ ω − ω0 )︁ If we insert the ansatz (161)–(163) into (158)–(160) we
= 1+ (156) obtain an infinite system of linear equations of the form
2 R
(86) ϵ g A x = f, where
= . (157)
ω
⎛ ⎞
−F z0
5 Analytical Approximations 0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ . ⎠.
f=⎜ (164)
..
5.1 Truncated Fourier Series Solution
In this and the following sections we specialise in the RPL. The matrix A is tri-diagonal due to the simple form of the
Thus the classical equation of motion (42) reduces to h1 = F cos ωt which couples only neighbouring modes.
Although A is unbounded it may be sensible to truncate
Ẋ = −ω0 Y , (158) it to some N × N-matrix A(N) if the resulting finite Fourier
series has rapidly decreasing coefficients and hence repre-
Ẏ = ω0 X − F cos(ωt) Z, (159)
sents a good analytic approximation to the infinite Fourier
Ż = F cos(ωt) Y . (160) series. The matrix elements of A are given by
According to our general approach we are looking for

⎧ 2 2 2
T-periodic solutions of these equations. The space of real
⎪ n ω − ω0
⎪ : n = m odd,
T-periodic functions is spanned by the four subspaces
⎪ −nω : n = m even,
⎪
⎪
⎪
defined by even/odd sin/cos-series. Assume, for example, ⎨ F
⎪
⎪
: n = m ± 1 odd,
⎪
that X(t) is given by an odd cos-series. Then it follows that A nm = 2 (165)
mFω
Ẋ(t) is an odd sin-series and, by (158), also Y(t) will be an
⎪
⎪ − : n = m ± 1 even,
2
⎪
⎪
⎪
odd sin-series. By (160) we further conclude that Ż(t) is an ⎪0
⎪
⎪
⎪ : else.
even sin-series and hence Z(t) will be an even cos-series.
⎩
For example, the truncated matrix A(6) has the form result for the Fourier coefficients xn :
⎛
ω2 −ω20 F
0 0 0 0
⎞ x1 = −F z0 ϕ2 /ϕ1 , (171)
2
⎜ ⎟
⎜ − Fω
2 −2ω − 3Fω
2 0 0 0 ⎟ ⎧ (−1)n 2 F n (−ω)n/2 (n−1)!! ϕ
(2) n+1
⎜ ⎟ ⎨ z0
⎪
ϕ1 : n even,
9ω2 −ω20
⎜ F F
⎟
(6)
⎜ 0 2 2 0 0 ⎟ xn =
A =⎜ ⎟. ⎪ n n−1
(−1)n 2( 2F ) (−ω) 2 (n−2)!! ϕ n+1
− 3Fω − 5Fω
⎜ ⎟
0 0 −4ω 0 z0 : n odd, (172)
⎩
2 2
ϕ1
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
0 0 0 F
25ω2 −ω20 F
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
where (172) holds for n = 2, 3, . . . , N. z0 is a free para-
0 0 0 0 − 5Fω
2 −6ω
(166) meter that necessarily occurs due to the fact that the
The truncated system of linear equations of the form Fourier series solution is not yet normalised. It could be
A(N) x = f has the formal solution x = −F z0 (A(N) )−1 chosen as z0 = 1 or, alternatively, as z0 = ϕ1 . Depend-
1 ,
where (A(N) )−1 denotes the first column of the inverse ing on the context both choices will be adopted in what
1
matrix of A(N) . Fortunately, there exists a recurrence for- follows. The latter choice has the following advantage: if
mula for the inverse of tri-diagonal matrices in terms of ϕ1 = 0 the above solution (171)–(172) is no longer defined,
leading principal minors and co-leading principal minors, but choosing z0 = ϕ1 and cancelling the fraction z0 /ϕ1
see [37]. Recall that a leading minor of A(N) of order n is to 1 we obtain a solution that is always defined. Upon the
the determinant of the sub-matrix of matrix elements in choice z0 = ϕ1 the vanishing of ϕ1 = det A(N) is equiv-
rows and columns from 1 to n. Similarly, we will denote alent to the vanishing of the time average Z(t) = z0 . We
by the “co-leading principal minor ϕn of co-order n” the recall the fact that this in turn characterises the occurrence
determinant of the sub-matrix of matrix elements of A(N) of resonances, see Assertion 2.
in rows and columns from n to N. As we do not need the In any case, from these recursion relations it is clear
)︁−1
that each xn is a rational function ρ(n, N, F, ω, ω0 ) in
(︁
(N)
whole matrix A but only its first column it turns
the variables F, ω and ω0 . It can hence be viewed as a
out that only co-leading principal minors are involved. It is
kind of Padé approximation for xn that becomes more and
well-known that the determinant of a tri-diagonal matrix
more exact for increasing N. For the choice z0 = ϕ1 the
satisfies a three-term recurrence relation. For our problem
rational function ρ(n, N, F, ω, ω0 ) becomes a polynomial
this implies the following system of recurrence relations
in the variables F, ω and ω0 .
for the ϕ n , n = N, N − 1, . . . , 1.
In order to give an impression of the structure of
{︃ ρ(n, N, F, ω, ω0 ) we give the results for the N = 4 trun-
−N ω : N even, cation with z0 = ϕ1 although this will not yet be good
ϕ N = A N,N = 2 2 (167)
(N ω) − ω0 : N odd, approximations of the exact RPL solutions:
1 2 (︁ 2 (︁ )︁)︁
X(t) = Fω ω0 9F + 16 ω20 − 9ω2
2
ϕ N−1 = A N−1,N−1 A N,N − A N,N−1 A N−1,N (168) cos(ωt) − F 3 ω2 ω0 cos(3ωt), (173)
1 3 (︁ 2 (︁
2 2
)︁)︁
Y(t) = Fω 9F + 16 ω0 − 9ω
2
sin(ωt) − 3F 3 ω3 sin(3ωt),
⎧
⎨ 14 F 2 ω(N − 1) − ωN ω2 (N − 1)2 − ω20 : N even, (174)
(︀ )︀
= 1 2 2 (︁ 2 (︁ )︁)︁
⎩ 1 F 2 ωN − ω(N − 1) (︀ω2 N 2 − ω2 )︀ Z(t) = δ − F ω 3F + 16 ω20 − 9ω2
4 0 : N odd, 8
(169) 3F 4 ω2
cos(2ωt) + cos(4ωt), (175)
⎧ 8
⎨ −n ω ϕ n+1 + n+1 2 1 2 (︁ (︁ )︁
4 F ω ϕ n+2 : n even, δ = ω 3F 4 − 8F 2 27ω2 − 11ω20
ϕ n = (︀ 16
⎩ (n ω)2 − ω2 ϕ)︀ n 2
n+1 + 4 F ω ϕ n+2 : n odd,
(︁ )︁ (︁ )︁)︁
0 + 128 ω2 − ω20 9ω2 − ω20 (176)
(170)
(N)
Especially, ϕ1 = det A . Then the first column of In Figure 4 we show solutions of the classical RPL for dif-
(︁ )︁−1
A(N) can be expressed in terms of the co-leading ferent F values at the resonance frequency ω(1) res (F) that
principal minors and certain products of the lower sec- will be calculated in the next subsection. These solutions
ondary diagonal elements of A, see the theorem in [37] for are based on the truncated Fourier series (161)–(163) with
the special case of j = 1. We write down the corresponding N = 20 and the choice z0 = ϕ1 = 0. They can be either
z F
Figure 4: Various periodic solutions of the classical RPL for

