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COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN ADOBE BUILDINGS IN NORTHERN NIGERIA

AND TURKEY
Thesis · August 2020

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.22933.24803
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CYPRUS INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF GRADUATE STUDIES AND RESEARCH
DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN ADOBE

BUILDINGS IN NORTHERN NIGERIA AND TURKEY
(MArch Thesis)
Yakubu Sabo ABDULLAHI
NICOSIA-2020


(MArch Thesis)
Nicosia – 2020

(MArch Thesis)
Supervisor
Asst. Prof. Dr. Pervin Abohorlu DOĞRAMACI
Nicosia – 2020
Cyprus International University
Institute of Graduate Studies and Research
Department of Architecture
THESIS APPROVAL CERTIFICATE

The thesis study of architecture department graduate, Yakubu Sabo Abdullahi with
student number 21712608 titled “Comparative Study between Adobe Buildings in
Northern Nigeria and Turkey”, has been approved with the unanimity of votes by
the jury and has been accepted as a Master in Architecture Thesis.
Thesis Defence Date: 10/08/2020
Jury Members Signature
1) Asst. Prof. Dr. Pervin Abohorlu DOĞRAMACI ……………..

Thesis Supervisor
2) Asst. Prof. Dr. AyĢe ÖZTÜRK ......................

Member
3) Asst. Prof. Dr. TuğĢad TÜLBENTÇĠ ………….......

Member.
Prof. Dr. Tahir ÇELĠK
Director of Institute
DECLARATION
Name and Surname: Yakubu Sabo ABDULLAHI
Title of Dissertation: Comparative Study between Adobe Buildings in Northern

Nigeria and Turkey
Supervisor(s): Asst. Prof. Dr. Pervin Abohorlu DOĞRAMACI
Year: 2020
I hereby declare that all information in this document has been obtained and
presented in accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct. I also declare that,
as required by these rules and conduct, I have fully cited and referenced all material
and results that are not original to this work.
I hereby declare that the Cyprus International University, Institute of Graduate

Studies and Research is allowed to store and make available electronically the
present Dissertation.
Date: ………………………….
Signature: __________________
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
All thanks given to almighty GOD for making me strong and persistent enough to
have the courage and determination of completing this thesis.
A very huge thanks and appreciation to my supervisor Asst. Prof. Dr. Pervin
Abohorlu Doğramacı which she did more than enough to help and support me
through this journey. I will forever be appreciative of her effort, patience and kind
gesture.
I would never forget the endless prayers, support and motivation of my Father Alh.
Sabo Abdullahi Guri, and my beloved Mother Hajiya Bilkisu Yahaya Yusuf
throughout my academic pursuit and my life in General. Without them I wouldn‟t
have come this far. my sincere appreciation and gratitude to them and my entire
siblings, Ummi, Khalid, Mama, Abdullatif, Abdulrahman, Walida, Asiya, Al‟amin,
Amina, and Khadija.
I would also like to extend my appreciation to my friends that turned family here in
North Cyprus and have supported me throughout my stay on the Island. Thank you.
i
ABSTRACT
The usage of adobe material in construction in nowadays has been limited. The
material has been proven to be sustainable construction materials in terms of
economy, structural strength and thermal comfort. In Nigeria, the usage of adobe
material is very dominant especially in areas where there is shortage of
constructional materials and limited access to the modern building techniques and
materials. However, the locally available material had suffered a great deal of
misusage in terms of construction know-how and standardization of buildings
guides/codes. Absence of adobe building standard had contributed to this problem
across the country. This research uses Turkish adobe building standards to compare
among other countries. Turkey happened to be having a more comprehensive
standard which was used in comparison with existing adobe buildings specifications
in Northern Nigeria. The area of focus for the comparison is the CI/SfB Construction
Indexing Manual; structure and sub structure category of buildings elements. At the
end of the research, several problems were identified which they were the most
challenging factors hindering the sustainability of adobe building in Northern
Nigeria. Therefore, recommendations of building dimensions and techniques were
outlined especially in regards to foundation and wall which were identified to be the
weak link of adobe buildings in Northern Nigeria.
Keywords: Adobe Material, Turkish Standard, Northern Nigeria, Turkey.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................ i
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................... iii
TABLE OF CONTENT ............................................................................................. iiii
LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................... vii
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................. viii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS..................................................................................... ix
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................1
1.1 Background of the study .................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem Statement………………………………………………………….….2

1.3 Aims and Objectives .......................................................................................... 3
1.4 Scope and Limitation. ........................................................................................ 3
1.5 Methodology ...................................................................................................... 4
1.6 Research Questions……………………………………………………….……4
1.7 Structure of the Thesis ....................................................................................... 4
CHAPTER 2: ADOBE AS A BUILDING MATERIAL .............................................6
2.1 Adobe Types and Use in Building Production ................................................... 6
2.1.1 Mixture, Types, Mechanical and Physical Properties ................................. 6
2.1.2 Adobe Use in Building Construction ........................................................ 12
2.1.2.1 Structural Use: Structural Elements .................................................... 13
2.1.2.2 Constructional Use and Detailing………………………………...….19
2.2 Adobe Building Typologies ............................................................................. 24
2.3 International Adobe Building Standards .......................................................... 26
2.3.1 Northern Nigeria Adobe Building Standards ............................................ 29
2.3.2 Turkish Adobe Building Standards…………………………,…………...33
iii
2.3.3 Other Countries Standards ......................................................................... 28
CHAPTER 3: OVERVIEW OF ADOBE ARCHITECTURE IN NIGERIA AND

