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THEORY OF MACHINES I

LABORATORY MANUAL

MECH 343

Edited By: T. Wen, J. Dargahi

2017
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Table of Contents
General Laboratory Safety Rules ………………………………………...2

Experimental Sequence…………………………………………………….8

Experiment 1………………………………………………………………..9
• ANALYSIS OF LINKAGE MECHANISM
Experiment 2……………………………………………………………….17
• NUMERICAL DYNAMIC SIMULATION: FLYWHEEL
• NUMERICAL SIMULATION: GEAR TRAIN
Experiment 3………………………………………………………………36
•
•
SIMPLE FOUR-BAR LINKAGE MECHANISM
SLIDER CRANK MECHANISM / SCOTCH YOKE MECHANISM
Experiment 4………………………………………………………………42
• HOOK (CARDAN) JOINT OR UNIVERSAL JOINT
Experiment 5………………………………………………………………46
• GOVERNOR APPARATUS
Experiment 6………………………………………………………………52
• CAM ANYLYSIS
Experiment 7………………………………………………………………62
• CORIOLIS EFFECT
Experiment 8………………………………………………………………77
•
•
8.1 PLANETARY GEAR TRAIN KINEMATICS
8.2 THE BORG-WARNER MODEL 35 AUTOMATIC
TRANSMISSION SIMULATOR
Experiment 9………………………………………………………………84
• STATIC AND DYNAMIC BALANCING
Experiment 10……………………………………………………………..91
• MACHINE FAULT SIMULATOR (MFS)

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General Laboratory Safety Rules

•
Follow Relevant Instructions
Before attempting to install, commission or operate equipment, all relevant
suppliers’/manufacturers’ instructions and local regulations should be understood

•
and implemented.
It is irresponsible and dangerous to misuse equipment or ignore instructions,

•
regulations or warnings.
Do not exceed specified maximum operating conditions (e.g. temperature, pressure,
speed etc.).

•
Installation/Commissioning
Use lifting table where possible to install heavy equipment. Where manual lifting
is necessary beware of strained backs and crushed toes. Get help from an assistant

•
if necessary. Wear safety shoes appropriate.
Extreme care should be exercised to avoid damage to the equipment during handling
and unpacking. When using slings to lift equipment, ensure that the slings are

•
attached to structural framework and do not foul adjacent pipe work, glassware etc.

•
Locate heavy equipment at low level.
Equipment involving inflammable or corrosive liquids should be sited in a
containment area or bund with a capacity 50% greater that the maximum equipment

•
contents.
Ensure that all services are compatible with equipment and that independent
isolators are always provided and labeled. Use reliable connections in all instances,

•
do not improvise.
Ensure that all equipment is reliably grounded and connected to an electrical supply

•
at the correct voltage.
Potential hazards should always be the first consideration when deciding on a
suitable location for equipment. Leave sufficient space between equipment and

•
between walls and equipment.
Ensure that equipment is commissioned and checked by a competent member of
staff permitting students to operate it.

•
Operation
Ensure the students are fully aware of the potential hazards when operating

•
equipment.
Students should be supervised by a competent member of staff at all times when in
the laboratory. No one should operate equipment alone. Do not leave equipment

•
running unattended.
Do not allow students to derive their own experimental procedures unless they are
competent to do so.

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•
Maintenance
Badly maintained equipment is a potential hazard. Ensure that a competent member

•
of staff is responsible for organizing maintenance and repairs on a planned basis.
Do not permit faulty equipment to be operated. Ensure that repairs are carried out
competently and checked before students are permitted to operate the equipment.

•
Electricity
Electricity is the most common cause of accidents in the laboratory. Ensure that all

•
members of staff and students respect it.
Ensure that the electrical supply has been disconnected from the equipment before

•
attempting repairs or adjustments.
Water and electricity are not compatible and can cause serious injury if they come
into contact. Never operate portable electric appliances adjacent to equipment
involving water unless some form of constraint or barrier is incorporated to prevent

•
accidental contact.
Always disconnect equipment from the electrical supply when not in use.

•
Avoiding Fires or Explosion
Ensure that the laboratory is provided with adequate fire extinguishers appropriate

•
to the potential hazards.

•
Smoking must be forbidden. Notices should be displayed to enforce this.
Beware since fine powders or dust can spontaneously ignite under certain
conditions. Empty vessels having contained inflammable liquid can contain vapor

•
and explode if ignited.
Bulk quantities of inflammable liquids should be stored outside the laboratory in

•
accordance with local regulations.
Storage tanks on equipment should not be overfilled. All spillages should be
immediately cleaned up, carefully disposing of any contaminated cloths etc. Beware

•
of slippery floors.
When liquids giving off inflammable vapors are handled in the laboratory, the area

•
should be properly ventilated.
Students should not be allowed to prepare mixtures for analysis or other purposes
without competent supervision.

•
Handling Poisons, Corrosive or Toxic Materials
Certain liquids essential to the operation of equipment, for example, mercury, are
poisonous or can give off poisonous vapors. Wear appropriate protective clothing

•
when handling such substances.
Do not allow food to be brought into or consumed in the laboratory. Never use

•
chemical beakers as drinking vessels

•
Smoking must be forbidden. Notices should be displayed to enforce this.
Poisons and very toxic materials must be kept in a locked cupboard or store and
checked regularly. Use of such substances should be supervised.

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•
Avoid Cuts and Burns
Take care when handling sharp edged components. Do not exert undue force on

•
glass or fragile items.
Hot surfaces cannot, in most cases, be totally shielded and can produce severe burns
even when not visibly hot. Use common sense and think which parts of the
equipment are likely to be hot.

•
Eye/Ear Protection
Goggles must be worn whenever there is risk to the eyes. Risk may arise from
powders, liquid splashes, vapors or splinters. Beware of debris from fast moving air

•
streams.
Never look directly at a strong source of light such as a laser or Xenon arc lamp.
Ensure the equipment using such a source is positioned so that passers-by cannot

•
accidentally view the source or reflected ray.

•
Facilities for eye irrigation should always be available.
Ear protectors must be worn when operating noisy equipment.

•
Clothing
Suitable clothing should be worn in the laboratory. Loose garments can cause
serious injury if caught in rotating machinery. Ties, rings on fingers etc. should be

•
removed in these situations.
Additional protective clothing should be available for all members of staff and
students as appropriate.

•
Guards and Safety Devices
Guards and safety devices are installed on equipment to protect the operator. The

•
equipment must not be operated with such devices removed.
Safety valves, cut-outs or other safety devices will have been set to protect the

•
equipment. Interference with these devices may create a potential hazard.
It is not possible to guard the operator against all contingencies. Use commons sense

•
at all times when in the laboratory.
Before staring a rotating machine, make sure staff are aware how to stop it in an

•
emergency.
Ensure that speed control devices are always set to zero before starting equipment.

•
First Aid
If an accident does occur in the laboratory it is essential that first aid equipment is

•
available and that the supervisor knows how to use it.

•
A notice giving details of a proficient first-aider should be prominently displayed.
A short list of the antidotes for the chemicals used in the particular laboratory should
be prominently displayed.

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Mr. Brad Luckhart 3149

Standard lab safety must be followed in all laboratories

• First discuss your experiment regarding possible hazards or problems, with the

•
demonstrator, or the MIE technical staff, or your professor.
Do not work alone. Work with another person in a lab that has running machinery,
machine tools, conveyors, hydraulics, lifting equipment, voltage hazards, or where

•
chemicals are in use.
Safety glasses must be worn in the vicinity of pneumatics, machine tools grinders,

•
power saws, and drills.
Users of lasers need special safety glasses for the particular wavelength of the

•
laser.
No equipment or machine may be operated by anyone unless they have received
adequate instruction from a qualified instructor e.g. machine tools, hydraulics,
chemicals, lasers, running machinery, robots. Undergraduate students may not use
any machine or equipment unless a Department technical staff member Is present.

•
Graduate students are the responsibility of their immediate academic supervisor.
Workplace Hazardous Material training must be obtained before using chemicals

•
or compressed gasses. Contact Dainius Juras tel: 848 3128 for training.
All appropriate safety accessories (lab coats, safety glasses, gloves, etc.) must be

•
used when handling chemicals. No open toe shoes are permitted in laboratories.
No chemicals to be left unattended or unlabeled according to WHMIS. All
chemicals must be stored properly.

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• Long term unattended tests must be fail safe. When the university Is officially
closed, you may not work in a lab unless your supervisor or a technical staff

•
member is present.

•
No eating in laboratories.
Major accidents and injuries must be reported at once to Security tel: 811, the
Safety Officer (tel: 3128), the Professor (Supervisor) or the Department

•
Administrator (tel: 7975} should then be informed.
During working hours all minor accidents should be reported to the Safety Officer

•
(tel: 3128), the Professor (Supervisor) or the Department Administrator (tel: 7975).
An "Incident Report" must be filled out by the person involved, for all accidents
and injuries.

LABORATORY RULES
Considering the large number of students attending the labs and in order for the lab to
operate properly, the students are asked to abide by the following rules:

1. No smoking, eating, or drinking is permitted in the laboratory.

2. No students are allowed access to the instruments of the other course.
3. No equipment is allowed to be exchanged from one bench to another.
4. Upon entering and when leaving the laboratory students should check equipment
against the list posted at each station.
5. All damaged or missing equipment and cables must be reported immediately to the
demonstrator. Failure to do so will result in students being charged for damages or
losses.
6. All data must be recorded in the laboratory paper and must be signed by the
demonstrator.
7. Laboratory demonstrators are not permitted to admit any students other than those
on their class list.
8. Any student who is more than 30 minutes late will not be permitted into the
laboratory. Furthermore, repeated tardiness will not be tolerated.
9. After your laboratory session is completed all components, connecting jumpers,
and cables must be returned to their respective places.
10. No students are allowed access to parts in the cabinets. Your laboratory
demonstrator will provide you with all necessary parts.

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THE ELEMENTS OF A REPORT

The following format can be followed:

TITLE
OBJECTIVE
INTRODUCTION (Theory)
PROCEDURE (concisely and briefly)
RESULTS (SAMPLE CALCULATION)
DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
DATA SHEETS

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MECH343 Experimental Sequence

G
G1,G2 G3,G4 G5,G6 G7,G8
S

Exp#1 Exp#1 Exp#1 Exp#1

S1

Exp#2 Exp#2 Exp#2 Exp#2

S2

Exp#3 Exp#4 Exp#5 Exp#6

S3 & Exp#4 & Exp#3 & Exp#6 & Exp#5

Exp#5 Exp#6 Exp#3 Exp#4

S4 & Exp#6 & Exp#5 & Exp#4 & Exp#3

Exp#7 Exp#8 Exp#9 Exp#10

S5 & Exp#8 & Exp#7 & Exp#10 & Exp#9

Exp#9 Exp#10 Exp#7 Exp#8

S6 & Exp#10 & Exp#9 & Exp#8 & Exp#7

G: Group S: Session

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EXPERIMENT 1

ANALYSIS OF LINKAGE MECHANISM

Try to build a linkage mechanism as figure right:

Steps:
1. Set up workspace: Turn on grid line, check units:
from View-workspace-grid lines and view- numbers
and units as below:

2. Select rectangle tool:

3. Click and drag a small rectangle:

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4. Click the rectangle copy it (CTRL+C), paste it (CTRL+V) two times:

5. Change the length of each rectangle by selecting it, and writing down the desired
length in the text box named W:

Make the length as (3 – 3.32 - 4)

6. Use the rotate tool and the select tool to arrange the rectangles:
Make sure that the spacing is 4 units as shown below:

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7. Put a motor at the lower end of the left link:

- First select the motor. - Then click at the desired point.

8. Put a pin joint at the lower end of the right link:

- First select the pin joint. - Then click at the desired point.

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9. Put a point element at the remaining ends:

- First double click (this It should look like below:
enable you to assign
multiple points) on the
point element.

10. Join the links by selecting two points, then selecting Join:
Click the arrow select tool: Select first point – Press They should look like
press SHIFT and Join below
click the other point

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11. Repeat the same for the remaining two points. Your model should look like below:

12. Click RUN ( ) and watch it rotating.

13. Now we want to capture the velocity of the joint between the left link, and the middle
one:
- Select it, and click on Define – Vectors- Click Run, and watch the velocity
Velocity change

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Note that by clicking on the link itself, and defining the velocity, the program calculates
the velocity of the C.G. of the link.

14. Now you are ready to try different measurements:

Acceleration Total Force Gravitational Force

15. Select a link and use the measure tool:

X- Position Graph

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Y- Position Graph

Measuring velocity values

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16. Now try to change the length of any of the links, and RUN the model, and observe for
any change if any, and explain.

17. Change the mass of any of the links, and observe for any change in velocity, and
force? And why if there is any?

18. Now double click on the motor (resetting the mass for any link that has been changed),
and notice that the value for velocity is 1 rad/sec. Change this to make it the same value
for acceleration, and torque. Write what you observe, and try to explain.

19. Now increase the mass for one link (e.g. left one) gradual, and see how this will affect
the motion for a fixed value for torque, velocity, or acceleration of the motor?

20. Now, replace the middle link with two links connected with total length as the middle
one, run, observe, and explain.

21. Based on (20) search for what is the equation, relation, or rule that governs the
mechanism motion.

22. Preview Experiment #3, make a model of simple four-bar-linkage mechanism: change
the units to “inch”, fix the position of 4, and try to Make the length as (1.5 – 6 – 4.5), run
the model, and observe the position, Dead point angle φ and transmission angle β.