ω = ω(1)res (F ) and ω 0 = 1 visualised as closed trajectories on the
Bloch sphere. The coloured curves correspond to different values Figure 5: The domain of the three variables ω0 , ω, F of the homoge-
of F, namely F = 1/10 (blue), F = 1/2 (red), F = 1 (green), F = 2 neous function ϵ can be realised by an equilateral triangle ∆. Each
(magenta), F = 5 (cyan), F = 10 (brown), and F = 100 (black). point inside the triangle can be uniquely written as a convex sum
of the vectors pointing to the three vertices, i.e. as a sum with pos-
calculated by directly evaluating the Fourier series or by itive coeflcients that add to unity. The three open edges represent
numerically solving the equation of motion with the ini- limit cases, e.g. the edge opposite to the vertex labelled “ω” repre-
tial values obtained by the Fourier series. The differences sents the limit case ω → 0 such that ω0 and F are kept finite. The
three vertices themselves represent the limit cases where two of
between both methods are negligible. For small F the
the three variables approach 0 and the third one approaches 1.
solution approximately corresponds to a uniform rotation
in the x-y-plane, whereas for large F the solution curve
folds into a sort of pendulum motion in the y-z-plane that
The transformation between the three scaled variables
approaches the limit solution for F, ω → ∞, see subsec-
ω
̃︁0 , ω,
̃︀ F
̃︀ and the two Cartesian coordinates x, y defining
tion 6.2.
the points of ∆ has the following form:
5.2 Calculation of the Resonance

1 (︀
Frequencies
)︀
x = ̃︀ − ω
ω ̃︁0 , (178)
2
√
We have shown in Section 4.1 that ϵ is a positively homoge- 3 ̃︀
y = F, (179)
2
neous function and the same holds for its restriction to the
1 y
variables ω0 , ω, F in the limit G → 0. The domain of these ω
̃︁0 = −x− √ (180)
2 3
variables can be restricted to a two-dimensional domain 1 y
without loss of information. Instead of eliminating one of ω
̃︀ = +x− √ (181)
2 3
the three variables, which is inappropriate in some cases, 2y
one could introduce the scaled variables F
̃︀ = √ . (182)
3
ω0 ω
̃︁0 ≡
ω , ω̃︀ ≡ ,
ω + ω0 + F ω + ω0 + F
F
̃︀ ≡
F , (177) The resonance frequencies ω(n)res , n = 1, 2, . . . can be rep-
ω + ω0 + F
resented by “resonance curves” ℛn in the triangular
that satisfy 0 < ω̃︁0 , ω,
̃︀ F
̃︀ < 1 and ω ̃︁0 + ω
̃︀ + F
̃︀ = 1. The domain ∆, see Figure 6. These curves have been numeri-
domain of the scaled variables is an open equilateral tri- cally calculated by setting z0 = ϕ1 = det A(50) = 0, see
angle ∆, see Figure 5. If the values of a positively homoge- subsection 5.1 and Assertion 2. Later we will show that
neous function like the quasienergy ϵ are known for argu- their intersections with the two edges F = 0 and ω0 = 0
ments in ∆ the function can be uniquely extended to the can be analytically determined, see Figure 6. For large n
whole positive octant. If it is clear that we mean the scaled the resonance curves approach the straight line segments
variables the tilde will be omitted. determined by these intersections.
Figure 7: The various branches of the quasienergy ϵ for F = 1/2 and

ω0 = 1 as functions of the frequency ω calculated by an N = 20
truncated Fourier series solution of the classical RPL. In the neigh-
bourhood of the resonance frequencies ω(n) res we have an avoided
level crossing visualised by choosing the same colour for the
continuous branches of the quasienergy. For n > 1 one has the
Figure 6: The first 10 resonance curves ℛn , n = 1, . . . , 10 in the tri- impression of crossing levels due to the low resolution of the figure
angular domain of variables ω0 , ω, F . They intersect the line F = 0 but, e.g. the comparison with Figure 8 for n = 2 shows that the lev-
at ωω = 2n−1
1
and the line ω0 = 0 at ωF = j0,n (the latter denoting els actually do not cross. The dotted horizontal line indicates the
0
the zeroes of the Bessel function J0 ), as will be shown below, see value of limω→0 ϵ(ω) ≈ 0.52992, see (254).
(183) and (225).
5.3 Calculation of the Quasienergy
After approximating X(t), Y(t), Z(t) by a truncated