TURKEY ....................................................................................................................32
3.1 Adobe Architecture of Northern Nigeria ......................................................... 32
3.1.1 Overview of the Northern Nigerian Settlement......................................... 35
3.1.2 Adobe Material in Northern Nigeria ......................................................... 39
3.1.2.1 Mixture Types And Physical Properties in Northern Nigeria ............. 39
3.1.2.2 Use of Adobe in Building Construction in Northern Nigeria ............. 41
3.1.2.2.1 Structural Use in Northern Nigeria ……………………......39

3.1.2.2.2 Constructional Use and Detailing in Northern Nigeria…....40
3.1.3 Adobe Building Typologies of Northern Nigeria. ..................................... 49
3.2 Adobe Architecture in Turkey ......................................................................... 52
3.2.1 Overview of Turkish Settlement ............................................................... 53
3.2.2 Adobe Material in Turkey ......................................................................... 55
3.2.2.1 Mixture Types and Physical Properties of Adobe Material in Turkey 56
3.2.2.2 Use of Adobe in Building Construction in Turkey ............................. 57
3.2.2.2.1 Structural Use in Turkey……………………………..…....52

3.2.2.2.2 Constructional Use and Detailing in Turkey…...……….…54
3.2.3 Adobe Building Typologies in Turkey ...................................................... 63
CHAPTER 4: COMPARATIVE DATA AND ANALYSIS OF ADOBE BUILDING

IN NORTHERN NIGERIA AND TURKEY .............................................................66
4.1 Adobe Material Correlation ............................................................................. 66
4.1.1 Adobe Material in Northern Nigeria ......................................................... 66
4.1.2 Adobe Material in Turkey ......................................................................... 67
4.1.3 Comparison of Adobe Buildig Material in Northern Nigeria and Turkey. 70
4.2 Structural and Constructional Elements Correlation........................................ 72
4.2.1 Structural and Constructional Elements in Northern Nigeria .................... 72
iv
4.2.2 Structural and Constructional Elements in Turkey ................................... 74
4.2.3 Comparison of Structural and Constructional Elements in Northern Nigeria

and Turkey .......................................................................................................... 76
4.3 Adobe Building Typology................................................................................ 79
4.3.1 Adobe Building Typology in Northern Nigeria ........................................ 79
4.3.2 Adobe Building Typology in Turkey ........................................................ 81
4.3.3 Comparison of Adobe Building Typology in Northern Nigeria and Turkey

............................................................................................................................ 83
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION ...................................................................................86
5.1 Conclusion........................................................................................................ 86
5.2 Recommendation…………………………………………………………….90
REFERENCES ...........................................................................................................88
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2. 1 Compressive Strength of Adobe Material ................................................ 10

Table 2. 2 Nigerian Adobe Standards ........................................................................ 28
Table 2. 3: Turkish Standards .................................................................................... 28
Table 2. 4: New Zealand Building Codes. ................................................................. 30
Table 2. 5: New Mexico Standards ............................................................................ 31
Table 3. 1: Characteristics of Adobe Buildings in Turkey Base on Their
Geographical Location………………………………………………………………56
Table 4. 1: Adobe Material Comparison between Turkey and Northern Nigeria…..70
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. 1: Structure of the thesis ............................................................................... 5