23. Repeat 22 with fix position of 6 units.

Please note, if the error ” missing shortcut” occurred, try to find in following location:
"C:\Program Files (x86)\WorkingModel2005\Program\WM.exe"

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EXPERIMENT 2

2.1 NUMERICAL DYNAMIC SIMULATION: FLYWHEEL

Problem Definition:

In the two cycle piston engine shown, explosive gases are

ignited in the combustion chamber above the piston. The
explosions apply a force of 150 N for the duration of every
downward stroke. The engine is equipped with a speed
limiting device (rev limiter) which prevents the rotational
speed from exceeding a set value (red-line). The masses of
the piston and connecting rod are 0.75 kg and 1.5 kg,
respectively. The mass of the crankshaft-flywheel assembly
is 30 kg. Given that the red-line of the engine is 35 rad/sec
(340 rpm). Assume the crankshaft-flywheel assembly can
be modeled as a circular disk. Figure 2.1.1

Objective:
Figure 2.1.1 Flywheel
Determine the forces at the crankshaft bearing (point A) and connection rod (point B)
bearing.

1. INTRODUCTION

Engines that exceed the manufacturer's maximum speed (over-revving) may be subject to
excessive wear and possible failure. To prevent over revving, internal combustion engines
are often fitted with a device known as a rev-limiter. When an engine exceeds its red-line,
rev-limiters interrupt the ignition system, slowing the engine down. Once the speed drops
below the maximum, the ignition system is switched back on. In this exercise you will
model an internal combustion engine equipped with a rev-limiter. The engine has three
bodies: the piston, the connecting rod and the crankshaft. The piston will be modeled by a
square body. The connecting rod will be modeled by a rectangular body.
The crankshaft will be modeled as a circular body. The bodies will be drawn, sized and
joined to each other and the background. The piston's cylinder walls will be modeled with
a keyed slot joint. The force of combustion will be modeled by a force attached to the top
of the piston. The resulting forces at the bearings will be measured.

3. SETTING UP THE WORKSPACE

For this exercise, three changes in the workspace will be made. First, for clarity, the x-y
axes will be displayed. The unit of distance will also be changed from meters (default) to

• If the x-y axes are not currently displayed, choose Workspace from the View menu
millimeters.

and choose X,Y Axes from the Workspace submenu. The x-y axes provide a reference
frame for building a simulation.

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• Choose Numbers and Units… from the View menu. The Numbers and Units dialog

• Click the More Choices button. The dialog box expands.

appears.

• Click and hold in the Distance field (Figure 2.1.2). The pop-up menu appears.
• Choose millimeters from the Distance pop-up menu.

Figure 2.1.2 Choosing the Unit

• Click in the Rotation field and choose Radians from the pop-up menu.
• Click OK.

3. CREATING THE COMPONENTS

This exercise has three objects: a 1.5

kg connecting rod, a 0.75 kg piston,
and a 30 kg crankshaft (see Figure
2.1.3 below). The connecting rod will
be modeled by a thin rectangle 400
mm in length. Its width will be thin,
150 mm, so it closely resembles the
actual connecting rod. The crankshaft,
as stated in the exercise, is modeled as
a circular disk with a 200 mm radius
and a mass of 30 kg. A 200 mm square
object will represent the piston. The Figure 2.1.3 The Bodies that will be created
objects will be created, sized and
initialized in the following steps.

Creating the Crankshaft

The crankshaft is represented by a circle with a radius of 200 mm and mass of 30 kg.
These parameters will be set using the Geometry and Properties utility windows.

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I. To draw the crankshaft:

• Click the Circle tool in the Toolbar.

• Click once on the background. Move the mouse to expand the circle and click
again to complete sketching.

II. To set the mass of the crankshaft:

•
•
Choose Properties from the Window menu.
Click the mass field and enter the value 30.

III. To set the size of the crankshaft:

•
•
Select the crankshaft if it not already selected.
Click the Radius field (labeled “r”) of the Coordinates bar and enter the value 200
(Figure 2.1.4).

Figure 2.1.4 Coordinates bar for a circle

IV. Zooming In:

The circle will appear small after sizing. To make the rectangle easier to manipulate and

• Click the Zoom In tool in the Toolbar.

appear larger, the workspace will be magnified using the Zoom tool. To zoom in:

Click near the circle. The objects in the

window are magnified by a factor of two

• with each click of the mouse. To zoom out

while the Zoom In tool is selected, hold
down the Shift key (the magnifying glass
pointer changes to “-”) and click. Your
screen should be similar to Figure 2.1.5.
Figure 2.1.5 The workspace after zooming in
• Click the Arrow tool in the Toolbar or press the
spacebar to deselect the Zoom In tool.

Creating the Piston

For this exercise, the piston will be modeled as a 200

mm square with the mass of .75 kg. The Square tool
will be used to draw the piston, and the Properties Figure 2.1.6 Rectangle/Square
window will be used to set its mass. pop-up palette

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• Choose the Square tool in the Toolbar. On systems, the Square tool is “hidden” in the
I. To draw the piston:

Rectangle/Square pop-up palette by default. Click and hold on the Rectangle tool to

• Click once on the background, drag to the right, and click again to complete sketching.
bring the pop-up palette in view (Figure 2.1.6).

A square appears on the screen. To set the size of the piston:

• Click in the Height or Width field of the Coordinates bar and enter 200. Either field
changes both the height and the width of the object so that it remains square.

II. To set the piston’s mass:

• Select the piston if it not already selected.
• Choose Properties from the Window menu.
• Click in the mass field and enter the value 0.75.

Creating the Connecting Rod

In this exercise, the connecting rod is represented by a rectangle drawn with the Rectangle
tool and sized using the Geometry window. To approximate an actual connecting rod, the
rectangle will be given a mass of 2 kg, a height of 500 mm, and a width of 100 mm.
To draw the connecting rod:
I. Choose the Rectangle tool in the Toolbar. (On systems, the Square tool used above
may have replaced the Rectangle tool in the Toolbar. If so, the Rectangle tool may be
selected from the hidden pop-up palette by clicking and holding on the Square tool in
the Toolbar).

II. Click once on the background, drag to the right, and click again to complete sketching.
A rectangle appears on the screen. To set the
mass of the connecting rod:
• Select the new rectangle if it not already
selected.
• Choose Properties from the Window menu.
• Click in the Mass field and enter the value
3.
To set the size of the rod:
1. Click the Height field of the Coordinates bar Figure 2.1.7 The piston, crankshaft and
and enter the value 500. connecting rod
3. Click the Width field of the Coordinates bar
and enter the value 100. Your screen should resemble Figure 2.1.7.

Creating the Points for Joining The objects in this exercise are connected to each other
and to the background (see Figure 2.1.8 below). The connections will be modeled by
creating points and joining them. These points will be created with the Point tool and
accurately positioned using the Properties window

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Creating Points on the Connecting

Rod

• Double-click the Point tool in the

Toolbar. Double-clicking selects a
tool for successive operations. On
systems, the difference between
single and double-clicking is
indicated in the Toolbar by shading: a
doubleclicked item is dark grey, while

•
a single-clicked item is light grey.
Place the mouse pointer over the Figure 2.1.8 The points which will be created and
connecting rod rectangle. Find the their coordinates
snap point at the top end of the
connecting rod. An X symbol appears
at snap points. Find the snap point
located at the midpoint of the top side

•
of the connecting rod.
To attach a point element, click when
the snap point located at the top end is
visible. Observe that the point
element is attached to the top end of
the rod.
• In the same fashion, attach another
point element to the bottom end of the
connecting rod. Your screen should Figure 2.1.9 Connecting rod points in position
resemble Figure 2.1.9.

Attaching Points to the Crankshaft

The crankshaft needs two points: a center point representing the main bearing and an outer
point representing the connecting rod bearing. These points will be accurately positioned
at the center and at 200 mm from the center of the circle. To create and position the
crankshaft points:

• Make sure the Point tool is still selected. Place the mouse pointer over the crankshaft.

•
Find the snap point at the center of the circle.
Click when the snap point at the center is visible. A point element is attached to the

•
center of the circle.
Place the mouse pointer
near the left quadrant of
the circle. Find the snap
point at the left quadrant
(Figure 2.1.10). As the
mouse pointer nears the
left quadrant of the
Figure 2.1.10 Snap point at the left quadrant of the circle
circle, the snap point appears.

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• Click when the snap point at the left quadrant is visible. Another point element is
attached to the left quadrant of the circle.

Attaching Points to the Piston

Two points need to be attached to the piston: a square point and a point. The square point
will be joined to the slot on the background to create a keyed slot joint. The point will be
joined to another point on the connecting rod to form a pin joint. The square point will be
positioned on the piston at the coordinates of (0, -50). The square point will be rotated 90°,
so that when joined to the slot, the piston will not rotate. This is because vertical slots are
defined as being rotated 90°; horizontal slots are defined as having 0° rotation. When a
square point is joined to a slot, the rotations of the two objects are aligned.

• Click the Square Point tool. The cursor turns into a square point.
I. The point will be positioned at (0, 0). To create the points:

• Click anywhere on the piston. Since the square point will be precisely position

• Click in the X field of the Coordinates bar and enter 0. If you attached the square
using the Coordinates bar below, it is not necessary to find a snap point.

point on a snap point, the x-field of the Coordinates bar may contain a formula
expression (such as body[3] width or (0.0)). Simply overwrite the entire expression

• Press the tab key to move to the Y field of the Coordinates bar, and enter -50.
and enter 0.

• Choose the Properties in the Window menu. The Properties window appears.
Again, simply overwrite the y-field with the value -50.

• In the angle field of the Properties window (marked by ø), enter the value 1.571.
The value of 1.571 radians is equivalent to 90°. The value will be displayed in a
rounded form, but internally the correct value will be used. The point’s y-position
is set to -50 so it will not interfere with the connecting rod joint.

• Click the Point tool.

II. To create the point:

• Place the pointer near the center of the square and find the snap point.
• Click when the snap point at the center is visible. The point is created at the center
of the piston.

Attaching a Point to the Background

A point representing the main bearing of the crankshaft must be placed on the background.
The point can be placed anywhere on the background; for clarity, it will be placed at the
origin (0, 0). To create and position the point:

•
•
Click the Point tool.
Place the mouse pointer near the origin. Find the snap point that appears at the
origin. Make sure that nobody is obstructing the origin. The snap point does not
appear if the origin is covered by a body.

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• Click when the snap point at the origin is visible. Verify the position of the point
by noting the (x, y) position in the Coordinates bar; it should be (0, 0). We now

•
name this point element so that it becomes easier to select later.

•
Choose Appearance from the Window menu. The Appearance window appears.
In the name field (where it says Point), type Base Pin. Since we will not be
needing the Appearance window for the rest of the exercise, close the window by:
(Windows) clicking the box marked “X” at the top-right corner of the window, or
() clicking the box at the top-left corner of the window.

Attaching a Slot to the Background

The cylinder walls of the engine will be modeled with a keyed slot joint. The joint will be
made by joining the square point on the piston to a slot attached to the background. The
slot can be located anywhere on the background as long as it is located on the crankshaft’s
centerline (the yaxis for this model).

• Choose the Vertical Slot tool in the Toolbar. On systems, the Vertical Slot tool
To create and position the slot on the background:

may be “hidden” in the Slot pop-up palette. Click and hold on the Slot tool in the

• Place the pointer near the point element attached to the origin. Find the snap point.
Toolbar to bring the pop-up palette in view.

• Click when the snap point is visible. A vertical slot appears.

Creating Joints
In this exercise there are four joints
(see Figure 2.1.11). The joints will
connect: the piston to the slot, the
piston to the connecting rod, the
connecting rod to the crankshaft, and
the crankshaft to the main bearing.

The following steps will demonstrate

how to make these joints.
I. Joining the Piston to the Slot
In this example, the piston slides in a
cylinder. The cylinder will be modeled
as a keyed slot joint. The joint is
created by joining the square point on
the piston to the slot. To create the Figure 2.1.11 The points which will be joined

• Select the square point on the

keyed slot joint:

piston, and while holding down the Shift key, select the slot. The word “Join” of the
Join button in the Toolbar changes from gray to black indicating the two points can be
joined.

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• Click the Join button in the Toolbar. The piston

moves to the slot (see Figure 2.1.12). Joining the
Crankshaft to the Point on the Background The
crankshaft main bearing is modeled as a pin joint.
The pin joint will be created by joining the point at
the center of the circle to the point at the origin.

• Choose Properties in the Window menu.

II. To join the crankshaft to the origin:

• From the selection pop-up menu located at the

top of the Properties window, choose Base Pin

• Hold the Shift key down and select the center

(Figure 2.1.13). The Base Pin is now selected.

• Click the Join button. The crankshaft circle

point on the crankshaft circle. Figure 2.1.12 Piston joined to the

• To see how the circle representing the crankshaft is

moves to the origin.

constrained, bring the mouse pointer over the circle,

hold down the mouse button, and drag the circle. The
circle can rotate but is fixed to the Base Pin.

III. Joining the Components

• The piston, connecting rod and crankshaft will now be
joined together (see Figure 2.1.14). The following steps
describe how to join them.

• Select the (round) point on the piston and, while

IV. To join the piston to the connecting rod:

holding the Shift key down, select the top point on the

• Click the Join button. The two objects will come

connecting rod. Figure 2.1.13 Selecting
an object in the
together. Properties window

• Select the bottom point on the connecting rod

V. To join the connecting rod to the crankshaft:

and, while holding the Shift key down, select

• Click the Join button. Your screen should

the remaining (left) point on the crankshaft.

resemble Figure 2.1.15.

Editing the collision property of a pair of bodies
The Smart Editor keeps joints together during editing.
To see this, try dragging the connecting rod. The Figure 2.1.14 Joining the components
connecting rod will stay joined while it is dragged and the crankshaft and piston will move
accordingly. When you are done dragging the rod, move it back to the approximate
position shown in the problem description on the first page of this exercise.

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 MECH343

Preventing a Collision
In Working Model, objects
which are directly connected
to each other never collide.
Notice that the piston and
crankshaft may overlap when
they are dragged during
editing. Since the two objects
are not directly connected,
they will collide when you
run the simulation. To
prevent the collision, the Do
Not Collide command will
be used.