Fourier(︂series it is possible)︂to calculate the quasienergy
(︁ )︁
ϵ = 12 ω0 + F cos(ωt) X(t)
R+Z(t)
by a numerical integra-
tion. Alternatively, we can determine the integral over
t ∈ [0, 2π
ω ] analytically in the following way: We choose F,
ω0 and ω as rational numbers. Substituting cos(n ωt) =
1
(︀ n 1
)︀ F cos(ωt) X(t)
2 z + z n converts R+Z(t)
into a rational function
of the complex variable z and transforms the t-integral
into a contour integral over the unit circle in the complex
Figure 8: The quasienergies ϵ i , i = 1, 2 for F = 1/2 and ω0 = 1 as
plane that can be evaluated by means of the residue the-
functions of the frequency ω in the neighbourhood of the resonance
orem. The poles of the rational function to be integrated frequency ω(2)
res ≈ 0.355776. ϵ 1 (green curve) has been calculated
are obtained by using computer algebra software pack- analytically and numerically as described in the text and ϵ2 (red
ets as “root objects” (this is the reason to choose rational curve) was chosen as ϵ2 = 3 ω − ϵ1 .
numbers for F, ω0 and ω). The corresponding residues are
exactly evaluated, mostly again in the form of root objects.
Both methods agree within the working precision but
the numerical results are obtained faster. It may happen We have drawn a couple of branches of the function
that the quasienergy determined by these methods jumps ϵ(ω) for fixed F and ω0 , see Figures 7 and 8. At the res-
into the “wrong branch” and has to be corrected by adding onance frequencies ω(n)
res , n = 1, . . . , 5 that were calcu-
an integer multiple of ω, see the corresponding discussion lated according to the method described in subsection
in subsection 2.1. In this way we obtain representations of 5.2 we observe avoided level crossings analogous to those
the branches ϵ i (F, ω) without any restriction to the values obtained in the literature, see, e.g. [3], Figure 1 or [4],
of F and ω0 . Figure 1.
6 Special Limit Cases large, see Assertion 2, leads to
ω0
The introduction of ∆ in subsection 5.2 as the natural ω(n)
res = , for n = 1, 2, . . . and F = 0. (183)
2n − 1
domain of the arguments of ϵ also clarifies the consider-
ation of the various limit cases. We have three limit cases This explains the intersections of the resonance curves ℛn
where one of the scaled variables approaches 0 but the with the edge F = 0 of ∆, see Figure 6.
other two variables remain finite. These three cases cor- By an analogous reasoning we may also calculate the
respond to the three open edges of ∆ and will be consid- first terms of the power series w. r. t. F of ω(n)
res for small n
ered in the corresponding following subsections. First, the or for small m. The power series has the form:
limit case F → 0 is covered by a Fourier-Taylor series solu-
∞
tion for X(t) and ϵ, see subsection 6.1. The second case of ω0
ω(n) (n)
ω2m−1 F 2m .
∑︁
res = + σ2m 0 (184)
ω0 → 0 is considered in subsection 6.2 where we have cal- 2n − 1
m=1
culated the asymptotic solution X(t) and the quasienergy
ϵ up to linear terms in ω0 . It is very difficult to extend Recall that the differences ω(n)
res −
ω0
2n−1 are traditionally
these results to higher orders of ω0 and hence we will con- called “Bloch-Siegert shifts”. The coefficients σ2m (n)
of (184)
tend ourselves with numerical approximations. Finally, in can be determined as follows: we insert the power series
the limit case ω → 0 we have recursively determined the (184) into the expression of det A(N) (for a suitable large
terms of an ω-power series for X(t) and explicitly calcu- N) and set the first few coefficients of the resulting power
lated the first two terms of ϵ asy = ϵ0 + ϵ2 ω2 + O(ω4 ), see series w. r. t. F to zero. This yields recursive equations from
subsection 6.3. which the σ2m (n)
may be determined, independent of N. The
There are three further “limit cases of the limit cases” corresponding results for n = 1, 2, 3 are contained in the
where two of the three scaled variables approach 0 and Tables 1–3. They are in accordance with the three coeffi-
the third one necessarily approaches 1. They correspond to cients for n = 1 published in [4] and with the results of
the three vertices of ∆ and are not automatically included [9, 10]. Table 4 contains the first non-vanishing coefficients
in the previous limit cases where we assumed that one (n)
σ2m for n = 1, . . ., 10 and m = 1, 2, 3 that were deter-
scaled variable approaches 0 but the other two remain mined in the same way. A closed formula for the σ2m (n)
is not
finite. Consider first the case where the unscaled variable (n)
known, but the coefficients σ2 that we have calculated
ω approaches ∞ and the other two unscaled variables F, satisfy the recursion relation
ω0 remain finite. Then, by (177), the scaled variables F ̃︀
and ω ̃︁0 will approach 0 whereas ω ̃︀ → 1. In this case we 2
(n − 1) (n) 7 1
have calculated an FT series for X(t) in powers of 𝒯 ≡ ω1 σ2(n+1) = σ + − . (185)
n+1 2 16(n + 1) 8
and the corresponding power series of the quasienergy,
see Section 6.4.
The next case of F, ̃︀ → 0, or, equivalently ω0 → ∞
̃︀ ω Table 1: Coeflcients of the power series (184) for the resonance
can be treated either by considering the lowest order of F frequencies ω(1)
res .
in (243) and (246) or the lowest order of ω in (195) and (196).

(1)
It follows that both cases yield the same result, see Section 2m σ2m
6.4. 1
2
̃︁0 → 0 or, equivalently F → ∞, is 16
The last case ω,̃︀ ω
1
somewhat subtle as the two limits cannot be interchanged, 4
1024
see the discussion in Section 6.3. It will not be treated in a 35
6 −
separate subsection. 131072
103
8
8388608
6.1 Limit Case F → 0 1873
10
805306368
1577257
6.1.1 Resonance Frequencies 12 −
3710851743744
67429531
14
A glimpse of (166) shows that for F = 0 the determinant of 17099604835172352
A(N) vanishes for ω = 2n+1
ω0
, n = 1, 2, . . .. Hence the res- 304008125947
16
onance condition z0 = ϕ1 = det A(N) = 0 for N arbitrarily 39397489540237099008
(n)
Table 2: Coeflcients of the power series (184) for the resonance Table 4: Coeflcients σ2m of the power series (184) for the resonance
frequencies ω(2)
res .
(n)
frequencies ω res for m = 1, 2, 3 and n = 1, . . . 10.
(2)
2m σ2m n σ2(n) σ4(n) σ6(n)
3 1 1 35
2 1 −
32 16 1024 131072
135 3 135 2133
4 − 2 −
8192 32 8192 1048576
2133 5 2125 1146875
6 3 −
1048576 96 221184 254803968
588789 7 12005 120892751
8 4 −
536870912 192 1769472 40768634880
98579025 9 43011 235598949
10 − 5 −
68719476736 320 8192000 104857600000
19157942853 11 118459 10123182707
12 6 −
17592186044416 480 27648000 5573836800000
13 274625 32687521841
7 −
Table 3: Coeflcients of the power series (184) for the resonance 672 75866112 21412451450880
frequencies ω(3)
res . 15 563625 23778534375
8 −
896 179830784 18046378835968
(3) 17 1056295 2573069114971
2m σ2m
9 −
5 1152 382205952 2219118333788160
2 19 1845071 2204002956989
96 10 −
2125 1440 746496000 2128409395200000
4 −
221184
1146875 ω
6
254803968 2.0
3244765625
8 −
1174136684544 n=1
2045715078125
10
1352605460594688
1.5
558332576171875
12 −
1038800993736720384
Figure 9 shows a couple of resonance curves ω(n) res