Figure 2. 1: Types of adobe…………………………………………………………..9
Figure 2. 2: Schematic representation of adobe wall construction ............................ 14
Figure 2. 3: Adobe wall construction with ring beams added for reinforcement ...... 15
Figure 2. 4: Adobe foundation stabilized with reinforced concrete .......................... 16
Figure 2. 5: Thatch roofing system ............................................................................ 17
Figure 2. 6: Thatch roof detail ................................................................................... 18
Figure 2. 7: Adobe mud flat and pitch tile roof ......................................................... 20
Figure 2. 8: Type of Adobe brick .............................................................................. 21
Figure 2. 9: Different techniques of adobe brick bonding ......................................... 23
Figure 2. 10: Adobe wall finishing, ........................................................................... 24
Figure 2. 11: Different plan typology of adobe buildings ......................................... 26
Figure 3. 1: Adobe house in Zaria, Northern Nigeria……………………………….32
Figure 3. 2: Typical plan layout of Hausa courtyard house ....................................... 33
Figure 3. 3: Typical plan layout of Hausa residential building ................................. 34
Figure 3. 4: Map of Nigeria with the Northern region............................................... 35
Figure 3. 5: Nearby cluster of 26 compounds in Zaria city of Northern Nigeria…...37
Figure 3. 6: A typical plan layout of a compound in Hausa region…………………38
Figure 3. 7: A detail of adobe brick (egg-shaped like adobe brick) .......................... 40
Figure 3. 8: CEB Machine for adobe ......................................................................... 42
Figure 3. 9: Foundation constrction in Northern Nigeria. ......................................... 43
Figure 3. 10: Adobe wall construction in Northern Nigeria ...................................... 44
Figure 3. 11: The use of timber beam and Thatch on roof structures and columns .. 46
Figure 3. 12: Timber beam installation for flat roof .................................................. 44
Figure 3. 13: A picture and a plan of a Hausa family house………………………...49
Figure 3. 14: Typology of adobe building in Nigeria ................................................ 51
Figure 3. 15: Gidan dan Hausa Museum in Kano State............................................. 52
Figure 3. 16: The Map of the Ottoman Empire ......................................................... 54
Figure 3. 17: Adobe wall, showing the masonry layered bricks in Anatolia region,
Turkey ........................................................................................................................ 59
vii
Figure 3. 18: Representation of the adobe walls with the tie ring beam used for
reinforcement ............................................................................................................. 59
Figure 3. 19: Foundation construction showing the sandcrete layer and the adobe
brick layer…………………………………………………………………………...61
Figure 3. 20: Graphical representation of roof layers, also showing the wall ring
beams. ........................................................................................................................ 62
Figure 3. 21: Adobe building façade in Turkey ......................................................... 63
Figure 3. 22: Typology of adobe buildings in Turkey ............................................... 65
Figure 4. 1: Method of material mixture in Northern Nigeria……………………....67
Figure 4. 2: Adobe material mixture methods in Turkey .......................................... 69
Figure 4. 3: Adobe bricks of Northern Nigeria .......................................................... 71
Figure 4. 4: Adobe bricks of Turkey.......................................................................... 71
Figure 4. 5: Adobe foundation in Northern Nigeria .................................................. 72
Figure 4. 6: Adobe wall of Northern Nigeria............................................................. 73
Figure 4. 7: Roof structures in Northern Nigeria ..................................................... 74
Figure 4. 8: Adobe foundation in Turkey .................................................................. 75
Figure 4. 9: Adobe wall in Turke ............................................................................... 75
Figure 4. 10: Adobe roofing system in Turkey. ......................................................... 76
Figure 4. 11: Comparison between the structures of Northern Nigeria and Turkey . 78
Figure 4. 12: Plan layout of Northern Nigeria. .......................................................... 79
Figure 4. 13: Adobe building typology of Northern Nigeria………………………..80
Figure 4. 14: Adobe building floor height of Northern Nigeria ................................ 81
Figure 4. 15: Adobe plan layout in Turkey................................................................ 81
Figure 4. 16: Façade layout of Turkey ....................................................................... 82
Figure 4. 17: Adobe building height of Turkey ......................................................... 83
Figure 4. 18: Building typology comparison. ............................................................ 84
viii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CI/ SfB Construction Index/ Samarbetskommitten for Byggnadsfragor

2
MN/m Mega Newton per square meter
cm Centimetres
mm Millimetres
CEB Compressed Earth Brick
kg/m³ Kilogram per meter cube
ix
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
The oldest and yet very significant building material for decades is adobe material.
The prehistoric adobe buildings, especially the ones dated to the 15-16th century
were built base on the natural customary and influence of the existing events in that
particular period of time (Tülbentçi, 2008; Batagarawa, & Tukur, 2019; Tayyibi et al,
2016). The advantages of adobe buildings material which consist biodegradability,
affordability, cultural heritage, reusability and energy efficiency among others are
attributed to adobe building material (Onyegiri, & Ugochukwu 2016; Steele 1988).
The challenges associated with providing people in the low-income community with
sufficient and affordable housing are usually connected to the problem of building
materials and technologies (Adegun & Adedeji, 2017). Adobe building material is
economically affordable, sustainability proven to be durable building material and it
is a locally produced building material.
The adobe architecture in Northern Nigeria possesses aesthetic and historical

meaning. These features are discussed and analysed in adobe material related
research (Gali & Umar, 2017). Which also highlighted the importance adobe
building in Northern Nigeria and also the current condition of the buildings in respect
to their use and function (Gali & Umar, 2017).
Adobe building in Northern Nigeria covers 40% of the total land area of the region
(Onyegiri, & Ugochukwu 2016). The majority of occupants of these buildings reside
in the rural areas which are having the majority of the adobe buildings. The adobe
buildings located in the urban areas are fewer and are made up of the Compressed
Earth Brick (CEB) which is more expensive than the locally made traditional adobe
brick (Gali & Umar 2017).
1
The adobe construction material in Turkey are locally produced (Tanacan, 2008).
Thus is the very affordable and accessible building material. It is sustainable,
biodegradable and available in most of the areas around Turkey (Tanacan, 2008).
Adobe building standards in Turkey are documented and revised for the usage of
architects and builders that deals with adobe construction. These standards are
comprehensive and detailed which gives the opportunity to be used as a case study to
compare these standards with the current adobe buildings in Northern Nigeria.
1.2 Problem Statement
Adobe buildings have been the core of dwellings for the residents of Northern
Nigeria. However, these adobe building are gradually weakening and occupants of
these buildings are gradually abandoning their houses. Despite the fact that these
particular buildings are very significant not just in terms of heritage value but also in
terms of possessing sustainable features such as thermal comfort and seismic quality
(Gali & Umar 2017; Agboola & Zango, 2014).
According to the report of 2010 communiqué of ministry of Nigerian Housing and