• Select the piston and,

To prevent a collision:
Figure 2.1.15 The Figure 2.1.16 Editing the collision
while holding the completed engine property of a pair of bodies
Shift key down,

• Click and hold on the Object menu title in the menu bar (Figure 2.1.16). Notice
select the crankshaft.

that there is a checkmark beside “Collide”, indicating that the pair of selected
objects will collide when you run the simulation.
• Choose Do Not Collide in the Object menu.

Creating the Force

A 100 N force is applied at the top of the piston in the negative y-
direction (down). The force is only active while the piston is
traveling with a negative y velocity. The force will be drawn using
the Force tool and its magnitude and location will be set using the
Properties window.

Drawing the Force

The force will be drawn in the downward direction using the Force
tool.
Figure 2.1.17

• Click the Force tool in the Toolbar.

To draw the force:
Creating a Force

• Place the pointer near the midpoint of the top end of the piston. Find the snap

• Click when the snap point is visible, drag the mouse upward, and click again to
point.

create the force. A force attached to the piston appears (Figure 2.1.17). Do not be
concerned with the exact direction or magnitude of the force for now.

Sizing the Force

The force’s magnitude and direction will be set using the Coordinates bar. To size the
force:

25
 MECH343

• Click the force vector to select the force.

• Click the Fy field of the Coordinates bar and type -100.
• Click the Fx field of the Coordinates bar and type 0. The force vector changes in
length to reflect its new magnitude.
Timing the Force
The ignition timing of the engine must be simulated. The problem states that the force is
active only on the downward stroke (i.e., when the piston has a negative velocity). The
rev-limiter cuts off combustion when the rotational velocity is greater than 35
radians/second. To simulate these conditions, the “and (a,b)” function will be
incorporated with the following formulas.
To determine when the piston has a negative velocity use the following formula:
body[c].v.y < 0
where c is the piston's object id number. To determine the piston’s id number, place the
cursor over the piston and read the Status bar.
To determine when the engine’s speed is greater than 35 rad/s, use the following
formula:
body[d].v.r < 35
where d is the crankshaft's object id number. Use the Status bar as above to determine the
crankshaft’s id number.

The complete equation is:

and (body[c].v.y < 0, body[d].v.r < 35)
The complete equation will be placed in the Active When field in the force’s Properties
window. Gravity will provide the initial downward velocity to start the engine.

• Select the force.

To set the timing of the force:

• Choose Properties from the Window menu.

• Click in the Active When field at the bottom of the Properties window. On
Windows systems, you must first un-check the Always button before clicking in

• Type the following formula (see Figure 2.1.18):and(body [c].v.y <0,body[d].v.r<

the Active When field.

35) where c and d are the object id numbers of the piston and crankshaft

• The force’s rev-limiter equation is

respectively.

designed for counter-clockwise

(positive) engine rotation. It is
important that the engine be “started”
in a position similar to the figure on
the first page of this section. If you
want a rev-limiter which works in
both directions try incorporating the
abs() function into the formula.
• You can increase the width of the Figure 2.1.18 Active When field is in the
property window for a Force
“Active when” field to view the entire
equation by resizing the Properties window.

26
 MECH343

• Click the Run button in the Toolbar. The engine runs. A warning may appear if
The simulation is ready to run.

• When you are ready to continue, click the Reset button in the Toolbar.
you run the engine long enough; you can ignore the warning for now.

Measuring Properties from the Simulation

A graph in conjunction with a digital meter is a nice way to illustrate the rotational speed
of the engine’s crankshaft. Two digital meters will be used to display the forces on the
bearings. Follow the steps below to create these output devices.

Displaying a Graph
The angular velocity of the crankshaft will be

• Select the crankshaft circle. Four squares

displayed by a graph. To create the graph:

“handles” will appear around the circle

indicating that the circle is selected.
• Choose Velocity from the Measure menu
and Rotation Graph from the Velocity Figure 2.1.19 A Velocity Graph
submenu. A meter resembling Figure 2.1.19
appears.

Displaying Digital Force Meters

To display the digital force meters:
• Select the crankshaft-main bearing joint (see Figure 2.1.20).
• Choose Force from the Measure menu. A digital meter appears.
• Repeat for the connecting rod-crankshaft joint (see Figure 2.1.20).
A second digital meter appears. You may need to move the meters.

To move the meters:

• Select a meter.
• Drag it to any position you wish.
Your window should resemble Figure 2.1.21.

Figure 2.1.20 The Force to be measured Figure 2.1.21 The completed workspace

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 MECH343

Running the Simulation

Run the simulation. Notice that the angular velocity increases until it reaches 30 rad/s.
This is so because we have turned off the force above 30 rad/s, just as a rev limiter t urns
off the ignition of an engine above a certain speed.

Modifying the Graph Display

You may notice that the axis labels occlude the numeric labels along the tick marks of the
plot. You can modify the display options using the Appearance window. For example, to

• Select the velocity meter on the screen.

turn off axis labels so that the numeric labels clearly appear:

• Choose Appearance in the Window menu.Alternatively, you could press Control+J (on
Windows systems) or Command+J (on MacOS systems) to open the window.
• Turn off the options titled “Labels” and “Units” (Figure 2.1.22) You may wish to try
modifying other options and observe the effects on the graph meter.
If you wish to show the meter coordinate axes, click the check box labeled Axes.

Figure 2.1.22 Appearance window for a meter

MODIFYING THE SIMULATION

Try modifying the masses of the crankshaft and connecting rod and notice how
quickly red-line is reached. Also try changing the length of the connecting rod by
repositioning one of the joints.
Please try to make models of “Slider crank Mechanism” and “Scotch- Yoke
Mechanism” as shown in Figure 3.5 and 3.6. (You can run your models at lab #3. They
are not needed in your report of lab #2).

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 MECH343

2.2 NUMERICAL SIMULATION: GEAR TRAINS

I. Ordinary Gear Trains

A system of two fixed gears is shown in
Figure 2.2.1. The angular speed of the motor
connected to the center of the main gear is
�� = 10 rpm. The pinion is fixed to the
ground with a pin joint. The radii �� = 1 m
and �� = 0.5 m of the gear and the pinion are
given.

Step 1. Creating the gears.

Figure 2.2.1 Two fixed gears system
This step creates the two gears for the
system.
1. Create the main gear.
Click on the “Circle” tool in the toolbar
to sketch out a disk. Click on the disk
and modify its radius at the bottom of
the screen �� = 1 m.
2. Create the pinion.
Click on the “Circle” tool in the toolbar
to sketch out a disk. Click on the disk
and modify its radius at the bottom of
the screen �� = 0.5 m.
The screen should look like in Figure
2.2.2.

Step 2. Connecting the gears to the

ground. Figure 2.2.2 Gears and Properties
This step connects a motor to the main gear
and the pinion to the ground using a pin
joint.
1. Select the main gear and modify its
center coordinates at the bottom of the
screen to x = 0 and y = 0 (the center of
axis).
2. Click on the “Motor” tool, place the
cursor over the “snap point” on the
center of the main gear and then click
again. This connects the motor to the
ground and the gear.
3. Select “Numbers and units” in the
“View” menu and change the “Rot.
Velocity” to Revs/min. Select the
“Properties” box in the “Window” Figure 2.2.3 Motor and Properties

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 MECH343

menu and change the “value” to ng

= 10 rpm.
The screen should look like in
Figure 2.2.3.

4. Select the pinion and modify its

center coordinates at the bottom of
the screen to x = 0 and y = 1.5 m.
5. Click on the “Pin joint” tool and
then click again on the center of
the pinion. This connects the
pinion to the ground with the pin
joint.
The screen should look like in Figure
2.2.4.

Step 3. Connecting the gears.

This step connects the gear and the
pinion using the “Gear” tool. Figure 2.2.4 Pin joint and Properties
1.Click on the “Gear” tool from the
toolbox and then click on the
centers of the gear and the pinion,
respectively. This connects the
two gears with a rigid rod.
By default, each pair of gears has
a rigid rod constraint between the
two mass centers.
The rod maintains a constant
distance between the two objects.
The screen should look like in
Figure 2.2. 5.

Step 4. Running the

simulation.
1. Click on “Run” in the toolbar to
start the simulation.
2. Click on “Reset” in the toolbar.
The simulation resets to the initial
frame 0. Figure 2.2.5 “Gear” Tool and Properties
3. Select the pinion(Circle 2), then
go to “Measure” menu and “Velocity” submenu. Apply the “Rotational graph”
command to measure the rotational velocity of the pinion. Click on the arrow in the left
upper corner of the measurement window to change it from graphic to numerical.
Select the gear(Circle 1) and apply the same command to measure the rotational
velocity of the gear.

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 MECH343

Step 5. Adding an external torque.

1. Click on the “Torque” tool
from the toolbox and then
click on the pinion
(anywhere).
This will apply an external
torque to the pinion.
2. Select the torque and modify
its value to Mext = 400 Nm
in the “Properties” menu.
Apply the command
“Torque” from the
“Measure” menu to measure
the torque applied.
3. Select the gears and apply
the command “gear force”
from the “Measure” menu to
measure the gear force. Figure 2.2.6 Simulation results
The screen should look like in
Figure 2.2.6.

II. Planetary gear trains

II-1 Two DOF gear train
A planetary gear train is shown in
Figure 2.2.7. The planet gear rotates
around the sun gear.
The arm 3 is connected to the planet
gear at the point C (pin joint) and
the ground at the point D (pin
joint). The sun gear is connected to
the ground at the point A (pin
joint). The motor connected to the
sun gear has the angular speed �1 =
20 rpm. The motor connected to the
arm has the angular speed �3 = −10
rpm. The radii �1 = 1 m and �2 =
0.5 m of the sun gear 1 and the planet Figure 2.2.7 Two DOF gear train
gear 2 are given.

Step 1. Creating the gears and the arm.

1.Create the sun gear 1.
Click on the “Circle” tool in the toolbar and sketch out a disk. Click on the disk and
modify its radius at the bottom of the scree �1 = 1 m.
2.Create the planet gear 2.

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 MECH343

Click on the “Circle” tool in the toolbar and sketch out a disk. Click on the disk and
modify its radius at the bottom of the screen as �2 = 0.5 m.
3.Create the arm 3.
Click on the “Rectangle” tool in the toolbar and sketch out a rectangle. Click on the
rectangle and modify its the dimensions as h = 1.5 m and w = 0.1 m.
The rod created with a set of gears has no mass, so it cannot have torques applied to it or
have an anchor or a motor placed on it. We need to use the rectangle 3 instead of the
rod to model the arm connected to the planet gear 2 and the ground.
4.Select the arm 3 and modify the coordinates of its center as x = 0 and y = 0.75 m at the
bottom of the screen.
5.Select the planet gear 2 and modify the
coordinates of its center as x = 0 and y =
1.5 m at the bottom of the screen.

Step 2. Connecting the planet gear

and the arm.
1. Click on the “Pin joint” tool on the
toolbox and connect the planet gear and
the rectangle by clicking again on the
center of the circle.
2. Click on the “Motor” tool on the toolbox
and then click again on the center of axis.
This connects the motor to the ground and
the arm. Click on the motor and change
the value of the velocity to 10 rpm in the
“Properties” window (�3 = −10 rpm).
Figure 2.2.8 Pin joint arm and planet gear
The screen should look like in Figure 2.2.8.

Step 3. Connecting the sun gear to the ground.

1. Click on the “Motor” tool on the toolbox
and then click again on the center of the
sun gear 1.
2. Select the motor and open the
“Properties” window. Change the value of
the velocity to 20 rpm (�1 = 20 rpm).
3. Modify the coordinates of the base point
for the motor to x = y = 0. This moves the
motor along with the sun gear to the
center of axis (the motor is still connected
to the ground).

Step 4. Connecting the gears.

1. Click on the sun gear 1 and select “Move
to front” from the “Object” menu. Do the Figure 2.2.9 Connect the gears
same command for the planet gear 2.

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 MECH343

2. Click on the “Gear” tool from the toolbox. With the gear selected, click on the center
of the sun gear 1 and then again on the center of the planet gear 2. The two circles are
now connected with a gear.
3. Click on the rectangle 3 and select the command “Bring to front” from the “Object”
menu.
The screen should look like in Figure 2.2.9.

Step 5. Running the simulation.

1. Select all the bodies and choose
the command “Do not collide”
from the “Object” menu.
2. Click on “Run” in the toolbar to
start the simulation.
3. Click on “Reset” in the toolbar.
The simulation resets to the
initial frame 0.
4. Click on the planet gear 2 and
select the “Measure” menu and
the “Velocity” and “Rotational
graph” submenus to measure the
rotational velocity �2 . Click on
the arrow in the left upper corner
of the measurement window to
change it from graphic to
numerical. Apply the same
command to visualize the
rotational velocity �1 of the sun
gear 1. The screen should look Figure 2.2.10 Simulation results
like in Figure 2.2.10.

II-2 One DOF gear train

A system of three gears is shown in Figure

2.2.11. The sun gear 1 is connected to the
ground with a pin joint at point A. The arm 3 is
connected with pin joints to the planet gear 2 at
point C and to the ground at point D. The planet
gear 2 is also in contact to the gear 4 (as
internal gear) which is fixed to the ground. The
angular speed of the motor connected to the sun
gear is �1 = 20 rpm. The radii �1 = 1 m and �2 =
0.5 m of the sun gear 1 and the planet gear 2 are
given.
In this case, the arm 3 does not have a motor
attached to it and the planet gear 2 is connected Figure 2.2.11 One DOF gear train
to the sun gear 1 and the fixed gear 4.

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 MECH343

Step 1. Creating the gears and the arm.