1.0
as functions of F together with their F-expansions. The
numerical agreement between both curves is excellent but
n=2
limited to bounded values of F. This clearly indicates a
finite radius of convergence for the power series (184).
0.5 n=3
6.1.2 Fourier-Taylor Series
In the Section 6.1.3 we will present a solution of the classi-

F
cal RPL in terms of so-called Fourier-Taylor (FT) series. A 1 2 3 4 5
few explanations will be in order. An FT series is a Taylor
Figure 9: Various resonance frequencies ω(n) res (blue curves) for
series of a (vector) quantity A(F, t), periodic in t, w. r. t. ω0 = 1 as functions of F for n = 1, 2, . . ., numerically determined
the parameter F such that each coefficient of Fn is a finite by the resonance condition det A(20) = 0. The thin continuous
Fourier series w. r. t. the time variable t of maximal order n: red/green/cyan curves correspond to the power series (184) accord-
ing to the results of Tables 1–3 for n = 1, 2, 3. The corresponding
∞ n
dashed curves are the asymptotic four terms limits of ω(n) res for
Fn Anm ei m ω t .
∑︁ ∑︁
A(F, t) = (186)
ω, F → ∞ according to (226)–(228).
n=0 m=−n
Put differently, the T = 2π ω -periodic function A(F, t) is the lowest order of n = m. Fourier series with components
expanded into a Fourier series such that each Fourier coef- that are in turn Laurent series of a suitable parameter are
ficient of order m is a Taylor series w. r. t. F that starts with known as “Poisson series” in celestial mechanics, see, e.g.
[38]. FT series are special Poisson series characterised by ω0

R n,m = − (︀ )︀ (S n,m + S n,m+1 )
the restriction nm=−n in (186) and have been applied in
∑︀ 2 (2m + 1)2 ω2 − ω20
[39] to a couple of physical problems by utilising com- for 0 ≤ m ≤ n, (194)
puter algebraic means. It is possible to consider the more
general case where the frequency ω is not given but also where, of course, we have to set S n,n+1 = 0 in (194). It fol-
calculated iteratively in terms of a Taylor series, but this lows that R n,m (ω, ω0 ) and S n,m (ω, ω0 ) are rational func-
generalisation is not needed in the present context of RPL. tions of ω and ω0 .
It is obvious that sums and products of FT series are We recall that under the transformation (118)–
again FT series. More generally, the power series of an FT (122), X, Y and Z remain invariant which entails
series is again an FT series, at least in the sense of for- R nm λ−2n−1 R nm and S nm λ−2n S nm . Then it eas-
mal power series. For practical applications the size of the ily follows that both sides of the recursion relations (193)
convergence radius becomes important. and (194) transform in the same way, which can be viewed
as a consistency check of the ansatz (187)–(189).
We will show the first few terms of the FT series for X(t)
6.1.3 FT Series for X(t) and ϵ
and Z(t):
In the case F = 0 there are only two normalised solu- ω0

tions of the classical RPL that are T-periodic for all T > 0, X(t) = −F cos ωt +
ω2 − ω20
namely X(t) = ±(0, 0, 1)⊤ . Hence for infinitesimal F we (︃
expect that we still have Z(t) = ±1 + O(F 2 ) but (X(t), 3 ω0
F − (︀ )︀2 cos ωt
Y(t)) will describe an infinitesimal ellipse, i.e. X(t) = 8 ω − ω20
2
FA cos ωt + O(F 3 ) and Y(t) = FB sin ωt + O(F 3 ). These )︃

ω0
considerations and numerical investigations suggest the − (︀ 2 )︀ cos 3ωt + O(F 5 ),
8 9ω − ω20 ω2 − ω20
)︀ (︀
following FT series ansatz:
∞ n
F 2n+1
∑︁ ∑︁
X(t) = R n,m (ω, ω0 ) cos(2m + 1)ωt, (187) (195)
n=0 m=0
∞
1 ∑︁ 2n+1 1
Y(t) = F × Z(t) = 1 + F 2 cos 2ωt +
ω0 4(ω2 − ω20 )
n=0
(︃
n
∑︁ 4 3ω2 − ω20
(2m + 1)ω R n,m (ω, ω0 ) sin(2m + 1)ωt, (188) F )︀ cos 2ωt
8 ω2 − ω20 2 9ω2 − ω20
(︀
)︀ (︀
m=0
∞ n )︃
F 2n 3
∑︁ ∑︁
Z(t) = S n,m (ω, ω0 ) cos 2mωt. (189) + (︀ 2 )︀ cos 4ωt + O(F 6 ).
64 ω − ω20 9ω2 − ω20
)︀ (︀
n=0 m=0
In the ansatz (188) for Y(t) we have already used that

Y(t) is completely determined via Y(t) = − ω10 dt d
X(t) and (196)
hence need not be further considered. The other two differ- We note that the coefficients contain denominators of the
ential equations (159) and (160) yield recursion relations form ω2 − ω20 and 9ω2 − ω20 due to the denominator
for the functions R n,m (ω, ω0 ) and S n,m (ω, ω0 ). As initial (2m + 1)2 ω2 − ω20 in the recurrence relation (194). Hence
conditions we impose the following choices: the FT series breaks down at the resonance frequencies
ω(m) ω0
res = 2m−1 . This is the more plausible since according
S0,0 (ω, ω0 ) = 1, (190) to the above ansatz z0 = 1 which is not compatible with
ω0
R0,0 (ω, ω0 ) = − , (191) the resonance condition z0 = 0, see Assertion 2.
(ω − ω0 )(ω + ω0 )
Using the FT series solution (187)–(189) it is a straight-
S n,0 (ω, ω0 ) = 0, for n = 1, 2, . . . . (192)
forward task to calculate the quasienergy ϵ = a0 as the
For n > 0 the FT coefficients Rn,m and Sn,m can be recur- time-independent part of the FT series of (62) which in the
sively determined by means of the following relations: present case of RPL assumes the form
1 (︀
S n,m = − (2m + 1)R n−1,m 1
(︂
F cos(ωt)X(t)
)︂
4m ω0 a n ei n ω t .
∑︁
ω0 + = a0 + (197)
)︀
+ (2m − 1)R n−1,m−1 for 1 ≤ m ≤ n, (193) 2 R + Z(t) n∈Z
n=0
/
The first few terms of the result are given by neglecting higher order terms. For ω0 = 0 we have the
exact “pendulum solution”
F 2 ω0 F 4 ω0 ω2 + 3ω20
(︀ )︀
ω0
ϵ = − (︀ 2 )︀ + )︀3
2 8 ω − ω20 128 ω2 − ω20
(︀
(︁ )︁ X(t) = 0, (203)
F 6 ω0 −5ω60 + 35ω2 ω40 + 33ω4 ω20 + ω6 Y(t) = − sin (f sin ωt)
− )︀5 (︀ ∑︁
512 ω2 − ω20 9ω2 − ω20 = −2 J n (f ) sin nωt, (204)
(︀ )︀
n=1,3,...
+ O(F 8 ). (198)
Z(t) = cos (f sin ωt) = J0 (f )
∑︁
This is in agreement with [4], (29), except for the first term +2 J n (f ) cos nωt. (205)
which is probably a typo. n=2,4,...
It will be instructive to check the first two terms of