Works, shows that housing shortage is one of the significant problems in Nigeria,
which also is linked to the rate of poverty and economic situation in the country
(Onyegiri & Ugochukwu, 2016). However the local building materials are
economically proven to be the most affordable materials of construction such as
adobe (Onyegiri & Ugochukwu, 2016). Similarly, there are quite number of iconic
buildings in Nigeria, (especially the Northern part of Nigeria) like the royal houses of
emirs and districts heads which are built with adobe and has been in existence for
hundreds of years.
Absence of documented adobe building standards are one the main contributing
factor in the deformation of adobe buildings especially in Northern Nigeria. Most of
the adobe buildings that were built lack a specific standardized dimension and
specification in which it weakens the building structural integrity (Gali & Umar
2017; Ruya, Chitumu, & Jatau, 2017). The building codes of Nigeria have never
been revised since the period that was initiated (Amasuomo, Atanda, & Baird, 2017).
2
Thus the document also did not involve a comprehensive standard of the adobe in
general. The reinforced concrete building structures were the main focus in the
existing building codes of the whole country (Kawuwa, Sani, Mustapha & Ishaku,
2015). The lack of construction know-how of adobe buildings is also one of the
problems affecting the construction sector of adobe building material in Northern
Nigeria. The cause that resulted to this is the shortage of research and knowledge
regarding its importance and impact of adobe building material (Muazu & Alibaba,
2017). The adobe building in Turkey are having a comprehensive standards that
proven to be more informative among other adobe building codes.
1.3 Aims and Objectives
The aim of the research is to highlight the importance of adobe building material in
the construction sector of Northern Nigeria.
Furthermore, this study aims to achieve the following,
- Emphasize the use of adobe material as an affordable building material for

the low income resident in Northern Nigeria.
- Also to underline the importance of the usage of building standards in adobe

construction.
1.4 Scope and Limitations
The main scope of this study is to use the construction indexing classification under
the structures category and finishes category. The classification is the “CI SFB
manual constructional indexing manual” which categorizes several buildings
elements base on their categories (Jørgensen, 2009; Ray-Jones, 1974). The structures
selected under the structure category are foundation wall, and roof, - while in the
finishes category, wall finishes has been selected. Other elements like the balustrade,
glazing, suspended ceiling, stairs and roof lights will not be focused on this study.
Turkish standards is the point of interest of this study so as to derive a comparative
difference with the construction measurements of Northern Nigeria.
3
1.5 Methodology
The research methodology that has been adopted in this research is the typological
analysis, which analyses the building components based on their category as
mentioned in Section 1.4. The three sub categories of the CI/SfB manual will be used
as the main scope of the analysis (Jørgensen, 2009; Ray-Jones, 1974). The
comparative analysis method will be also used for this research incorporation with
the typological analysis, with review of previous studies. Also, published data from
books, journals, articles and online sources will be used for this study.
1.6 Research Question
-What is the importance associated with adobe building material?

- What are the problems associated with adobe building in Northern Nigeria?
- What are the characteristics of Turkish adobe buildings standards?
- What are the similarities and differences of adobe building in Northern Nigeria and
Turkey?
1.6 Structure of the Thesis
The research is made up of five chapters as seen in Figure 1. The first chapter which
contains the introduction of the thesis, which gives background information on the
main subject of study. There is also a recap introduction on adobe as a building
material and highlight of its importance. The chapter also outlined the problem
statement and highlighted the importance and scope of the thesis.
The second chapter is the literature review which describes the adobe building
material and its properties with both physical and mechanical properties.
Characteristics of adobe in general perspective and factors attributed to adobe as
building material is also discussed.
Chapter three explains adobe architecture in Northern Nigeria and Turkey, and in-
depth discussion on a more specific area related to adobe building. The areas that are
related to the building construction, with constructional and structural elements.
4
Chapter four describes the analysis and comparison between Northern Nigeria and
Turkish adobe architecture. Both countries were analysed according to the subject
data, and results were derived base on the comparison made for their building
elements respectively.
Chapter five is the conclusion and recommendations for the research outcome.
Conclusion and recap of all the study that was done and the result derived at the end
of the research. The recommendation and suggestion are also parts of this last
chapter where suggestions were given base on the final results of the thesis.
The schematic structure of the thesis is shown in Figure 1.1 below.
Figure 1. 1: Structure of the thesis
5
CHAPTER 2
ADOBE AS A BUILDING MATERIAL
2.1 Adobe Types and Use in Building Production
The term adobe is derived from a Spanish/Arabic, background, „‟Adobar‟‟ which