1.Open a new file and make a drawing
as in Figure 2.2.9, following the
steps from the previous example of
planetary gears.
2.Select the motor connected to the
rectangle 3 and erase it using the
“Delete” command from the “Edit”
menu.
3. Click on the “Pin joint” tool from
the toolbox and then click again on
the end of the rectangle 3. This
connects the arm 3 to the ground
with a pin joint.
4.Click on the “Circle” tool from the
toolbox and draw a disk with the
radius r4 = 2 m. Modify the
coordinates of its center as x = y = 0
at the bottom of the screen. Select
the command “Send to back” from
the “Object” menu.
5.Click on the “Anchor” tool from the Figure 2.2.12 One DOF gears
toolbox and then click again on the
gear 4. This fixes the gear 4 to the ground.
The screen should look like in Figure 2.2.12.

Step 2. Connecting the gear 2 and the gear 4.

1.Click on the gear 2 and select the command “Bring to front” from the “Object” menu.
Apply the same command to the gear 4.
2.Click on the “Gear” tool,
then click on the center of
the gear 4 and the center of
the gear 2, respectively.
Double-click on the gear
and check the box “Internal
gear” on the “Properties”
window. Choose the gear 4
as internal gear.(if it is hard
to connect gear 4 and gear
2 by “Gear” tool, you can
drag gear 4 to aside, after
connected, set x=0, y=0
and put it back)
The screen should look like
in Figure 2.2.13 before set Figure 2.2.13 Connect gear 2 and 4
x=0, y=0 of gear 4.

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 MECH343

Step 3. Running the simulation.

1. Select the gear 1 and choose “Bring to front” command. Apply the same command to
the arm 3.
2. Select all the bodies and choose the command “Do not collide” from the “Object”
menu.
3. Click on “Run” in the
toolbar to start the
simulation.
4. Click on “Reset” in the
toolbar. The simulation
resets to the initial
frame 0.
5. Click on the planet gear
2 and select the
“Measure” menu and
the “Velocity” and
“Rotational graph”
submenus to measure
the rotational velocity
n2. Click on the arrow
in the left upper corner
of the measurement
window to change it Figure 2.2.14 Simulation results
from graphic to
numerical.
Apply the same command to visualize the rotational velocity n1 of the sun gear 1 and
the rotational velocity n3 of the arm 3.

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EXPERIMENT 3

1. Simple Four-Bar Linkage Mechanism

1. 1. Objective:

The experiment is designed to give a better understanding of the performance of the

four-bar linkages in its different conditions according to its geometry.
Measuring the Dead point angles φ and transmission angles β at two positions
when the constant bar a at two different positions 4˝ and 6˝

1. 2. Introduction

1.2.1 Definition

In the range of planar mechanisms, the simplest

groups of lower pair mechanisms are four bar
linkages. A four bar linkage comprises four
bar-shaped links and four turning pairs as
shown in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1: Four bar linkage
Grashof's theorem states that a four-bar
mechanism has at least one revolving link if
s + l <= p + q (3.1)
and all three mobile links will rock if
s+l>p+q (3.2)
The inequality 1.1 is Grashof's criterion.
where:

• s = length of shortest bar

• l = length of longest bar
• p, q = lengths of intermediate bar

All four-bar mechanisms fall into one of the four categories listed in Table 3.1:

Table 3.1 Classifications of Four-Bar Mechanisms

Case l + s vers. p + q Shortest Bar Type

1 < Frame Double-crank
2 < Side Rocker-crank
3 < Coupler Double- rocker
4 = Any Change point
5 > Any Double-rocker

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 MECH343

1. 2.2 Transmission Angle

In Figure 3.2, if AB is the input link, the force applied to the output link, CD, is transmitted
through the coupler link BC. (That is, pushing on the link CD imposes a force on the link
AB, which is transmitted through the link BC). The angle between link BC and DC is called
transmission angle, β, as shown in Figure 3.2. For sufficiently slow motions (negligible
inertia forces), the force in the coupler link is pure tension or compression (negligible
bending action) and is directed along BC. For a given force in the coupler link, the torque
transmitted to the output bar (about point
D) is maximum when the transmission
angle approaches to π /2.

significantly from π / 2 , the torque on the

When the transmission angle deviates

output bar decreases and may not be

sufficient to overcome the friction in the

angle α = π / 2 − β should not be too

system. For this reason, the deviation

great. In practice, there is no definite

upper limit for α, because the existence
of the inertia forces may eliminate the Figure 3.2: Transmission angle
undesirable force relationship that is
present under static conditions.
Nevertheless, the following criterion can

α max = 90o − β 〈50o

be followed.
(3.3)
min

1. 2.3. Dead Point

When a side link such as AB in Fig. 1.3,

becomes aligned with the coupler link
BC, it can only be compressed or
extended by the coupler. In this
configuration, a torque applied to the
link on the other side, CD, cannot
induce rotation in link AB. This link is
therefore said to be at a dead point
(sometimes called a toggle point). In
order to pass the dead points a flywheel
is usually connected to the input shaft Figure 3.3: Dead Point
particularly.

line AB1C1 or in flexion with AB2 folded over B2C2. We denote the angle ADC by Φ and
In Figure 3.6, if AB is a crank, it can become aligned with BC in full extension along the

the angle DAB by θ . We use the subscript 1 to denote the extended state and 2 to denote

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 MECH343

the flexed state of links AB and BC. In the extended state, link CD cannot rotate clockwise

cannot move into the forbidden zone below C1D, and Φ must be at one of its two extreme
without stretching or compressing the theoretically rigid line AC1. Therefore, link CD

with Φ = Φ1 .
positions; in other words, link CD is at an extreme. A second extreme of link CD occurs

Note that the extreme positions of a side link occur simultaneously with the dead points of
the opposite link.

1. 3. Description of the Experiment:

The experimental setup consists of two four-bar linkage mechanism trains as shown in
Figure 3.4. Careful examination of the setup should result in the correct categorization of

Figure 3.4: Four bar linkage Mechanism

the linkages. There is an arm following the coupler curve trace, a software generated linkage
similar to the actual linkage is studied using the Working Model simulation package.

1. 4. Experimental Procedure:
1. Set the fixed bar “a” at 4˝.
2. Observe the movement of the four bar linkage mechanism.
3. Find the first dead point, then measure Dead point angle φ and transmission angle β.
4. Repeat step 3 for the second dead point.
5. Set the fixed bar “a” at 6˝.
6. Repeat the steps 2, 3, 4.
7. Fill table 3.2.
Table 3.2:
Ground Length Transmission Angle (β) Angle at Dead points (φ)
(in) β1 β2 φ1 φ2
4
6

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 MECH343

1. 5. Results:
Make Working Model simulation, find �1, �2, �1 , �2 , for each case, compare with
the experimental results.

2. The Slider-Crank and Scotch- Yoke Mechanism

2. 1. Objective:
Obtaining the position, velocity, acceleration for the Slider Crank and the Scotch Yoke
mechanisms.

2.2. Introduction
The Slider-crank (Figure 3.5) and the
Scotch-yoke mechanism (Figure 3.6)
setup is a single setup which can be
adapted to function as one or the
other, as shown in Figure 3.6.

The only difference is in link 3 which Figure 3.5: Slider crank Mechanism
is replaceable depending on the type
of mechanism required. It is
important to study the Kinematic and
dynamic response of the mechanism
because of practical applications. It is
also useful in determining the
Kinematic equivalents of other
mechanisms. While the motion of a
Scotch-yoke mechanism is purely Figure 3.6: Scotch- Yoke Mechanism
sinusoidal, that of the Slider-crank
mechanism is not. The derivation of
the equations used for describing the Kinematic motions (displacement, velocity and
acceleration) of a simple Slider-crank mechanism can be seen on most mechanism text
books. The final equation describing the displacement may be written as:
 R2 
X = R + L − [ R cos θ + L1 − 2 sin 2 θ 
1/ 2

 
] (3.4)
L
Velocity and acceleration can also be described by:
 R sin 2θ 
[ ]
V = Rω  sin θ + 
 − θ
1/ 2 
(3.5)
 
2 2 2
2 L R sin
 R sin 2θ   R cos 2θ 1 R 3 sin 2 (2θ ) 
a = Rα  sin θ +  + Rω 2  cos θ +
  + 

2 L2 − R 2 sin 2 θ  L2 − R 2 sin 2 θ 4 ( L − R sin θ )
(3.6)
  
2 2 2 3
2

Similarly the motion analysis for the Scotch mechanism can be found in most mechanisms

X = R(1 − cos θ )
text books. For this case the displacement is given by:
(3.7)

�̇ = Rω sin θ
and velocity and acceleration can be written as:
(3.8)

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 MECH343

�̈ = Rω 2 cos θ + Rα sin θ (3.9)

2. 3. Experimental procedure:
1.Set the slider crank at 0 mm for the connecting rod, and 0° for the rotating disk.
2.Measure L the length of the connecting rod and R the radius for the rotating disk.
3.Change the angle for the disk by 30° each time until 360°, and each time measure X .
4.Fill the result in table (3.3).
5.Plot graphs between the angular displacement and the displacement X, velocity V, and
the acceleration a.
6.Repeat for the Scotch Yoke and fill the results in table (3.4).
Table (3.3) Slider crank:
Angular Experimental Theoretical Velocity V Acceleration a
Displacement position X position X (mm/ sec) (mm/sec2)
(θ) (mm) (mm)
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
360

Table (3.4) Scotch Yoke:

Angular Experimental Theoretical Velocity V Acceleration a
Displacement position X position (mm/ sec) (mm/sec2)
(θ) (mm) X( mm)
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
360

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 MECH343

2. 4. Results:

1. Show the difference of the results obtained in step 3 for Slider-Crank and Yoke
Mechanisms.

2. Show the maximum value of velocity and acceleration given the equations
describing the velocity and acceleration for both Slider-crank and Scotch-yoke
mechanisms.

3. At what angular positions the maximum value of velocity and acceleration happen
in both mechanisms?

4. Plot experimental and theoretical result for displacement versus angular

displacement in the same graph, as well as theoretical velocity and acceleration
versus angular displacement for both Slider-Crank and Scotch-Yoke mechanisms.

5. Please try to make models of “Slider crank Mechanism” and “Scotch- Yoke
Mechanism” as shown in Figure 3.5 and 3.6. Refer to Experiment #2 to build these
two models).Run your working models of simulation, check X, V and a, compare
them with you theoretical results.

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EXPERIMENT 4

Hook (Cardan) Joint or Universal Joint

1. Objective:
Testing the effect of changing of the angle between the shaft and universal joint on the
input and output shaft speed and calculate the speed ration between output and input shaft
speed

2. Introduction:

The simplest means of transferring motion between non axial shafts is by means of one or
two universal joints, also known as Cardan joints in Europe and Hook’s joints in Britain.
The shafts are not parallel to one another and they may be free to move relative to one
another. For this reason, this very simple spherical mechanism appears in an enormous
variety of applications. The most common application is Cardan joint used in the trucks as
shown in Figure 4.1. A universal joint is a simple spherical four-bar mechanism that
transfers rotary motion between two shafts whose axes pass through the concurrency points.
The joint itself consists of two revolute joints whose axes are orthogonal to one another.
They are often configured in a cross-shape member as shown in Figure 4.3.

•
•
Coupling is used to connect two intersecting shafts.
Consists of 2 yokes and a cross-link.

Figure 4.1: Cardan Joint, used in Trucks

Figure 4.2: Schematic of Cardan Joint

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 1 
The transmission behavior of this joint is described by Equation (4.1).

α 2 = arctan . tan α1 
 cos β 
(4.1)

where is the momentary rotation angle of the driven shaft 3.

2
4

Figure 4.3: Schematic of Cardan Joint

ω4 cos β
The angular velocity ratio can be described by:
=
ω2 1 − sin 2 θ sin 2 β
(4.2)

where β is the angular misalignment of the shafts and Ө is the angle of the driving shaft. It

ω4
is noted that:
at θ = 90o ,270o
ω2
max .

ω4
θ = 0o ,180o ,360o
ω2
min . at

ω4
if β = 0 
ω2
= 1 = constant at any Ө

ω4
ω2
will vary between a minimum and a maximum during each revolution.

ω2 = ω4 only at 4 instants as shown in Figure 4.4.

This is a very big disadvantage, in case of automotive vehicles, this means that rear wheels
will rotate at variable speed.

ω4
ω2
Figure 4.4: Relation between and Ө

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ω2 is constant (because engine and flywheel) speed of car cannot be variable each revolution

ω
because its inertia, and so this means tires will slip and severe wear will happen.

ω2
The effect of the angle β can be shown by plotting 4 for different values of β (Figure 4.5).

ω4
ω2
Figure 4.5: Relation between and β

The acceleration expression of the follower of universal joint for constant ω2 is given by:
cos β sin 2 β sin 2β
[ ]
α 4 = ω22
1 − sin 2 β sin 2 θ
2
(4.3)

Recall: y = u(x)/v(x), therefore y’= [vu’-uv’]/v3.

For acceleration or retardation
-acceleration when 2Ө lies between 0 -180o
-deceleration when 2Ө lies between 180 -360o
Maximum acceleration occurs when dα4 / dӨ = 0. Thus,
− 2 sin 2 β
cos 2θ ≅ → gives θ for max .α 4
2 − sin 2 β
It is possible to connect 2 shafts by 2 Hook's couplings and an intermediate shaft that the
uneven velocity ratio of the first coupling will be cancelled out by the second Condition

β2 = β4
(Figure 6.6).

Yoke 32 lies in plane containing shaft 2, 3

Yoke 34 lies in plane containing shaft 3, 4

Figure 4.6: Two shafts by two Hook's couplings and an intermediate shaft

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3. Experimental Procedure

1) Fixing the input shaft angle β 2 = 0o.

2) Setting the output shaft angle β 4 = 15o .
3) Filter setting: cutoff freq. 4. Scope setting: ch1 500mv, ch2: 500mv, M 50ms. run
scope, turn on motor. After stable fluctuate signal appear on screen, stop scope then
turn off motor.