(198) by using the decomposition of the quasienergy into Here Jn (. . .) denotes the Bessel functions of first kind and
a dynamical and a geometrical part in Section 3.1. In low- integer order and we have set f ≡ ωF as this combination
est order in F the classical RPL solution is a motion on permanently occurs in what follows. Equations (204) and
an ellipse with semi axes a = |ωF2 −ω ω0 Fω
2 | and b = |ω 2 −ω 2 | .
(205) follow from the Jacobi-Anger expansion. Moreover,
0 0
Hence the geometrical part of the quasienergy reads we will assume
ω (︁ )︁ F 2 ω2 ω0 (︁ )︁
ϵg = π a b + O F 4 = (︀ 2
+ O F4 . 0 < f < π, (206)
4π 4 ω2 − ω20
)︀
(199) in order to avoid problems with the following integrations.

The dynamical part is obtained as We note that if a constant x-component X(t) = x0 would be
ω0 Z + X F cos ωt ω0 ω0 ω20 − 3ω2 2
(︀ )︀ added to the above solution it would still solve (158)–(160)
ϵd = = + (︀ )︀2 F for ω0 = 0. But only the choice X(t) = x0 = 0 is suited as
2R 2 8 ω2 − ω20
(︁ )︁ a starting point for higher orders of ω0 .
+ O F4 . The next linear order of the solution of (158)–(160) is
(200)
obtained by replacing (203) by
The sum of both parts together correctly yields
X(t) = ω0 X1 (t), where (207)
ω0 F 2 ω0 (︁ )︁
ϵ = ϵd + ϵg = − + O F4 . (201) Ẋ1 (t) = −Y(t) = sin (f sin ωt) . (208)
2 8(ω2 − ω20 )
Moreover, A periodic solution of (208) is given by the Fourier series

∂ϵ ω ω0 2 4 ϵg
= (︀ )︀2 F + O(F ) = , (202) 2 ∑︁ 1
∂ω 2
4 ω − ω0 2 ω X1 (t) = − J n (f ) cos nωt. (209)
ω n
n=1,3,...
in accordance with Assertion 3.
However, it is plausible from (198) that the FT series The radius of the Bloch sphere for this solution is still
for the quasienergy has poles at the values ω = ω(m) R = 1 + O ω20 .
(︀ )︀
res =
1 We want to determine the quasienergy ϵ in linear order
2m−1 , m = 1, 2, . . . and hence the present FT series
ansatz is not suited to investigate the Bloch-Siegert shift in ω0 which according to (62) reads
for small F. We have also found a modified FT series that is (︃ )︂)︃
valid in the neighbourhood of ω(1)
(︂
res but will not dwell upon 1 h1 X
ϵ = ω0 + (210)
this. 2 1+Z
(︃ (︂ )︂)︃
(207) ω0 h1 X1
= 1+ , (211)
6.2 Limit Case ω0 → 0 2 1+Z
6.2.1 The Classical Equation of Motion where h1 ≡ F cos ωt. For the time average we make the
substitution τ = ωt and perform the τ-integration over
We reconsider the classical RPL equations of motion (158)– the interval [0, 2π]. This yields a factor 1/ω for each time
ω
(160) and look for solutions that are at most linear in ω0 , integral which is partially compensated by the factor 2π
due to the time average. Then the time average integral in in accordance with Assertion 3.
(211) can be transformed by partial integration into Moreover, it is clear from (221) that the resonance
∂ϵ
condition ∂ω 0
= 0, cp. (114), is equivalent to
∫︁2π ∫︁2π ∫︁2π
h1 dv du
X1 dτ ≡ u dτ = [u v]2π
0 − v dτ. F
1+Z dτ dτ ω = ω(n)
res = , (225)
0 0 0 j n,0
(212)
By (208) we have where jn,0 denotes the n-th zero of the Bessel function J 0 .
This yields the intersections of the resonance curves ℛn
du 1 du 1 1 with the line(︁ ω)︁0 = 0, (see Figure 6). Note further that,
= = Ẋ1 = sin (f sin τ) . (213)
dτ ω dt ω ω by (205), J0 ωF is the Fourier coefficient of Z(t) corre-
(︁ )︁
In order to calculate v we consider the integral sponding to the constant term and hence Z(t) = J0 ωF
∫︁
h1 vanishes exactly in the resonance case, in accordance with
v = dτ (214) Assertion 2.
1+Z
∫︁
cos τ Unfortunately, the integrals occurring in the next,
= F dτ. (215) quadratic and cubic orders in ω0 cannot be solved in
1 + cos(f sin τ)
closed form and we cannot extend our analysis to this
Substituting x = f sinτ, hence dx = f cos τ dτ, we obtain case in a straightforward way. As a way out we return to
∫︁ the Fourier series solution (161)–(163) and the approxi-
1
v = ω dx (216) mate determination of the resonance frequencies by the
1 + cos x
(︂ )︂ solution of det A(50) = 0. From this the asymptotic form of
x f ∑︀3
= ω tan = ω tan sin τ , (217) ω(n)
res (F) can be obtained by inserting ω = m=0 a m F
1−2m
2 2
into det A(50) and setting the four highest even orders of F
suppressing irrelevant integration constants. As u and v to zero. This yields
are 2π-periodic functions the term [u v]2π
0 in (212) vanishes.
0.87256 0.404226
By (213) and (217) the remaining integral reads ω(1)
res (F) ≈ 0.415831 F + +
F F3
3.83313
∫︁2π ∫︁2π (︂ )︂ − + O(F −7 ), (226)
du f F5
− v dτ = − sin (f sin τ) tan sin τ dτ (218) 0.496818 1.03437
dτ 2 ω(2)
0 0 res (F) ≈ 0.181157F + +
F F3
∫︁2π 12.9166
− + O(F −7 ), (227)
= − (1 − cos (f sin τ)) dτ (219) F5
0.356526 1.32633
0 ω(3)
res (F) ≈ 0.115557F + +
(︀ )︀
= = −2π 1 − J0 (f ) , (220) F F3
25.278 −7
− + O(F ). (228)
F5
using (205) in the last step. After dividing by 2π due to the
τ-average we obtain for (211): The first terms proportional to F are the numerical approx-
F
(︂ )︂ imations of the known exact value j0,n , but the next terms
ω0 F
ϵ= J0 . (221) could only be determined numerically. For an alternative
2 ω
approach see [9, 10]. Figure 9 shows the numerically deter-
The decomposition into dynamical and geometrical part of mined resonance curves ℛn together with the approxima-
the quasienergy according to Section 3.1 reads tions (226)–(228) for n = 1, 2, 3 that are valid for large
F and ω. Recall that according to (177) the limit of the
(︂ (︂ )︂)︂
ω0 F F unscaled quantities F, ω → ∞ is equivalent to ω ̃︁0 → 0 for
ϵg = J1 , (222)
2 ω ω the scaled quantity ω̃︁0 .
(︂ (︂ )︂ (︂ )︂)︂
ω0 F F F
ϵd = J0 − J1 . (223)
2 ω ω ω
6.2.2 The Schrödinger Equation
Note further that
∂ϵ Fω0
(︂
F
)︂
ϵg For the sake of completeness we will show that the
= J1 = (224) limit ω0 → 0 can also be considered directly for the
∂ω 2ω2 ω ω
Schrödinger equation and yields an equivalent result for For t = 0 we have ψ(0) (1)
1 = 1 and ψ 2 = 0. A second solu-
the linear term of the quasienergy series w. r. t. ω0 . tion can be obtained that is orthogonal to the first one such
It is convenient to consider the Hamiltonian that the resulting unitary evolution operator
(︃ )︃
ψ(0) −ψ(1)
(︃ )︃
F cos ωt ω0 ω
^ = 1
0
H , (229) U(t) = 1 2 + O(ω20 ) (238)
(1) (0)
2 ω0 −F cos ωt ψ2 ω0 ψ1
satisfies (3) with initial condition (4). The corresponding