means the knead (United States Forest Service & Groben, 1975). It is used to
describe construction materials, commonly mud bricks, which were invented from
moisturized earth (Brown & Clifton, 1978; Kuyrukçu & Kuyrukçu, 2015). Adobe
bricks are sun dried earth bricks, and they are one for the most predominantly used
earth construction system (Chazelles, 1995; White, 1996).
2.1.1 Mixture, Types, Mechanical and Physical Properties
Adobe is made of mixture, which includes, earth, gravel, clay, water and often fibres.
It is moulded by hand, wood or metal frame (McHenry, 1985; Kuyrukçu &
Kuyrukçu, 2015). The earth used in adobe building mixture is granulated earth, in
some cases the in-situ earth is used (earth that is been dug out from the ground)
which is considered to be stronger and also saves cost and time of importing a
different earth for construction. The earth is mixed with clay. The clay which serves
as bonding material that stick the earth material together and also helps in
reinforcing the building against cracks and moisture (Islam & Watanabe, 2001).
Stone gravels which are in smaller fragments are added to the mixture for strong
stability of the material. The gravels are also used in the foundation so as to help with
the moisture penetration from beneath the surface, the particles are also one-third of
the entire mixture (Houben & Guillard, 1989). The size of the gravel should be 5-7
cm in diameter so that there will be no need to sieve the soil (Tülbentçi, 2008).
Traditionally two categories of fibres are used in the combination and mixture of
adobe. The first one is the plant fibres which include all types of straw, chaff of
cereals crops, light filler and other suitable vegetable fibres (Houben & Guillard,
1989; Velosa, & Varum, 2013). Another animal fibre which comes from animals
includes fur and hair from livestock. Nowadays, according to the technological
6
developments, synthetic fibers such as glass wool, steel and cellophane are used in
adobe (Houben & Guillard, 1989). Fibers can also be used in collected with other
stabilizers like cement, bitumen and lime.
In a study, adobe is grouped under categories (Smith, 1989) which divided adobe
mud brick into 6 different categories; burnt adobe, semi stabilized adobe, terron (cut
sodao), stabilized adobe, pressed adobe, and traditional adobe brick.
Burnt Adobe: is a locally dried burnt adobe brick that undergone the firing process
with a certain minimal temperature level. Flammable materials such as kerosene,
woods or tires are burned together in a brick-kiln which was initially built to allow
air passage circulation within the kiln (Smith 1989; Silveira et al, 2012). While the
flammable materials have been poured through the opened vent of the kiln. The
smokes evaporate through the upper holes at the top of the kiln. It usually takes four
to five days to produce about 400-500 adobe bricks (Smith 1982; Silveira et al,
2012). This type of adobe brick is shown in Figure 2.1
Semi Stabilized Adobe Brick: are produced mostly by large scale adobe
manufacturers, a little amount of stabilizing materials like asphaltic, portland cement
or bituminous emulsion is added to the adobe so as to have a water resistant adobe
brick. The brick is relatively have the same method of production with the
traditionally adobe bricks but there is 2-3% (more weight) asphaltic mixture that is
added to it (Smith, 1982). This type of adobe brick is shown in Figure 2.1.
Terron Adobe Brick: is derived from a turf or cut sod. These type of brick are
predominantly used in the United States, sized 17x17x35 cm or 10x17x35 cm,
garden spade is usually the equipment used to make it into pieces. (Delgado &
Guererra, 2006; Smith, 1982). These types of adobe brick is also used in the same
approach as the traditional adobe (Kuyrukçu & Kuyrukçu, 2015). This type of adobe
brick is shown in Figure 2.1.
7
Stabilized Adobe Brick: consist of enough stabilizer to moderate the rate of water
absorption into the bricks after they are been dipped into the water for 7 days to less
than 2.5% of weight. Completely stabilized adobe brick consist of 5 and 12%
asphaltic mixture. (Smith, 1982). This type of adobe brick is shown in Figure 2.1.
Pressed Adobe Brick: is produced from stabilized or locally made adobe materials
that are compressed into a damp brick with hydraulically operated machinery and
sometimes with hand. The main advantage of compressed adobe brick is possessing
more and higher compression strength and stability than the traditional ones.
Nevertheless, without the stabilizer the compressed adobe bricks quickly fragment
when they get wet (Smith, 1982). This type of adobe brick is shown in Figure 2.1.
Traditional Adobe Brick: is made up of sorted soil which comprises of more or less
mixture of clay, sand, and silt. Straw is often added into the mixture to help it stay
firm and to prevent cracking after they are dried. Traditional adobe has been in
existence for decades especially aging from the south west United States. The
majority of these buildings are built on field stone or river rock footing so as to
prevent the decay of walls beneath the surface. Mud mortar is the material that is
usually been used within the bricks, cement stucco covers the walls to prevent
erosion (Smith, 1982). This type of adobe brick is shown in the Figure 2.1.
8
9
Figure 2. 1: Types of adobe
The base material of the adobe is clay, and it bonds the all types of material as an adhesive
component. If the adobe is well prepared and dried consistently, then it is compressed
enough to be used as a load bearing wall in the construction of adobe buildings (Tülbentçi,
2008). The physical properties of adobe which will be described consist of the clay
mixed with water and the most common material is earth in its natural form, which
possesses enough and effective qualities with proportions of the main characteristics
and element: sand, clay, aggregate and silt (McHenry, 1998; Rafi et al, 2012).
The physical properties of adobe have vast range of values, which will be explained
and changes exponentially. The values resulted from differences in the configuration
of adobe soils and the technique of production of adobe brick, since the consolidation
procedures is particularly crucial (Brown & Clifton, 1978; Silveira et al, 2012). The
dimension of the adobe brick that was used during the prehistoric structures ranges
from 23 cm by 13 cm by 13- 41x13x13 cm (Steen, 1971).
The density range is reported to be within the range of 1570-2000kg/m3 with increase
in the content of the sand. Compressive strength of a cured adobe brick ranges from
0.41-5.41MN/m2, in an experiment it shows that compressive strength is around
1.72MN/m3 but increased after seven days to 4.1.13MN/m2 in a wet condition
(Clough, 1950). The tensile strength of adobe is comparatively challenging and low
to measure precisely because shrinkage cracks effect. The experimented values
ranges from 0.37-0.83MN/m2 with an average ratio between the tensile and
compressive strengths (Eyre, 1935). The flexural strengths of adobe was measured,
and the average strengths is 0.41 MN/m2 and 0.23MN/M2 and the standard deviation
is 0.11MN/m2 and 0.05 MN/m2, respectively (Table 2.1).
10
Table 2. 1 Mechanical properties of adobe
Material Property Range Value
Density Range 1570-2000kg/m3
Compressive strength 0.41-5.41MN/m2
Compressive strength
Before 7 days/ After 7days 1.72MN/m3 /4.1.13MN/m2
Tensile Strength 0.37-0.83MN/m2