θ = 0 , N4 is min. setting paired cursor at this point as t=0 ms. Moving cursor along
4) Check the input and output shaft speed by using Cursor: paired. We assume that at

ch2 signal and record t and N4 by ∆: __ms, @:__v. Fill Table 9-1. N2 is input shaft

5) Repeat step #2, setting the output shaft angle β 4 = 30o . Fill Table 4.2.
speed. It is constant.

β 4 = 15o
Table 4. 1: Test results of Cardan joint

θ (o) 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

t (ms)
N4(v)
N2(v)
N4/N2

β 4 = 30o
Table 4. 2: Test results of Cardan joint

θ (o) 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

t (ms)
N4(v)
N2(v)
N4/N2

4. Results

1) Plot the graph of velocity ratio during one cycle for both cases. Compare with
theoretical plot using Equation 4.2.

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EXPERIMENT 5

Governor Apparatus
1. Objectives

1. To observe the lift off speed of the three different types of governor.
2. To observe the effect of varying sleeve weight or spring force on the operation of a
governor
3. To observe the stability of a governor.

2. Introduction

The function of the governor must be carefully distinguished from that of a flywheel. The
former is required to maintain, as closely as possible, a constant mean speed of rotation of
the crankshaft over long periods during which the load on the engine may vary.

The latter serves to limit the inevitable fluctuations of speed during each cycle which arise
from the fluctuations of turning moment on the crankshaft. On the one hand the governor
exercises no control over the cyclical fluctuations of speed, while on the other hand the
flywheel has not effect on the mean speed of rotation.

If the load on the engine is constant, the mean speed of rotation will be constant from
cycle to cycle. But if the load changes, the mean speed will also change, unless the output
of the engine is adjusted to the new demand. It is the purpose of the governor to make this
adjustment automatically.

Governors are generally of one of two types: either (a) centrifugal or (b) inertia. We will
be concentrating on the centrifugal governors. In the centrifugal governors, the controlling
force in this type of governor is provided by a dead-weight, a spring or a combination of
both dead-weight and spring.

There are three types of governor provided in

this apparatus:
1. Porter
2. Proell
3. Hartnell

The Porter (Fig5.1) and Proell (Fig5.2)

governors are based on centrifugal design with
dead-weights being used as the controlling force.

The Hartnell governor (Fig7.3) is also a

centrifugal type but uses a spring as the
controlling force.
Fig 5.1 Porter Governor

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Fig 5.2 Proell Governor Fig 5.3 Hartnell Governor

Fig 5.4: Governor Apparatus

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As shown in Fig. 5.4 . The base unit contains the drive unit with an electronically
controlled motor. The motor is switched on and off with the motor buttons On/Off switch.
The apparatus can only be started up when the protective Dome is located in its retaining
ring. The motor speed is set steplessly with a speed potentiometer. A digital tachometer
indicates the rotational speed in rpm. A transparent protective hood covers the rotating
centrifugal governor in operation.

Porter Governor mass m = 157g

Porter Arm length l= 80mm each
Mass of lower pivot = 25g
Central shaft groove increments =
3mm
Additional Sleeve mass = 58g
(average mass)

Fig 5.5: Technical Details of Porter Governor

3. Theory

Porter Governor
At Point B of Governor mass: Balance of horizontal forces:
∑ � = 0 = �1 ∗ sin � + �2 ∗ sin � − � ∗ ��2 (5.1)

Balance of vertical forces:

∑ � = 0 = �1 ∗ cos � − �2 ∗ cos � − � ∗ � (5.2)

At Point C of Sleeve mass: Balance of vertical forces:

�
∑ � = 0 = �2 ∗ cos � − � ∗ � (5.3)
2

Resolution and transformation with r =l * sinα + a produces the following main equation:

�� tan �
�2 = �1 + � ∗ � ∗ �∗sin �+� (5.4)
�

�� (�∗�)2 ∗(�∗sin �+�)

= −1 (5.5)
� 900∗�∗tan �

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With ω = 2πn/60, an equation can then be found to enable the governor to be designed:
Resistances of air and material friction in the shell and the fixings are ignored in these
equations, as are the masses of the arms.

Refer to Fig. 5.6, l=BD=BC=80mm, a= 30mm,� = (� ∗ sin � + �),

At lowest position, lift x= 0, hlow= DE= CE=55mm.

The student can check the above dimensions and lengths by taking a ruler to the governor.
This will gain a level of confidence in the measurements and a further understanding of
where the measurements come from.

The student can repeat the above workings for any other grooved marked on the central
grooved shaft because each groove is spaced 3mm apart.

Fig 5.6: System Balance of Porter Governor

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4. Procedure
1. Remove all sleeve masses from the lower pivot.
2. Check the collar clamp underneath the lower pivot so that the bottom edge of the
lower pivot is level with the first groove in the grooved shaft.
3. Measure the height h (refer to Fig 5.5) and record into table
4. Fit 4 sleeve masses onto the lower pivot and ensure they are interlocked and clear
of the central grooved shaft. By hand raise and lower the lower pivot to ensure
smooth running of the governor.
5. Fit the protective dome.
6. Turn on the power to the unit using the on/off switch on the front of the base unit.
7. Rotate the speed control potentiometer until you can just start to see the lower
pivot lift off the collar clamp. Record this speed. This is the lift off speed of the
governor and needs to be recorded in table 1 under the 0 (zero) lower pivot height.
8. Continue to rotate the speed control potentiometer, thus increasing the speed of the
governor until the next grooved mark is reached on the shaft. Ensure the governor
is stable and the lower pivot does not wander at the groove. Record this speed into
table 1.
9. Continue to increase the speed until each mark in turn is visited and record the
speeds into table 1.
10. After the test, return the speed of the governor back to zero (0) and switch off the
mains power of the unit.
l=0.08m m=0.157*2=0.314 ms4=58*4+25=0.257
h low=0.055 n=60 w/2.pi
n n
α tan α sin α 2 �
x h � (theory) (test)
0 0.055
0.003 0.0535
0.006
0.009
0.012
0.015
0.018
0.021
0.024
0.027
0.030
0.033
0.036
0.039
0.042
0.045
0.048
0.051
0.054
0.057

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11. Repeat step 4-10 for 8 sleeve mass. After the test, return the speed of the governor
back to zero (0) and switch off the mains power of the unit.

l=0.08
m m=0.157*2=0.314 Ms8=58*8+25=0.489
ℎ��� = 0.055 n=60 w/2.pi
n
ℎ= n (test
2ℎ��� −�
x 2 α tan α sin α �2 � (theory) )
0 0.055
0.003 0.0535
0.006
0.009
0.012
0.015
0.018
0.021
0.024
0.027
0.030
0.033
0.036

5. Results

1. Plot graph of sleeve lift x (x-axis) against governor speed n (y-axis) for both
theoretical and experimental, and view how non-linear the responses are.

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EXPERIMENT 6

CAM ANYLYSIS
1. Objective

1. to observe the effect of cam profile on the cam dynamics,

2. to study the displacement, velocity, and acceleration profile of cam.

2. Introduction

A cam may be defined as a machine element having a curved outline or a curved

groove, which, by its oscillation or rotation motion, gives a predetermined specified motion
to another element called the follower. Cams play a very important part in modern
machinery and are extensively used in internal-combustion engines, machine tools,
mechanical computers, instruments and many other applications.

The contour of the cam dictates the cam system's dynamic response. The contour is
controlled by the cam's displacement diagram that is created based on design specifications.
To analyze the cam's dynamic response the acceleration and jerk of the follower need to be
determined. The two parameters can be computed from the cam's displacement diagram.

In this lab, a Tangent Cam will be tested and analyzed. The formulae for calculating follower
displacement, velocity and acceleration are provided below. These formulae were derived
from geometrically analyzing the contours of these cams.

2.1 Tangent Cam with Roller Follower:

2.1.1 Roller in contact with flank (Fig. 6.1 AB)

• R = base circle radius = 25.4 mm

• r = nose radius = 12.7 mm
• d = centre distance = 38.1 mm
• ro = follower radius = 14.3 mm
When the cam has rotated through an angle θ from the lowest position of the follower center
Q, displacement of the follower from lowest position, X ,Velocity, V, and acceleration a:

X = OQ1 − OQ = ( R + ro ) Sec (θ ) − ( R + ro )
V ω ( R + r0 ) Sec (θ ) Tan (θ )
=
ω ( R + r0 )  Sec (θ ) Tan (θ ) − Sec (θ )
6.1
a= 2 2 3

where 0<=θ<=β. θ = 0 corresponds to the point A and θ=β corresponds to point B on Fig.
6.1.
The range of the cam angle (β) turned while the roller moves from A to B is:
Tanβ= d sin α where α is the total angle of lift. In this case, α = 70.53° and β = 42.14°
R + ro

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2.1.2 Roller in contact with nose:

When the roller has rotated through an angle ∅ from the highest position of the follower,

{ }
displacement of follower:

r + r0
=X d cos (φ ) + n 2 − sin 2 ( φ ) − ( R + ro ) =
where n
d


 sin ( 2φ ) 

−ωd  sin (φ ) +
V= 

 2 n − sin ( φ ) 
2 2
 6.2

 
 sin 4 ( φ ) + n 2 cos ( 2φ ) 
−ω d  cos (φ ) +
( )
a= 3/ 2 
n 2 − sin 2 ( φ )
2

 
 

where 0<=∅<=(α-β) ∅=0 corresponds to point C and ∅=α-β corresponds to point B in

Fig.6.1.

Figure 6.1 Tangent cam - Roller in contact with flank/ roller in contact with nose.

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2.2. Dynamic forces on follower and spring

The continuous contact between the follower and the cam is achieved by the downward
forces of the spring and follower weight. On the other hand, the force along the axis of
the follower exerted by the cam is the driving force of the follower.

For the cam system shown in Fig. 6.2,

If m is the effective mass of the follower, then the driving force required to accelerate
the follower:

ΣF = mf • Af

Let S be the follower spring stiffness and xo the initial compression of the spring. When
the follower mass is driven through a distance X the spring force is S(X + xo). The
equation of motion is:

F − m f g − S ( X + x0 ) = m f A f

where: F = contact force, mf = mass of the follower, Af = acceleration of the follower.

S=4530N/m
Preloading xo = 0.15 cm

Figure 6.2 Schematic of a cam system.

Af is a function of the spring stiffness S, the initial spring compression xo and the
effective mass mf. When the cam contacts the follower the acceleration of the follower,
Af, is equal to acceleration, A, of the cam along the axis of the follower. This A can be
derived from the cam's displacement diagram and is a function of the angular velocity
of the cam. During a rise phase, A should be larger than or equal to Af to keep the contact
and during a fall phase, A should be smaller than or equal to Af for the same reason.

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At a point of follower bounce, the contact force F is equal to zero. The corresponding cam

− m f g − S ( X + x0 ) = m f A f
velocity is called bounce velocity. Then:

m f g + S ( X + x0 )
To prevent bounce, the F must be larger than zero, That is
A ≥ Af = −
mf
 m f g + S ( X + x0 ) 
or  ≥A
 mf 
also A = k ω2 ,where k is dictated by the contour of the cam.

 m f g + S ( X + x0 ) 
Therefore, the condition to prevent bounce is:

  ≥ kω
 
2

m f

To increase the bounce velocity, the parameters (S, xo, and mf) can be adjusted.

3.0 EQUIPEMENT AND PROCEDURE:

3.1 Description of the Apparatus:

The TM21 Cam Analysis Machine (CAM) shown in Fig.6.3 is used for this experiment.

The apparatus consists of a D.C. shunt-wound, geared electric motor connected to an

extension shaft via a flexible coupling. The cam is mounted on a keyed taper on the end of
the shaft. A flywheel is included to reduce fluctuation in speed caused by the torque
required to lift the follower. The motor speed is controlled by the variable speed electrical
supply. The apparatus is fitted with a displacement transducer to measure the vertical
displacement of the follower respectively. The transducer is connected to a data
acquisition system and Computer with Data Acquisition (DAQ) software.

Follower displacement measurement.

The vertical displacement of the follower is measured with a Potentiometer type
displacement transducer. The transducer is powered with a -5 to +5 Volts D.C. supply
connected to a signal acquisition unit which produces a voltage signal proportional to
displacement.

Angular speed measurement

The angular speed of the cam is obtained with ME’ScopeVes software by check periodical
time

Follower acceleration measurement

The vertical acceleration of the follower is obtained by differentiating (twice) the signal
produced by the displacement transducer.

55
 MECH343

Figure 6.3 TM21 Cam Analysis Machine.

3.2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

Before actually beginning the experimental procedure, the following precautions are to
be followed.

Make sure that the potentiometer powered by ~ -5(red wire), +5 V(black wire) and
connect signal(white wire)to DAQ unit. Turn on DC power supply for Pot.

Perform the following the steps for the experiment. (The initial displacement xo has been
adjusted to zero by careful adjust pot power supply, don’t adjust during experiment, it’s
done by technician.).

1) Run “MEscope VES, set up DAQ: Open project “Cam_1.VTprj”. Check the
following configurations:

56
 MECH343

2) Run Cam at certain speed, acquire data by MEscope: First adjust the speed control
knob to indicated position, then switch on the mains electrical supply, quickly
decrease the speed to desired speed.

57
 MECH343

3) At acquisition window, acquire data by click: an ACQ window will

display the displacement wave. To save acquired data to data block, click:
. Save to a new file:

A new file: any name you wish:” BLK: Data Block Xx group#1”. Turn switch off to
stop motor.

4) Process data: process data in data block window, find speed of cam, save a
specific range data and graph ,export to Exel.

Find speed: 1.43-0.778=0.615 sec, 1/0.615= 1.626(r/sec)=1.626x60=97.56(rpm).

58
 MECH343

Copy above graph with two curser indicated times to Excel or word before go to next step.

We know that 0.778 sec is at(90° ),1/4 turn time is 0.615/4 = 0.163, initial time is at 0 .778-
0.163=0.615 sec at (0° )

Put first curser at 0.615, second curser at 0.778+0.163=0.941sec at(180° )

Copy this graph to excel before go to next step.