that is unitarily equivalent to the RPL Hamiltonian hith-
monodromy matrix reads
erto considered. We make the following series ansatz for
⎛ ⎞
the solution of the corresponding Schrödinger equation: iω0
1 − J 0 (f )T 2
ℱ = U(T) = ⎝ iω
⎜ 2 ⎠ + O(ω0 ),
⎟
∞ 0
− J0 (f )T 1
ψ(2n) 2n 2
∑︁
ψ1 = 1 ω0 , (230)
(239)
n=0 ω0
∞ and has the eigenvalues 1 ± i 2 J0 (f ) T. This yields the
ψ(2n+1) ω2n+1 quasienergies ϵ = ± ω20 J0 (f ) + O(ω30 ) in accordance with
∑︁
ψ2 = 2 0 , (231)
n=0 (221). One may show that ϵ can be expanded into an odd
series w. r. t. ω0 , whence the above term O(ω30 ) for the next
and obtain the following system of (in)homogeneous order.
linear differential equations:
d (0)
ψi
F
cos ωt ψ(0)
6.3 Limit case ω → 0
= 1 , (232)
dt 1 2
d 1 F It is plausible that for ω → 0 the classical spin vector X(t)
i ψ2(2n+1) = ψ(2n) − cos ωt ψ(2n+1) , (233)
dt 2 1 2 2 h(t)
follows the magnetic field, i.e. X(t) = ‖h(t)‖ . We will con-
d 1 F firm this by calculating the Taylor series expansion of X(t)
i ψ1(2n+2) = ψ(2n+1) + cos ωt ψ(2n+2) , (234)
dt 2 2 2 1
w. r. t. ω:
∞
for n = 0, 1, . . .. The two lowest terms of the series (230)
Xn (t) ω n .
∑︁
X(t) = (240)
and (232) can be obtained in a straightforward manner:
n=0
Note that || X(t)||2 has the series expansion (suppressing

(︂ )︂
F
ψ(0)
1 = exp −i sin ωt , (235)
2ω the t-dependence):
⎛ t ⎞
∫︁ (︂ )︂
(1) i ⎝ F ′ ′⎠ X · X = X0 · X0 + 2ω X0 · X1
ψ2 = − exp −i sin ωt dt ×
2 ω
0 + ω2 (2X0 · X2 + X1 · X1 )
(︂ )︂
exp i
F
sin ωt . (236) + 2ω3 (X0 · X3 + X1 · X2 )
2ω
+ ω4 (2X0 · X4 + 2X1 · X3 + X2 · X2 )
We could not calculate the integral in (236) in closed form +... (241)
but only in form of a series using again the Jacobi-Anger
As the normalisation condition X·X = 1 must hold in each
expansion and setting f ≡ ωF :
order of ω it follows that X0 · X0 = 1, but X0 · X1 = 0 and
all other terms in the brackets of (241) have to vanish.
∫︁ t (︁ )︁ As the series coefficients Xn (t) are T-periodic functions
exp −i f sin ωt′ dt′ of t and can be written as Fourier series each differentia-
0 tion of Xn (t) w. r. t. t produces a factor ω and both sides of
=J0 (f ) t the equation of motion
∞
∑︁ cos((2n + 1)ωt) − 1 d
+ 2i J2n+1 (f ) X(t) = h(t) × X(t) (242)
(2n + 1) ω dt
n=0
∞
∑︁ sin(2nωt) are Taylor series in ω. This yields a recursive procedure to
+2 J2n (f ) . (237)
2n ω determine Xn (t).
n=1
The ω0 -terms of (242) yields 0 = h(t)×X0 (t). Together the solution X(t). However, the velocity is bounded by ‖h‖
with the normalisation condition this implies (up to a sign) and hence (240) cannot longer hold. For example, we may
⎛ ⎞ consider a small fixed value of ω and a finite value of ω0
F cos ω t such that X0 (t) is a good approximation of the exact solu-
1
X0 (t) = √︁ 0 ⎠, (243)
⎜ ⎟
2
⎝ tion X(t). If we lower ω0 to smaller and smaller values we
2 2
ω0 + F cos ω t ω0 would obtain a sudden switch to the behaviour described
in Section 6.2 for the limit ω0 → 0. In this sense the two
which confirms the above assertion that the classical spin
limits ω → 0 and ω0 → 0 cannot be interchanged.
vector, up to normalisation, follows the magnetic field.
Finally, we will consider the quasienergy for the low-
The next order, linear in ω, yields
est orders of ω. In the limit ω → 0 the geometrical part of
d the quasienergy vanishes as the solution X0 (t) is confined
X0 (t) = ω h(t) × X1 (t). (244)
dt to the x-z-plane. The dynamical part (77) has the value
This is an inhomogeneous linear equation with the general 1