Flexural strengths- 0.41 MN/m2 -0.23MN/M2
Standard deviation- 0.11MN/m2 - 0.05 MN/m2
Source: Eyre, 1935; Clough, 1950
In general, earth that has very high clay content which produce adobe bricks with a
very low flexural strengths (Brown & Clifton, 1978). The effect of moisture on
compressive strength of adobe plays a major role in the deterioration of the adobe
structures. The moisture excessiveness content which is higher than the equilibrium
moisture content of sun-dried adobe brick. The equilibrium of the adobe differs with
the clay content but mostly stays between in the range of 1-3% (Hammond, 1973).
Another factor which was ascertained to reduce the compressive strength of adobe is
the rain and ground water. The ground water in such a medium gain access to the
foundation base as a result of soil erosion of a heavy rainfall that may result to the
evacuation of the upper soil layer (Clifton & Davis, (1979).
Adobe is the most suitable building material in arid zones (Dalkılıç & Nabikoğlu,
2017; Brown, 1978). This depends on its availability in an area and its sensitivity to
water. It has to be protected from dampness and rain. Unburnt adobe bricks are
certainly more sustainable than the burnt ones. It has a very good capacity of heat
insulation due to the presence of hydrothermal properties of the soil (Michelle,
1978). To improve the strength of the thermal durability, fibres are also installed
inside the adobe bricks. Adobe is not only known for heat insulation, and rather it is
also a good material for sound insulation (Michelle, 1978; Quagliarini, & Lenci
2010). Alker material is also another material than improves the stability of adobe.
11
The material is economically and ecologically sustainable, it also has a low
embodied energy, low heat transfer value and significant health benefit (IĢık &
Tülbentçi, 2008).
2.1.2 Adobe Use in Building Construction
Adobe brick production is consisting of different methods and types of construction

with specific dimensions according to the building specification. The bricks of adobe
are either mould in a form work, hand mould, or machine base. All these having
specific shapes and sizes depending in the building preference. Some of these bricks
have a grip on their texture. The function of the grip is to help the brick interlock
with the other and to the structures which will give it more sense of strength
(McHenry, 1998).
Adobe construction gives environmental and economic benefits especially when it

has been used in countries that cost of material supersedes the cost of labor, and
where technology and the materials of construction may not be available (Fratini,
Pecchioni, Rovero, & Tonietti, 2011; Costa et al, 2019). When earth is used as a raw
material in construction, it helps in reducing the environmental and financial impact
of the construction. (Morey & Ogletree, 2009).
Also the use of contemporary and modern building materials, affects the biosphere
more than any other factory activities (Comission 1987; Niroumand, Zain, & Jamil,
2013). The construction of these adobe structures are less energy and resource
demanding (Delgado & Guerrero, 2006; Comission 1987). There are different
categories and sub categories of adobe construction which has been put to practice in
the construction sector; two of the constructional elements will be studied below:
12
2.1.2.1 Structural Use: Structural Elements
The adobe structure itself is naturally stable; when the soil contain just the right
amount of clay to allow for optimum durability. Soil containing anywhere between
25 and 45 percent clay. Adobe structures are load bearing, self-sustaining, and
energy efficient (Patnaik, 2019; Ginell, & Tolles, 2000). The structures which
comprises of the different buildings elements such as walls, floor, foundation and the
structural system will be explained.
Walls: Walls that are produced from adobe material are mostly thick in dimension
and also good insulation from the external environmental temperature (Patnaik,
2019). It was initiated relatively with a dimension of exterior wall about 30-35 cm
thick while interior wall is within 15-20 cm. Adobe exterior walls are usually thicker
in dimension than the interior walls as shown in Figure 2.2 (Moquin, 1994; Varum et
al, 2015). The bricks of the adobe wall are bonded together with a mud mortar. The
wood structure on the floor finishing is usually thicker in dimension for about 15 cm,
it helps with the acoustic and heat transmission. The ventilation cavity has benefits in
reducing the risk of moisture damage within a wall, as a result of either interstitial
condensation or rain penetration (Figure 2.2). The foundation slab is used so as to
prevent underground water penetration, the slap is usually made of concrete, it
protects the adobe brick foundation wall and strengthens it. This particular type of
structure was very widespread and frequently used all around the world where adobe
buildings are dominant. Because of its constructional materials are locally available
and easy to obtain with a minimal amount of skilled labor. The structure is also
weather and fireproof which is capable of being erected for a long period of time
even without finishing the surface (Tavaresm, Costa, & Varum, 2012).
13
Foundation slab
Figure 2. 2: Schematic representation of adobe wall construction