Save banded data: copy trace to file. To a new banded file

Yes, file name:

Please note a new file with the data between two cursers will be used in experimental
results. Copy this data to excel.

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 MECH343

5) Export data and graph to Excel:

A graph will copy to you excel. Copy trace data: format column A number to decimal 4.

Insert a column B, Remove time offset: remove initial time 0.6112 to 0 for all column B:
Calculate velocity, acceleration and plot X, V, A.

Now you can plot; displacement vs Time: velocity vs time

X displacement V
30 50
20
10 0
0.0000 0.1000 0.2000 0.3000 0.4000
0
0.0000 0.1000 0.2000 0.3000 0.4000 -50

Acceleration vs time: If there are big noise for plot acceleration vs time, do average
V(speed) with 3~5 samples ( v1+v2 +v3+v4+v5)/5:

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A with avg 5
200

0
0.0000 0.1000 0.2000 0.3000 0.4000
-200

4. RESULTS:

1. Obtain the displacement, velocity, acceleration diagrams and compare it with the
theoretical one, the theoretical diagram should be plotted by Excel.

2. Using Workingmodel to simulate this cam system and compare with the experimental
and theoretical one.

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EXPERIMENT 7

CORIOLIS EFFECT

1. Objective
The purpose of this experiment is to study the effects of a projected object moving on a
rotating surface, in this instance a jet of water being shot back towards the center of
rotation on a spinning boom.

2. Introduction and theoretical background

2.1 Introduction
The Coriolis Effect is a force described by the 19th-century French engineer-
mathematician Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis in 1835. Coriolis showed that, if the ordinary
Newtonian law of motion of bodies are to be used in a rotating frame of reference, an
inertial force--acting to the right of the direction of body motion for counter-clockwise
rotation or to the left for clockwise rotation--must be included in the equations of motion.

Coriolis force is referred to as a fictitious or inertial force, this means that the force is not
present in a stationary or inertial frame, but is present when motion is described relative to
a rotating reference frame about a fixed axis.

The effect of the Coriolis force is an apparent deflection of the path of an object that
moves within a rotating coordinate system. The object does not actually deviate from its
path, but it appears to do so because of the motion of the coordinate system.

The degree to which this force can influence a system is varied and can depend on a
number of factors. Common applications where the Coriolis effect is taken into
consideration are meteorology, long range ballistics and operators tracking satellites.
The main factors which will determine the importance of the Coriolis effect on a system is
the velocity of the moving object, the speed of the rotating system and the distance that the
object is traveling.

The Earth's rotation causes the surface to move fastest at the equator, and not at all at the
poles. A bird flying away from the equator, carries this faster motion with it-or,
equivalently, the surface under the bird is rotating more slowly than it was-and the bird's
flight curves eastward slightly.

This piece of apparatus will show that although the water jet is being shot out in a straight
line, because of the rotation of the surface it has come from and the moving reference
system it appears to deviate from its path and deflect to one side. This increases as the
speed of rotation becomes faster and will change from left to right depending on the
direction of rotation of the boom which can be controlled on the front of the unit.

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Students will be able to compare theoretical results with ones taken from this apparatus
and comment on other factors that may affect the water jets path. The Coriolis Effect can
be attributed in many real life situations and is present in many different technical
applications.

Fig. 7. 1 Coriolis Force

2.2 Theory
2.2.1 Rossby Number
The time, space and velocity scales are vital in determining the importance of the
Coriolis Effect (Ro). Whether rotation is important in a system can be determined
by its Rossby number, which is the ratio of the velocity, U, of a system to the
product of the Coriolis parameter f, and the length scale, L, of the motion:
�
�� =
��
The Rossby number is the ratio of inertial to Coriolis forces. A small Rossby
number signifies a system which is strongly affected by Coriolis forces, and a large
Rossby number signifies a system in which inertial forces dominate. For example,
in tornadoes, the Rossby number is large.

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2.2.2 Known Information

Known variables in this experiment include;

Water speed at Nozzle Exit = 1550mm/s
Water jet distance = 110mm
Speed of Boom (RPM) = Shown on digital display
There are two main formulae that we need to calculate the lateral deflection of the
water jets path due to the Coriolis affect.

These are: �� = −2 Ω × �

Where: �� = �������� ������������ ��/� 2

٠= ������� �������� ���/�
� = �������� ������ ��/�
1
And � = �� + 2 �� 2

Where: � = �������� ��
� = ������� �������� ��/�
a = ������������ ��/� 2
� = ���� ����� �� ����� �������� � �

2.2.3 Coriolis Background

To calculate the amount the water jet is deflected laterally due to the Coriolis affect
we first have to understand the variables that we are controlling.

Firstly for an example of the Boom spinning at 20 RPM assuming that our initial
water velocity is constant at 1550mm/s and that the distance between the nozzle end
and scale is set at 110 mm.

Now the velocity of the water is not

simply 1550mm/s as it is on a rotating
surface it has a circumferential
velocity and a radial velocity giving us
two velocity vectors.

The vectors can be shown as a cross

product of two forces, this we will
look at a lot during our calculations. It
is also sometimes referred to as the
'right hand rule' this is useful to keep
track of directions of motion and our
orientation with regards to these
movements. Figure 7.2 Right Hand Rule

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 MECH343

Our circumferential velocity looks like this;

Figure 7.3 Circumferential Velocity

And our angular velocity looks like this:

Figure 7.4 Angular Velocity Vector

To take into account the angular velocity vector, Ω, imagine the radial path of the nozzle
as a disk (see figure 7.4 above) the angular velocity vector is a vector perpendicular to the
plane of this disc.

This is calculated as;

2� ���
Ω= � 60
��

So at 20 RPM: ٠= {0� + 0� + 2.094�} ���/�

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To work out the circumferential velocity we will need the angular velocity in degrees per
second.
2.094x180/π = 120o- / s Ωo =120o / S

So the circumferential velocity vector , �� , is:

Ω�
�� = 2�� × �360� = 230.8 ��/�

With the inward velocity of the jet, � � = -1550 mm/s we now have the velocity vector given
by:
v = ��� � + �� � + 0�� = {−1550� + 233.38� + 0�} ��/�

Now we have the two main components needed to calculate our Coriolis acceleration.
�� = −2 Ω X v

It is important now to understand the right hand rule and in what directions these vectors
are moving. There is an observed water path which is what would be seen by the nozzle
looking towards the centre of our disc or origin. To visualise this we will use the right
hand rule with the water velocity vector, v, and angular velocity vector, Ω, as derived
from above.

Figure 7.5 Water Velocity and Angular Velocity Vector

2.2.4 Calculations

Using the background calculations above and keeping with our example at 20RPM, we
can start to calculate our Coriolis affect. We will note that there are other factors that will
affect the movement/ deflection of the water jet but these can be discussed at the end of
this section along with assumptions that are made.

By plotting the nozzle position and the water jet we have a visual idea of where everything
is heading. These points are taken at 0.05 second intervals, we can work out that it takes
roughly 0.07 seconds for the water to travel from the nozzle to the scale by dividing the
distance (110 mm) by the water velocity (1550 mm/s).

From this graph we can see the nozzle is at a set distance spinning round the origin. The
plotted water path is travelling from the nozzle to the origin but also has a constant

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circumferential velocity vector with time. The observed water path is what is seen by the
nozzle looking towards the origin.

Figure 7.6 Positions in Relation to Origin

Now using the expression for the Coriolis acceleration with the values of velocity vectors
we calculated previously we get:

�� = −2 Ω X v

�� = −2{0� + 0� + 2.094�} � {−1550� + 233.38� + 0�}

To expand the calculation we have to understand that the formula shows a multiplication
of a cross product of the two vectors.

This means that for the new i direction the k value for Angular Velocity is multiplied
by the j value for the Circumferential Velocity, this number is then subtracted from the
value for the multiplication of the opposite j and .k. values. (Refer to table below).

����� ������� = ( Ω� � �� ) − ( Ω� � ��)

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Table: Cross Product of Vectors

So:
�� = −2{−482.51� − 3246.31� + 0�}

�� = {965.03� + 6492.62� + 0�}

This is our Coriolis Acceleration vector, we now need to apply a constant acceleration
formulae to derive the deflection caused by the Coriolis acceleration.

We also need to change our reference frame. Instead of the system being observed as the
disc rotating, we situate ourselves on the water jet nozzle, facing inwards in the direction
of the water jet (towards the origin). Therefore, relative to us, the water jet has an initial
velocity in only one direction. That is away from us with no lateral velocity caused by the
rotating motion. We can now use the constant acceleration formula;

1 2
� = �� + ��
2

We can substitute in the relevant factors that apply to our experiment.

1
� = �� + � �2
2 �
Where:
S = {�� + �� + ��}
u is:
� = � = {0� + 1550� + 0�} ��/�

and a is:
� = �� = {965.03� + 6492.62� + 0�}

As our reference frame has changed, so has our velocity vector. The origin for our position
is now at the nozzle exit, this means using the right hand rule again to see our vector
directions.

So using our new velocity vector and Coriolis Acceleration into the constant acceleration
formula we get:
1
� = {0� + 1550� + 0�}� + 2 {965.03� + 6492.62� + 0�}� 2

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Figure 7.7: New Original Positions

By substituting each vector position (i and j for x and y) separately we can produce a table
of positions for a water particle at different intervals of time.

Table 2: Water Particle Positions

We can now plot these positions onto a graph with y (j) being our distance from nozzle
and x (i) being a lateral deflection across (Figure 7.8).

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Figure 7.8: Plotted Calculated Results

As our distance from the nozzle is constant (110mm) we can add this to our graph;

Figure 7.9: Results for Lateral Deflection at 20 RPM

From this we can see that the graph shows us that at 20 RPM the water should deflect
around 17mm from the center of the scale.

2.2.5 Other Factors

There are several factors which can influence the water jet's projected path towards the
center of origin. Some will influence the results more than others but it is important to
realize how and why the calculated results may differ from the observed ones.

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2.2.6 Change of Distance From Scale

This is a very influential factor in determining reliable results. In our calculations we have
specified that the distance between the exit of the water from the nozzle end and the linear
scale at the back of the reservoir are constant. This in reality is not the case, as the distance
increases laterally from the origin along the scale so too does the distance from the nozzle
end to the scale.

Figure 7.10: Error of Scale Distance

This will mean that the faster the boom spins and the further the water is deflected along
the scale the larger the factor of error.

2.2.7 Centrifugal Force

This is a very influential force when observing objects in a rotating system, you will
notice that as you increase the RPM of the boom the water in the reservoir is 'pushed' to
the outside of the rotating circle. The speed of the boom has been restricted so that the
boom won't spin fast enough for the water to escape from the reservoir.

This is the centrifugal force and it will also be acting upon the water jet as it is shot
towards the centre origin. The faster the boom is rotating the more this force will impact
the system, this will change the course of the water path that we have plotted previously.

The centrifugal force points directly away from the axis of rotation of the rotating
reference frame, with magnitude m02r. This can be written as;
����� = �Ω × ( Ω × �)

2.2.8 Constant Velocity of Water

The velocity of the water jet has been calculated by working out the amount of water that
is moved per second and dividing it by the cross sectional area (CSA) of the tube at the

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end of the nozzle. This has been set by stating that the water jet should always hit the
centre 'O' on the scale before the test is started.

However the pump is powered by re-chargeable batteries. It has been tested for an average
experiment time that the power supply for the pump should keep to a constant voltage
after being charged. But small drops in the voltage over the course of an experiment could
result in the speed of the water jet diminishing slightly. The water velocity is an important
factor in our calculations so if this changes during the course of the experiment our
observed results will differ from our calculated ones.

3. procedure
3.1 Experiment Setup
This piece of equipment is made up from several key parts some of which will need
careful user attention in order to acquire sufficient results and ensure safety in the working
environment.

There is the main casing which houses the main motor, speed control, display and switch.
This is supplied with a 12V power supply stepped down from the mains voltage to a safer
working level. The box should not need to be opened for any reason.

Figure 7.11: Coriolis Apparatus

3.1.1 Boom

The boom part is attached to the internal main shaft, the boom will spin clockwise or anti-
clockwise from the front panel switch and its speed is regulated by the speed control knob
also on the front of the box. The boom is used to hold the testing apparatus in place as
they are spun around as part of the experiment. Where the main shaft protrudes from the
main control box there is a seal to protect against water ingress to keep the internal
electronics safe.

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3.1.2 Reservoir

This holds the water, houses the pump assembly and has on it the scale for which the
water path deflection can be measured. The water level in the reservoir should EVER be
higher than the bottom of the wedge shape that holds the pump assembly in place, doing
so will cause the water to spill out at high speeds (see figure.4 for max water height). Also
the water level should NEVER fall too far below this line leaving the pump to run dry at
low speeds.

THE RESERVOIR MUST BE FILLED PRIOR TO RUNNING THE PUMP.

The wedge shape itself contains two screws which help to hold the main pump assembly
in place, these should be secure enough to stop the pump from moving/twisting when the
unit is in motion

3.1.3 Dome

An acrylic dome is supplied with the unit to protect users from the spinning equipment
ensuring no one can harm themselves whist the apparatus is in operation. It acts as a safety
switch as the unit cannot be operated without it being in place, it will also protect users
from any splash that results from the jet hitting the scale.

3.1.4 Pump

The pump sits inside the reservoir on the outside end of the boom, in the pump assembly
itself is the pump, the nozzle pot, the nozzle bracket, nozzle and hose. The pump MUST
NEVER BE RUN DRY this could cause irreversible damage to the pump, the water level
should be filled to just under the wedge shape in the reservoir. The pump is connected to
the electronics box where it is turned on/ off from, the speed of the pump can also be
regulated from here.