solution ϵd = ϵ = (F cos ωt X + ω0 Z ) (250)
2R
d h(t)
⎛ (︀ )︀ ⎞
ω X1 (t) = X0 (t) × 2
+ ω λ1 (t) h(t). (245) ω20 + F 2 cos2 ωt
dt ‖h(t)‖ = ⎝ √︁ ⎠ (251)
2 ω20 + F 2 cos2 ωt
The normalisation condition implies X0 ·X1 = 0 and hence
2π/ω
λ1 (t) = 0. It follows that ω
∫︁ √︁
= ω20 + F 2 cos2 ωt dt (252)
(︃ )︃T 4π
Fω0 sin(ω t) 0
X1 (t) = 0, (︀ )︀3/2 ,0 . (246)
F2 cos2 (ω ω20 F2
(︂ )︂
t) + ω0
= E − 2 , (253)
π ω0
In the next quadratic order of ω we analogously have
d where E(. . .) denotes the complete elliptic integral of the

X1 (t) = ω h(t) × X2 (t), (247) second kind. Also see [4] for a similar result. In the special
dt
case F = 1/2 and ω0 = 1 that is portrayed in Figure 7, we
with the general solution have
d h(t)
E − 41
(︀ )︀
ω X2 (t) = X1 (t) × 2
+ ω λ2 (t) h(t). (248)
dt ‖h(t)‖ ϵ → ϵ0 ≡ ≈ 0.52992 (254)
π
This time the normalisation condition up to the for ω → 0.
quadratic order of ω gives 2X0 · X2 + X1 · X1 = 0 and The next corrections to ϵ are in the form ϵ2 ω2 + ϵ4 ω4 .
hence We obtain
1 F 2 ω20 sin2 (ω t) )︀ (︁ 2 )︁ (︁ 2 )︁
λ2 (t) = − X1 · X1 = − (︀ )︀7/2 . 2F 2 + ω20 E F 2 F+ω2 − ω20 K F 2 F+ω2
(︀
2 ‖h‖ 2 F 2 cos2 (ω t) + ω2 0 ϵ2 = √︁ 0 0
, (255)
(249) 2 2
6πω0 F + ω0 2
The corresponding X2 (t) will not be displayed here.
In this way we may recursively determine an arbitrary where K(. . .) denotes the complete elliptic integral of the
number of the term Xn (t). It can be shown by induction first kind. ϵ4 is too complicated and will only be calcu-
over n that for odd n the Xn (t) have only a non-vanishing lated for the special values F = 1/2, ω0 = 1. It is plausi-
y-component and for even n the y-component vanishes. ble that the asymptotic limit ϵ asy of ϵ for ω → 0 does not
Hence Xn (t) · Xm (t) = 0 if n and m have different parity. approximate a single branch of the quasienergy but rather
This implies that the pre-factors of ωn in (241) vanish and represents a kind of envelope of the various branches, see
hence λn (t) = 0 for all odd n. Figure 10. In the special case F = 1/2 and ω0 = 1 that is
We note that the Taylor expansion (240) breaks down portrayed in Figure 10 we have
for ω0 → 0. This
⃦ follows ⃦ already from the observation that
⃦d
the velocity ⃦ dt X0 (t)⃦ would assume arbitrary large val-
⃦ (︀ 1 )︀ (︀ 1 )︀
3E 5 −2K 5
ues for ω0 → 0 if (240) would be a correct description of ϵ2 = √ ≈ 0.0272334, (256)
6 5π
d
resulting from the differentiation dt is replaced by 1/𝒯 . As
usual, the condition that the resulting FT series has van-
ishing coefficients yields linear equations that determine
the x n,m , y n,m and z n,m and hence X(t), Y(t) and Z(t) up to
any finite order. In lowest non-trivial order the asymptotic
form of the solution reads (re-substituting 𝒯 = 1/ω):
Fω0 X(t)
X(t) = − cos(ω t) + O(ω−4 ) = , (262)
ω2 R
F Y(t)
Y(t) = − sin(ω t) + O(ω−3 ) = , (263)
ω R
F2
Z(t) = 1 + cos(2 ω t) + O(ω−4 ), (264)
Figure 10: A detail of Figure 7 showing various branches of the 4 ω2
quasienergy (continuous coloured curves), the corresponding res- Z(t) F 2 (1 − cos(2ωt))
onance frequencies ω(n) res (vertical dashed lines) and the asymptotic
= 1− + O(ω−4 ). (265)
R 4 ω2
limit ϵ asy = ϵ0 + ϵ2 ω2 + ϵ4 ω4 (blue dashed curve) for ω → 0
according to (254), (256) and (257). We will compare this result with the first terms of
the 1/ω-Taylor expansion of the normalised classical RPC
and solution X− (t) according to (69):
(︀ 1 )︀ (︀ 1 )︀
203E 5 − 24K 5 F Fω0
)︂(︂
ϵ4 = √ ≈ 0.0249063. (257) X(t) = − + 2 cos(ω t) + O(ω−3 ), (266)
1500 5π ω ω
(︂ )︂
F Fω0
As ϵ asy represents the envelope of the branches of Y(t) = − + 2 sin(ω t) + O(ω−3 ), (267)
ϵ the asymptotic form of the resonance frequencies can- ω ω
not be determined by the present method. However, the F2
Z(t) = 1 − + O(ω−3 ). (268)
inspection of Figure 6 suggests that for ω → 0 the reso- 2 ω2
nance frequencies are given by an interpolation between Despite some similarities we come to the conclusion
the limits for F → 0 and ω0 → 0, namely that both solutions are different, even in the lowest non-
F ω0 vanishing order w. r. t. 1/ω. This is in contrast to the
ω(n)
res ∼ + . (258) view that the rotating wave approximation is an analytical
j0,n 2n − 1
approximation to the RPL solution that is asymptotically
This approximation is of reasonable quality for small F or valid in the limit of large ω.
small ω0 but of poor quality for F ∼ ω0 as there the small According to the FT solution the quasienergy ϵ(ω0 , F,
curvature of the resonance curves ℛn in the triangular ω) can be calculated as a power series in 1/ω the first terms
domain ∆, see Figure 6, should be taken into account. of which are:
2
(︀ 2 2
ω0 F 2 ω0 F ω0 F − 16ω0
)︀
ϵ(ω0 , F, ω) = − + +O(ω−6 ).
6.4 Limit Case ω → ∞ 2 8ω2 128ω4
(269)
1 This is in accordance with the series expansion of (221)
To investigate the limit ω → ∞ we set 𝒯 ≡ ω and make
the following ansatz of an FT series: ω0
(︂
F
)︂
ω0 F 2 ω0 F 4 ω0
J0 = − 2
+ + O(ω−6 ), (270)
∞ n−1 2 ω 2 8ω 128ω4
𝒯n
∑︁ ∑︁
X(t) = x n,m cos(mωt), (259)
n=2,4,... m=1,3,... keeping in mind that (221) holds only in first order in ω0 .
∞ n
𝒯n
∑︁ ∑︁
Y(t) = y n,m sin(mωt), (260)
n=1,3,... m=1,3,... 6.5 Limit Case ω0 → ∞
∞ n
n
∑︁ ∑︁
Z(t) = 1 + 𝒯 z n,m cos(mωt). (261)
As remarked above, due to (177) this limit is equivalent to
n=2,4,... m=2,4,...
the limit F̃︀ → 0, ω
̃︀ → 0 and ω̃︁0 → 1 of the scaled quan-
This ansatz is inserted into the classical equations tities. First we will compare the limit of X(t) for ω → 0
of motion (158)–(160) in such a way that each factor ω according to (243) and (246) with FT series expansion (195),
(196) of X(t) that holds for F → 0. Note that for the com- the continuity or even analyticity of the quasienergy as a
parison the latter one has to be normalised. We obtain the function of one of the parameters ω0 , F and ω. As briefly
result that both limits coincide if we ignore terms of the mentioned in Section 2.1 the quasienergy can be viewed
order O(F 3 ) and O(ω2 ): as an eigenvalue of the Floquet Hamiltonian defined on an
extended Hilbert space. Hence one might invoke the corre-
F cos(ωt)
X(t) = + O(F 3 , ω2 ), (271) sponding theory of analytical perturbations, e.g. Rellich’s
ω0 theorem [40] or similar tools, but it is not clear whether the
Fω sin(ωt)
Y(t) = + O(F 3 , ω2 ), (272) Floquet Hamiltonian satisfies the pertaining conditions.
ω20 We have checked our results for simple solvable exam-
F 2 (1 + cos 2ωt) ples, but the main intended application is the RPL case.
Z(t) = 1 −
4ω20 Here our approach leads to certain analytical approxi-
+O(F 3 , ω2 ). (273) mations that can be conveniently handled by computer-
algebraic aids. It is also possible to perform the geomet-
In deriving this result we used, of course, a restricted series rical approach for the various limit cases of the RPL. We
expansion w. r. t. ω that leaves the terms cos nωt and have compared these results with those known from the
sin mωt of the Fourier series intact. literature only in a few cases, as a thorough comparison
Analogously, we will compare the asymptotic forms would need too much space, but such a comparison is
of the quasienergy for ω → 0 according to (253) and for nevertheless desirable.
F → 0 according to (198). Again, we find that both limits Another future task would be the attempt to utilise
are compatible and yield the common result: the geometrical approach to obtain examples of the the-
ory of periodic thermodynamics that describe periodically
ω0 F2 driven TLSs coupled to a heat-bath. For recent approaches
ϵ= + + O(F 3 , ω2 ). (274)
2 8ω0 to this problem, see e.g. [17, 34, 41–44].
Acknowledgement: I am indebted to the members of the