Source: (Yorulmaz 1981: Reproduced)
As a major to reinforce the wall, a horizontal tie beam is used to control the lateral
forces and control the movement of forces that are within the wall and the dead
weight exerted from the roof (Figure 2.3). These tie beams (10x10 cm) are installed
after the foundation wall course, it laid on top of the first 4 layers of the foundation
just before the window level, and the other beam is place after the lintel. The
minimum of two tie beams are recommended to be used for adobe wall in other to
strengthen its structural integrity, up to 4 ring tie beams are also acceptable to be
used with a maximum dimension of 15x10 cm (Yorulmaz 1981; Varum et al, 2015;
Costa, Cerqueira, Rocha, & Velosa 2019). In other methods, the usage of reinforced
concrete is also acceptable to use for the tie beam (Varum et al, 2015).
14
Figure 2. 3: Adobe wall construction with ring beams added for reinforcement
Source: (Yorulmaz 1981: Reproduced)
Foundation: Predominantly, adobe foundation is constructed as one way foundation

because of seismic reasons. Adobe had a history of seismic challenges and most of
the cases are as a result of weak foundation (Moquin, 1994; Schultz, 1979). Recently
for the past 10-15 years, the foundation of adobe has been stabilized with concrete
cement which serves as a base of the foundation layer. The reinforced concrete
foundation reaches up to the floor level which connects with the floor layer (Denyer,
1978; Eriç 2017). The foundation depth of the frost line must be observed and the
wall thickness should also be reinforced by the foundation wall or slab (Figure 2.3).
A 51 mm of perimeter insulation will be serving for full 5.08 cm with of the
foundation wall (McHenry, 1998). Only thoroughly dry and well infused adobe brick
should be used. It should be laid in a wide joint of the same adobe mortar as shown
in Figure 2.4. This is not only for the purpose of suitability and convenience but also
15
for the purpose of economy and also because they both possess the same factor of
contraction and expansion. The foundation cavity is filled with mortar and stones
gravels and levelled with shovel or any levelling equipment. The walls should be
allowed to heal for some period of time before applying the plaster so as to have the
most acceptable results. The period of time that is needed should not be less than
three months especially if the wall is been erected in midsummer (Forest Service &
Groben, 1975).
Figure 2. 4: Adobe foundation stabilized with reinforced concrete

Source: (archdaily, Accessed 10 August, 2020)
Roof: The roof is one of the most crucial features that is keeping the building
structure warm and dry. A good roofing system protects the occupants from cold,
snow, wind, heat and rain (Wojciechowska, 2001). The roof can be the main feature,
making a building stand out or it can make a building disappear gradually into the
landscape. Adobe buildings mostly use different types of roofs, the mud roof,
thatched and timber roofing. Thatch is the combination of reed grass and a tight
bundle of thick straws mostly extracted from wheat or rye (Figure 2.5). The thatched
roofs are flexible especially in use of irregular shapes and curves. Another advantage
16
of thatched roof apart from its aesthetic feature is that its waterproof, therefore it
does not need any addition of waterproofing material and it also provides effective
and efficient insulation (Moquin, 1994). The usual disadvantage of the thatch roofing
system is its flammable feature. The fire risk is reducible by the use of ceilings which
limits airflow to the roof, which is why the fire safety architects prefer designing
with mud roofing system as it has zero combustible effect (Wojciechowska, 2001;
Kimura & Yamazaki, 1982).
Figure 2. 5: Thatch roofing system

Source: Kimura & Yamazaki, (1982)
17
The thatch roof system usually has a barrier for the purpose of fire safety which is
underlying the wooden rafter after the thatch straws. The rafter carries the load of the
roofing layers and the battens attached to it are a clip that holds the thatch stripes
from moving (Figure 2.6). The barrier is a double layered barrier to prevent an
immediate damage from fire, which usually prevents the fire outbreak for 30 minutes
before it reaches the rafter. Microporos sheet serve as insulation from rainfall
penetration into the roof; protective layer as seen in Figure 2.6.
Figure 2. 6: Thatch roof detail