3.1.5 Nozzle and Water Hose

These sit on top of the pump assembly and direct the water jet to the other side of the
reservoir. The nozzle is set so that the jet diameter is fixed and therefore water pressure is
consistent. The nozzle can be twisted with the nozzle bracket to ensure that when the
boom is stationary the water jet is striking the scale centrally. The distance from the
nozzle to the centre of rotation is factory set at 110 mm, this can be fine tuned by adjusting
the nut at the back of the nozzle.

3.1.6 Electronic Box

The electronics box is situated on the opposite side of the boom from the reservoir, it
houses all of the necessary electronics and power for the water pump. On the electronics
box is an On/ Off switch for the pump, a power socket for recharging and a hole to tune
the water jet distance/ force. When the unit arrives there should be some charge in the box

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to check that the pump is working, to charge the unit the same power supply that is used to
power the main box should be used. This is to ensure that someone doesn't try to rotate the
boom whilst it is being charged, to see guidelines on charging the pump go to the
maintenance section of this manual.

The pump should only be started when the boom is stationary, this is to check that the
water jet is hitting the scale centrally and at an appropriate force. Depending on how
charged the unit is may affect the speed at which the pump works and therefore the speed
that the water jet will be travelling. There is a speed control for the pump, this can be
operated through the hole in the side of the electronics box, a trimmer pen is supplied and
can be used to adjust the speed of the pump to allow consistent results. For further
guidelines on this please see the maintenance section of this manual.

3.1.7 Tachometer, Speed Control and switch

Situated on the front of the main box is a panel with four main items, these are the
tachometer, speed control, power and toggle switch. The tachometer is factory set to show
the RPM of the boom as it spins round, this is used during the experiment to give points
where readings are taken. There should be no reason for any of the settings on the
tachometer to be changed.

The speed control will increase/ decrease the rate at which the boom spins, as laid out in
the experiment procedures. The control is set so that the max speed of the boom is around
55 RPM.

The toggle switch for the unit has three positions which are; Anticlockwise-Off-
Clockwise. When the unit is plugged in and the power switch is on it will turn on but the
boom will not rotate until the switch is set to either ACW or CW.

Note that the guard must also be in place and the speed control turned up for the boom to
start to rotate.

3.2 Before Getting Started

There are a few things that should be checked before operating the Coriolis Effect
apparatus.

Firstly water must be added to the reservoir- the pump must never be run dry so it is
advised to fill the reservoir to a point just below the wedge shape first. Provided with the
unit is a small container of water colorant that can be used to colour the water for ease of
reading results, this can be added at any point.
On the lid of the main box is a handle which is used to lock down the lid, this MUST be
removed before any testing can be carried out. Make sure it is kept safe as it will be
required to empty out the reservoir.
The display should turn on as soon as the power supply is connected it is advised to do
this first with the dome removed so that the boom won't start to spin. The display should
read 'O'.

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Turn on the pump from the electronics box. The unit may have lost some charge but
there should be sufficient to check that the pump is working. Before use the pump
should be fully charged.

Calibration: Once the unit has been fully charged the pump may squirt the water quite
vigorously. With the unit should be supplied a trimmer pen, this can be used through the
hole in the side of the electronics box to regulate the power which goes to the pump.
Have the trimmer pen to hand and turn on the pump, adjust the speed down if the jet is
splashing on the scale at the back of the reservoir or up if it does not reach the scale.

Twist the nozzle so that the jet is hitting the back of the reservoir on the centre line of
the scale. Now re-adjust the power with the trimmer pen so that the jet hits the scale
directly in the centre of the 'O'. The alignment and speed of the water jet should now be
set, this is important to the experiment as the water velocity is a main factor in our
calculations.

Check that the Nozzle end is 11 Omm from the scale, if not the nozzle may have slipped
in the nozzle bracket during transport and may need clipping back in place. Now plug
the main power supply into the main control box. The socket for the power supply is
situated at the rear of the main control box.

Turn on the pump. Make sure the toggle switch is set to 'OFF' then place the dome on
top. Turn the switch to an on position, the unit may start spinning automatically, this can
be controlled via the speed control on the front of the box. With the speed control set to
fully off it should take only 1 turn to start the boom moving. Run the unit to its top
speed, this should be just over 60 RPM on the digital scale.

3.3 Procedure
Before starting the experiment it is essential to understand the safety elements of the
equipment, especially as we will be dealing with fluids around electronics.

•
•
Make sure the equipment is set up according to the Calibration part of this manual.
Ensure the water level in the reservoir is at the appropriate height- just below the

•
wedge block.

•
Ensure the water jet is calibrated correctly- hitting the center of the '0'.
Plug the power cord into the back of the main box, turn on the pump then place the
acrylic dome into position.

Set Procedure

1) Turn the switch on the front panel to clockwise.

2) Speed up the unit to around 50 RPM using the speed control on the front panel.
3) Make a note of the lateral deflection of the water jet in the results table provided.

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4) Repeat this at decreasing speeds of around 5 RPM- allow for time between
readings for the boom speed to settle at the desired rate.
5) Do this until the boom speed has been reduced to about 10 RPM-you should now
have a set of results from which a graph can be plotted.
6) Repeat the whole procedure again but this time set the boom to spin anticlockwise.
7) You should now have enough results to compare to plot as a graph and compare to
theoretical calculations.

3.4 Observations
1) Which way did the water move in relation to the direction of rotation?
2) How did the speed of the boom affect the movement of the water jet?
3) Were the results consistent?
4) How well did the theoretical and experimental results compare?
5) What other forces may be affecting the results? How much influence will these
have?

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EXPERIMENT 8

8-1: PLANETARY GEAR TRAIN KINEMATICS

1. Objective
Calculate the gear train ratio for the planetary gearbox; and the degrees of freedom that the
system has.

2. Introduction

A planetary gear train is one in which the axis of some of the gears may have motion. A
planetary gear set always includes a sun gear, one or more planet gears, and a planet carrier
or arm which sometimes called as sun-and-planet planetary gear train as shown in Figure
8.1.

Figure 8.1: Planetary gear train Figure 8.2: Sun-and-planet planetary gear

A planetary gear set, as shown in Figure 8.2, is one having two degrees of freedom. This
means that the motion of each and every element of the mechanism is not defined unless
the motion of two of its elements is specified. To make the planetary set a one degree of
freedom gear train, one must fix the motion of one element of the mechanism.

3. Solution of Planetary Trains by

Formula Methods

Figure 8.3 shows a planetary gear set

which is composed of a sun gear 2, an
arm 3, and planet gears 4 and 5:

We can express the velocity of gear 2

relative to the arm 3 in the form: Figure 8.3: Compound Planetary Gear Set

n23 = n2 − n3 (8.1)
n53 = n5 − n3 (8.2)

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n53 n5 − n3
Dividing Equation (8.2) by (8.1) gives:
=
n23 n2 − n3
(8.3)

Since this ratio is the same and is proportional to the tooth numbers, it is equivalent

n −n
therefore to the train value "e"
e= 5 3
n2 − n3
(8.4)

n − nA
e= L
nF − nA
Or (8.5)

where: nF = rpm of first gear in train

nL = rpm of last gear in train
nA = rpm of arm.
The experiment is designed to demonstrate the fundamentals of planetary gear train and to
show all possible motions that can be obtained with this type of gear trains.

4. Experimental Procedure and Results

For the planetary gear trains mechanism shown in Figure 8.1:
1) Check the gear ration by one turn input.
2) Calculate the degree of freedom to the planetary gear system

n − n2
3) Calculate the gear train ration through the following equation
e= 3
n1 − n 2
• When the outer ring is fixed.
• When the planet gears are fixed.

8-2: The Borg-Warner Model 35 Automatic Transmission

Simulator

1. Introduction

The Borg-Warner Model 35 Automatic Transmission comprises a three element torque

converter--coupling and a planetary gear set to provide three forward ratios and reverse.
The planetary gear set consists of two sun gears, two sets of pinions, a pinion
carrier and a ring gear.
Power enters the gear set via the sun gears. In all forward ratios, power enters
through the forward sun gear. In reverse it enters through the reverse sun gear. Power
leaves the gear set by the ring gear, and the pinions are used to transmit power from the
sun gears to the ring gear.
In reverse, a single set of pinions is used, which causes the ring gear to rotate in the
opposite direction from the sun gear. In forward ratios, a double set of pinions is used to
cause the ring gear to rotate in the same direction as the sun gear.
The Carrier locates the pinions relative to the two sun gears and the ring gear, also
forming a reaction member for certain conditions. The various mechanical ratios of the

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gear ser are obtained by the engagement of hydraulically operated multi-disc clutches and
brake bands.

Figure 8.3 Borg-Warner Model 35 Automatic Transmission System

Power flow in each ratio is achieved by locking various elements of the planetary gear set,
as follows:

1st Gear (Lockup selected)

The front clutch is applied, connecting the converter turbine to the forward sun
gear. The rear band is also applied, holding the pinion carrier stationary. The gear set
provides the reduction of 3.39 : l. The reverse sun gear rotates freely in the opposite
direction to the forward sun gear.

1st Gear (Drive selected)

The front clutch is applied, connecting the converter turbine to the forward sun
gear. The one-way clutch is in operation, preventing the pinion carrier from moving
opposite to the engine rotation. The gear set again provides the reduction of 3.39 : 1. On
the overrun, the one-way clutch unlocks and the gear set freewheels.

2nd Gear (Lockup or drive selected)

Again the front clutch is applied, connecting the converter turbine to the forward
sun gear. The front band is applied, holding the reverse sun gear stationary. The pinions
now 'walk' around the stationary sun gear and the gear set provides the reduction of 1.45 :
l.

3rd Gear (Drive selected)

Again the front clutch is applied, connecting the converter turbine to the forward
sun gear. The rear clutch is applied, connecting the turbine also to the reverse sun gear.
Thus both sun gears are locked together and the gear set rotates as a unit, providing a ratio
of 1: 1.
Neutral and Park

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The front and rear clutches are released and no power is transmitted from the
converter to the gear set.

Reverse
The rear clutch is applied, connecting the converter turbine to the reverse sun gear.
The rear band is applied, holding the pinion carrier stationary, providing a reduction of
3.09 : l.

2. Gear Ratios

Figure 8.4 First Gear Diagram

Figure 8.5 Second Gear Diagram

For an epicyclical gear train shown as following:

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4
�1 − �4 �2 �3
�13 = =−
�3 − �4 �1 �2′
For our transmission show as above:

� �� −�� �� �� �� 67
��� = =− = (1)
�� −�� �� �� �� 28

� �� −�� �� �� �� 32
��� = =− =− (2)
�� −�� �� �� �� 28

−�� 67 28
Hence: =−
�� −�� 68 32
32 99
�� �� = �� − �� ; �� = �
67 67 �
32 60
From (2) �� − �� = � � ; �� = ��
28 28

�� 60 67
Therefore ��� = = = 1.45021645
Figure 8.6Second Gear— �� 28 99
Epicyclical gear arrangement �� 1
So: =
�� 1.45

Both sun gears are locked together and the

gears set rotates as a unit.

�� 1
���� �����: =
�� 1

Figure 8.7 Third Gear Diagram

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With the reverse gear engaged, power is

applied to the reverse sun gear. The planet
carrier is held stationary so that the planet
gears rotate the ring gear in the opposite
direction to the reverse sun gear.

�� 1
���� �����: =
�� 2.09

Figure 8.8 Reverse Gear Diagram

3. Experimental Procedure

Pins and slotted plates represent the multi-disc clutches and brake bands. The various
gear ratios of the gear set may be obtained by inserting the appropriate pins as indicated
below.

Figure 8.9 Borg-Warner Model 35 Diagram

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A B C D E F
Lockup 1/Drive 1 * * √
Lockup 2/Drive 2 * *
Drive 3 * *
Reverse * *
Neutral
Park *

Note:
1. Lose all pin and turn input shaft and output shaft, make sure input shaft disk and
output shaft disk indicate to 0° , then lock pins for each case
2. Turn input shaft one turn (360° ), read output disk (degree).
3. Fill out following table

Input �� (degree) Output �� (degree)

Lockup 1/Drive 1 360
Lockup 2/Drive 2 360
Drive 3 360
Reverse 360

4. Results

According to power flow and gear ratio figures for each case, referring to 2nd gear
ratio calculation, derive and calculate gear ratios for 1st, 3rd, and reverse shift. Compare
them with your experimental results.
Try to make models of 1st, 2nd , and 3rd shift, refer to experiment #2.2. Simulate the
results and compare with experimental and theoretical results.

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EXPERIMENT 9

Static and Dynamic Balancing

1. Objective:

• Understanding the concept of static and dynamic balancing

The objectives of this experiment are:

• Understanding unbalance torque

• Justifying theoretical calculation for balancing with experiment
• Balancing the shaft by the four given masses.

2. Introduction
Unbalanced dynamic forces effects have profound influence on the working and of
rotating machinery like turbines, compressors, pumps, motors etc. These forces act directly
on the bearings supporting the rotor and thus increase the loads and accelerate the fatigue
failure. These unbalanced forces induce further mechanical vibrations in the machinery and
connected parts thereby creating environmental noise problem through radiation of sound.
Hence it is desirable to balance all such uncompensated masses and thus reduce the effect
of unbalance forces in a dynamics balancing machine.

Balancing is the technique of correcting or eliminating unwanted inertia forces which cause
vibrations, which at high speeds may reach a dangerous level. An important requirement
of all rotating machinery parts is that the rotation axis coincides with one of the principal
axis of inertia of the body. After a roll is manufactured, it must be balanced to satisfy this
requirement, especially for high speed machines. The condition of unbalance of a rotating
body may be classified as static or dynamic unbalance.

2. 1. Static Unbalance

An idler roll is statically balanced if the roll doesn't rotate to a "heavy side" when free to
turn on its bearings. Thus, the roll's center of gravity is on the axis of rotation. Static
unbalance (Figure 9.1) creates a centrifugal force when rotating which causes deflection of
the roll. Idler rolls are sometimes static
balanced only when the roll operates at slow
speeds.