7 Summary and Outlook DFG research group FOR 2692 for continuous support and
encouragement, especially to Martin Holthaus and Jürgen
We have revisited the Floquet theory of TLSs and sug- Schnack. Moreover, I gratefully acknowledge discussions
gested a kind of geometrical approach based on periodic with Thomas Bröcker on the subject of this paper. I dedi-
solutions of the classical equation of motion that can cate this work to my friend and mentor Marshall Luban on
be visualised by closed trajectories on the Bloch sphere. the occasion of his upcoming 82nd birthday.
From these solutions one can reconstruct the Floquet
solutions of the underlying Schrödinger equation includ-
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Floquet Theory 2-Level Nice Review

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Z. Naturforsch.

2018; 73(8)a: 705–731

The Floquet Theory of the Two-Level System

U2 (t0 , t0 ) = U(t0 + T, t0 ) ≡ ℱ . (7)

2 Generalities Hence (5) implies

2.1 Floquet Theory for SU2 U2 (t, t0 ) = U(t + T, t0 ) = U(t, t0 ) ℱ . (8)

ℱ ∈ SU2 is called the “monodromy matrix”. It can be

such that 3i=1 |f i |2 = 1. and hence ^s′ = 3i=1 f i ^s i is the

r(s) (i ^s i ) = i S^ i , i = 1, 2, 3, (29) ϵ(s)

be the corresponding 1-dimensional projector. It can also = X(t). (51)

3.1 Geometry of the Fibre Bundle

ing spherical segment has an area of 2πR(R − Z) corre-

as Hamiltonian equations of motions in a two-dimensional

We will hence forward often use p and q instead of z

defined on 𝒫 (not to be confounded with the 1-form α

h1 = F cos ωt, (109) G λ G, (120)

h2 = G sin ωt, (110) ω λ ω, (121)

For the proof of this assertion we will adopt the language γ2

𝒫 ′′ ≡ 𝒮 2 × R/TZ × R>0 , (126)

to the symmetry of the periodic solution but, according to

After the coordinate transformation the Poincaré-Cartan

According to our general approach we are looking for

Figure 4: Various periodic solutions of the classical RPL for

5.2 Calculation of the Resonance

Figure 7: The various branches of the quasienergy ϵ for F = 1/2 and

5.3 Calculation of the Quasienergy

After approximating X(t), Y(t), Z(t) by a truncated

6 Special Limit Cases large, see Assertion 2, leads to

in (243) and (246) or the lowest order of ω in (195) and (196).

Figure 9 shows a couple of resonance curves ω(n) res

6.1.2 Fourier-Taylor Series

In the Section 6.1.3 we will present a solution of the classi-

[38]. FT series are special Poisson series characterised by ω0

In the case F = 0 there are only two normalised solu- ω0

FA cos ωt + O(F 3 ) and Y(t) = FB sin ωt + O(F 3 ). These )︃

In the ansatz (188) for Y(t) we have already used that

It will be instructive to check the first two terms of

(199) in order to avoid problems with the following integrations.

Moreover, A periodic solution of (208) is given by the Fourier series

satisfies (3) with initial condition (4). The corresponding

Note that || X(t)||2 has the series expansion (suppressing

This is an inhomogeneous linear equation with the general 1

d where E(. . .) denotes the complete elliptic integral of the

Acknowledgement: I am indebted to the members of the

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