The static unbalance usually happens because

of errors in the manufacturing tolerances of the
rotating parts. Therefore, static imbalance is
essentially a weighing process in which the
part is acted upon by either gravitational or
centrifugal force. This type of unbalance could
be easily reduced or removed by static
balancing. Figure 9.1: Static (or force) Unbalance

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2. 3. Dynamic Unbalance

An idler roll may be in perfect static balance and not be in a balanced state when rotating at
high speeds. A dynamic unbalance is a “couple” or twisting force in two separate planes,
180 degrees opposite each other (Figure 9.2). Because these forces are in separate planes,
they cause a rocking motion from end to end. A roll that is unbalanced will cause 1)
machinery vibrations, 2) web flutter, and 3) a
decrease in bearing life due to unnecessary
forces.
To dynamically balance a roll, it must first be
statically balanced. Then, the roll must be
rotated to its operating speed and have the
dynamic unbalance eliminated by adding or
subtracting weight. The determination of the
magnitude and angular position of the
unbalance is the task of the balancing
machine and its operator. Balancing
machines are provided with elastically
supported bearings in which the idler roll may
spin. Because of the unbalance, the bearings
will oscillate laterally, and the amplitude and
phase of the roll are indicated by electrical
Figure 9.2: Dynamic (or couple) Unbalance
pickups and a strobe light.
Figure 9.3 shows a long rotor which is to be mounted in bearing A and B. We might suppose
that two equal masses m1 and m2 are placed at opposite ends of the rotor and at equal
distances r1 and r2 from the axis of rotation. Since masses are equal on opposite sides of the
rotational axis, the rotor is statically balanced in all angular positions. But, if the rotor is
caused to rotate at an angular velocity ω rad/sec, the centrifugal forces m1r1ω2 and m2r2ω2
act, respectively, at m1 and m2 on the rotor ends. These centrifugal forces produce the equal
but opposite bearing reactions FA and FB and the entire system of forces rotate with the rotor
at the angular velocity ω. Thus the rotor is to be statically balanced and, at the same time,
dynamically unbalanced.

Figure 9.3: Dynamically Unbalanced Rotor

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3. Principle and Theory of Operation

Consider a body of mass M rotating with a uniform angular velocity ω about O with
eccentricity e, as shown in Figure 9.4. The centrifugal force Fc acting on the axis of rotation
is Meω3. This force is therefore very sensitive to speed and hence there is a need to reduce
this force either by operating at lower speeds or by decreasing the eccentricity as shown in
Figure 9.5.

Figure 9.4 Unbalanced Disc Figure 9.5: Illustration of the 'Simplest' Method of
Static Balancing

In general, it is desirable to make e as low as possible. If the rotor thickness to diameter

ratio is less than 0.5 and speed are below 1000 rpm, the rotor can be single plane balanced
- otherwise two-plane balancing is necessary. In the single plane balancing technique, with
a rotor of mass, mi and radius ri from the axis of rotation and lying in the same plane, the

∑ mi ~ri = 0
condition for static balance is used.
(9.1)
where i = 1, 2, ... which denotes the total number of masses and m denotes the mass. The
vector ~ri represents the eccentricity e of the mass mi from the axis of rotation.

When the bodies are rotating in several planes, the condition for dynamic balance has to be

∑ mi ~zi × ~ri = 0
satisfied in addition to that for static balance. This is given by:
(9.2)

where ~z i is the axial coordinate vector of the mass mi measured for a chosen datum. In the
two-plane balancing technique, instead of satisfying Equations (9.1) and (9.2) explicitly,
Equation (9.2) is used with two different datum planes for ~ z i . Mathematically, if the

∑
~
distance between these two plane is zo , then
m (~
i z +~
i z )×~
r =0
o i (9.3)
It is therefore, clear that Equations (9.2) and (9.3) imply the satisfaction of Equation (9.1).
Conceptually, it means that if a system of bodies rotating in several planes is in dynamic
balance with respect to two different datum planes, then the system is also in static balance.
This is the principle of the two-plane balancing technique.

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4. Description of Experimental Apparatus

Figure 9.6 shows the Static and Dynamic Balancing Apparatus. It consists of a perfectly
balanced shaft with four rectangular blocks clamped to it. The shaft is mounted in ball
bearings and it is driven by a 12 volt electric motor through a belt and pulley drive. The
shaft assembly is mounted on a metal plate resting on four resilient rubber supports, which
allow the mount to vibrate when the shaft is not balanced.

The rectangular blocks can be clamped to the shaft at desired out-of-balance moments by
means of discs having eccentric holes of various diameters. The discs are fixed to the blocks
by hexagon socket set screws. Any longitudinal and angular position of a block relative to
the shaft can be set by linear and protractor scales provided. Adjacent to the linear scale is
a slider which can be pushed against the block to read its longitudinal position. The slider
also serves as a datum stop against which the blocks can be held when reading their angular
position on the shaft.

The out-of-balance moments are measured by fitting the extension shaft and pulley to the
main shaft. Each rectangular block is then clamped to the shaft in succession. A cord with
a weight bucket at each end is hung on the pulley and bearing balls are placed in the bucket
until the block has turned through 90°. The out-of-balance moment is proportional to the
number of balls required
to turn the block.

A Perspex dome serves as

the safety cover. The shaft
cannot be driven unless
the dome is in position
which is achieved by
micro switches actuated
by the dome. The motor
switch on the front panel is
spring loaded so that the
motor cannot be left
running. The motor
requires a power supply of
Figure 9.6: Static and Dynamic Balancing Apparatus
12 volts at 2 amperes which is
provided by E66/E90 speed controller.

5. Experimental Procedure

5. 1. TEST 1: Static Balancing

1. Looking at the shaft from the side, the

masses will be as shown in Figure 9-7,
each mass has an angle θ with horizontal Figure 9.7 Shaft view from the side

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2. The masses forces are given by the following table 9-1:

The masses values Table 9-1

3. In order to balance the shaft statically the sum of the forces will be equal zero as the
following equations:

∑ F=0
F1*cos θ1+ F2*cos θ2+ F3*cos θ3+ F4*cos θ4=0 (1)
F1*sin θ1+ F2* sin θ2+ F3* sin θ3+ F4* sin θ4=0 (2)
4. Since we have just two equations with four unknown angles, we assume: θ1=0º, θ2=90º

5. Solving the two equations or using force polygon by AutoCAD, to find the θ3, θ4.

6. Check your result by run the static balance test. Fix your block at specific angle,
careful turn shaft by hand.

5. 3. TEST 2 Dynamic Balancing

1. Looking for the shaft from in front, the masses create the forces as shown in Figure
9-8, each mass has an arm X create a momentum.

Figure 9.8: In front shaft view

In order to balance the shaft dynamically the sum of the momentum will be equal zero as
the following equations: ∑ M=0
F1*cos θ1*X1+ F2*cos θ2*X2+ F3*cos θ3*X3+ F4*cos θ4*X4=0 (1)
F1*sin θ1*X1+ F2* sin θ2*X2+ F3* sin θ3*X3+ F4* sin θ4*X4=0 (2)
2. Since we have just two equations with four unknown arms, we assume:

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X1=50 mm, X2=100 mm

3. Solving the two equations or using momentum polygon by AutoCAD, to find the X3,
X 4.

4. Run test according your calculated X1, X2, X3, and X4.

TABLE 9. 2
Block 1 2 3 4
Mass 88 82 74 64
Angle θ(º) 0 90
Arm X (mm) 50 100

*Typical Calculations

∑W r = 0
The basic equations that are used for balancing purposes are:

∑a W r = 0
i i (9.4)

i i i (9.5)
Suppose that block (1) is placed 17 mm from the left end of the shaft at zero angular displacement and that
block (2) is placed 100 mm from it at 120°. The measured out-of-balance moments are as follows:

TABLE 9. 3: OUT-OF-BALANCE MOMENTS

It is first necessary to draw the moment polygon of Wr values as shown in Figure 9.8 to determine the angular
positions of blocks (3) and (4). W1r1 and W2r2 are known in both magnitude and direction. The vector W1r1
has been drawn at positive X-direction (θ = 0). The lengths of vectors W3r3 and W4r4 are known and arcs can
be drawn from the ends of W1r1 and W2r2 to get the directions of the unknown vectors.

Figure 9.9 shows the diagram of the angular positions and the corresponding longitudinal locations of the
blocks on the shaft are 17 mm for the first, 117 mm for the second block.
.To find the longitudinal positions of the other two blocks we designate distance of block (3) by a3 and distance
of block (4) by a4 measured from block (1); so block (1) is the reference and will not appear in calculations.

Draw a vector a2W2r2 = 100 (82) units long parallel to r2 and vectors a3W3r3 and a4W4r4 parallel to r3 and r4
respectively so that the moment polygon is closed. The lengths of vectors a3W3r3 and a4W4r4 can be measured
and the magnitudes found by using the scale factor. From these a3 and a4 can be calculated.

Notice that the sense of vector a3W3r3 is reverse. In order to maintain vector a3W3r3 the only possible solution
is to reverse a3. So from the vector polygon (triangle) it follows:
a3 = -12 mm
a4 = 124 mm

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This means that block (3) should be located 5 mm from the left end of the shaft. The blocks should be
positioned as follows:
Block Angular Position (Deg) Longitudinal Position (mm)
(1) 0 17
(2) 120 117
(3) 190 5
(4) 294 141

The values of a3 and a4 can be found analytically using complex vector approach.
Real and imaginary components yield:

100(82) cos 120° + (74) a3 cos 190° + (64) a4 cos 294° = 0

100(82) sin 120° + (74) a3 sin 190° + (64) a4 sin 294 ° = 0

which reduce to
4100- 73.88 a3 -26.03 a4 = 0
7101.4- 13.85a3 -58.47 a4 = 0

Solving the two equations gives: a3 = -11.94mm; a4 = 123.96mm

The values compare very well with those obtained graphically.

In order to obtain independent results it is suggested that Wr values of the blocks are varied by using different
positions of the discs with eccentric holes. The angular displacements between blocks (1) and (2) may also be
varied.

Figure 9.9: Moment Polygon of Wr

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EXPERIMENT 10

Machine Fault Simulator (MFS)

1. Theory

Refer to experiment number 9.

3. Description of Experimental Apparatus

Figure 10.1 shows the machine fault simulator. The rotor is driven by a variable speed motor
via a flat belt and the rotor rotational speed is captured through a digital tachometer. The
vibration due to the unbalanced rotor is measured and fed directly into the on-board
processor of the machine.

Disk A
Disk B
Belt
Motor

Speed
Control

Reciprocating
Mechanism

Figure 10.1: Machine Fault Simulator

3. Objective:

In this experiment we will study the reaction of the shaft and the motor when the shaft is
balanced, and when it is unbalanced.

4. Experimental Procedure:

1) Run the ME’scopeVES Software:

o From desk top: find ME’scopeVES icon, : open “Recent Project”

Select “mech343xxxx.VTprj” at start page.

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A window display as:

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Click “Project” bar:

Now save project as your group name:” mech343 xx.VTprj”

Put mouse on “Project”: looking for ACQ: National Instruments 446x/447x and click:

Check top menu: “Measurement”:

Time, “Calculate”: time “Sample”: Time: Number of Sample: 256.

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Trigger: Free run

Now check: bottom menu: Setup: Select Channel: 1, 5, 6; Input Output: all Input:
Transducer Power: Channel#1: off, all others: 4mA; ADC Range: 10.0V.

Units: Units: #1;V, all others: g; Transducer Sensitivity: all: 1; Sensitivity Units: #1:
MiliVolts/Unit, others: MilliVolts/Unit; Transducer Units: V.

DOFs: don’t change.

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After all ACQ configuration are set, it is ready to run Machine Fault Simulator.

Under Window: ACQ: National Instruments 446x/447x , run machine:

2) . Running the Machine Fault Simulator

F= f ( Hz ) = n(rpm) / 60
Select the required speed (rpm) change it to frequency (Hz) using the following relation:

1. Run the machine using speed controller at desired speed around 750rpm. Balanced
disk (no screw needed).
2. Wait about 5 seconds to stable the system
3. Click on” Acquire | Scope (F2)” or

4. Click stop, then save:

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Choose New File: gives a file name

indicating “balance or unbalance, and
rpm of you run” as following window:

5. Go to data block window: close and save data block: yes.

6. Go to Acquisition window again, (bring this window from back to front, or maximum
acquisition window): Run “Machine Fault Simulators”: Increase speed around 1500rpm,
and Acquire again. Stop and save:

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7. Repeat above steps to get 2 speeds of un-balanced tests.

Imbalance Effects on Vibration response
Install the defined weight in one of the taped hole in rotor disk A and tight it securely
with a nut. Close the cover of MFS, Change the motor speed (around 750rpm and
1500rpm), and record vibration level at each bearing. Save a new File block name
as unbalance 750rpm or 1500rpm.

8. Open saved 2 data blocks as shown in following window: open data BLK file: Put mouse
on “project”: look for “data block”, find the file just saved, please open the “balance and
unbalance” files simultaneously with same speed(such as 750rpm). Compare channels 1,
5, 6(M#1,2,3) one by one, and capture picture by “ScreenHunter”. Run ScreenHunter,
press F6, choose desired region, and copy to your words file or Exel and save.

Above only shown one data.

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9. Save data block trace to Exel: under BLK window: File->Copy To Clipboard-> Copy
Trace Data. Open Excel file: paste the trace data to Excel,

10. Save unbalanced data block to same Excel data sheet as above step.

11. Observe the difference between the unbalanced test and a balanced test (same
channel), compere and analyze the results.

Please note: Column A : time, Column B and E is pulse signal of speed, (don’t care),
Column C,D is Ch#5, #6 of 750rpm, same case for Column K, L M, N of 1500rpm.

Find Max, Min in same Column, get Amp = Max-Min, Compare these Amp in
different speed, balance and unbalanced case.

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