Source: (thatchadvicecentre.co.uk. Accessed 19 August, 2020: Reproduced)
18
In places with dry climate (non-humid), adobe flat roof has been used in centuries in
rural traditional architecture (Gernat, 2012). One of the most challenging factors in
buildings roofs is to develop a roof which is resistant to external forces like water,
wind and other natural disasters. These adobe traditional roofs have been in use in
countries around the world like the UK, USA, New Mexico, Indians and those of the
West Africa and Mali. Almost all the flat adobe roofs are having similar construction
system. The timber is used for rafter which is also are the main primary
constructional elements for the Thatch roof. The twigs and branches are placed and
arranged to create a dense network over which the loam of straw can be butted or
plastered. The last layer consist of different layers of loam and mud containing a
huge quantity of sand, hair or fibre added and prudently flattened (Minke, 2012). In
places where they have a very little rainy season cracks from shrinkage are not a
problem. When the water penetrates into the cracks, the mud loam swells and bond
them together. Only in some rare conditions, additional coatings use to be added. In
Anatolia Turkey, there is a special mud soil which contains a very high salty
concentration (ġakar & Güçhan, 2018). It is extracted from the banks of the salt lakes
in order to cover the loam rooftops due to the hygroscopic content of the salt. The
soil mud stays wet for a long time and stop water from penetrating (Peters, 1977).
When constructing flat adobe roof, it should be put into consideration that the edges
of the roof are vulnerable to mechanical damage, especially by erosion and wind. It
can also be avoided by the usage of tiles as shown in Figure 2.7. The pitch roof
latters which are lumber frame beneath the roof tile are supported with timber studs,
while the roof eave is placed over the wall edge of the parapet. The flat roof layers
which comprises of the ceiling and above it is the latilas, grass reed and the mud
roof. The parapet is thinner than the exterior wall with dimension of 20-40 cm
(Minke, 2012).
19
Figure 2. 7: Adobe mud flat and pitch tile roof
Source: (Minke 2012: Reproduced)
2.1.2.2 Constructional Use and Detailing
Adobe bricks in construction vary in different sizes. The most pre dominant size is
255 mm by 102 mm by 356 mm and also its weight 17 to 18 kg (Tanacan, 2008). In
the Asian and European countries, the adobe bricks are commonly larger in size of
about 20 cm × 15 cm × 30 cm. While in the sub Saharan Africa are smaller in size
for about 20 x 10 x 25 for more usage friendly especially in building of longer dome
and vault structures (McHenry, 1998; Tanacan, 2008).
Adobe brick production requires an extensive labor and time availability (IĢık &
Tülbentçi, 2008). Conventional adobe bricks are either formed with bare hands
20
without moulding them or using a wooden frame to mould it or metal. It varies in
shapes, such as cubic form, cylindrical, pyriform, and conical or parallelepiped.
Some of the adobe bricks have grip in order to fasten and lock with the other
structure and to reinforce the position of the adobe (especially in arches and domes)
(Houben & Guillaud, 1994). The predominantly used types of abode brick mould are
the rectangular and egg-shaped brick as shown in Figure 2.8. The egged shaped is
mostly found in the wall of adobe building in Northern Nigeria. The other type of
adobe brick is the anti-seismic brick which has an interlocking feature that connects
to each other and helps against seismic movement as it is connected together with
other aligned bricks in the wall. The type of brick is the one shown in Figure 2.8
(Houben & Guillaud, 1994).
Figure 2. 8: Types of adobe brick

Source: (Houben & Guillard, 1989: Reproduced)
During the production of adobe brick, it consists of filling the wooden or metal forms
with a wet earth which is then put to dry under the sunlight. Once the adobe bricks
starts to dry, there might be cracks or shrinkage on the surface appearing (Quagliarini
& Lenci, 2010; Neumann, et al. 1984). They recommended that the use of fibres or
straws is very important so as to prevent such cracks and shrinkage (lĢık & Tülbentçi,
2008). However, this decision is not very common because the fibres could
deteriorate which will results to the presence of fungi and bacteria. The pressed earth
block represent an evaluation of the adobe bricks by using particular machinery or
21
tool to compress and mould the earth inside the form work. The process can be
carried out mechanically or manually (Pacheco-Torgal & Jalali, 2012).
Upon the construction phase of adobe bricks on a bare floor where the straw and
sand are strewn so as to prevent the bricks from sticking onto the ground. The
already prepared mud is carried from the puddle and shoved with a fork or shovel
into the wooden or metal form, using hand to level the mud and push it down to all
the four corners making sure there is no air space. Thereby lifting the form and
washing the form from any loose mud to prepare it for the next sculpture. It is always
recommended to use the metal form especially when the mud is sticking to the form
to make the mud more loose (Forest Service & Groben, 1975; Illampas, Joannov,
2014). The bricks will be ready for usage after few days of moulding (lĢık &
Tülbentçi, 2008). There is also need for maximum exposure to wind and sun is
needed for the drying process. It is also not recommended to carry out the moulding
process when the weather is unstable especially the damp or rainy weather because it
will be difficult for the bricks to dry (Groben, 1975; lĢık & Tülbentçi, 2008; Dalkılıç,
& Nabikoğlu, 2017).
Adobe wall systems vary in sizes and shapes. They all depend on the the
characteristics and performance of the construction material aand according to the
arrangements of the adobe bricks. The selected reinforcement technique of the adobe
brick is the most vital characteristic and feature when considering the structural
quality of the construction. The connection points of the adobe bricks should be
thoroughly worked out, or else a bad connection might cause structural failure like
vertical cracking. The bonding connections of the bricks are half block thickness and
one block (Figure 2.9). The half block thickness which comprise of the full block
brick arranged on a course laid together to form the wall, bonded with earth mortar.
The one block thickness is the combination of three quarter block and half block laid
together on two course to form the wall bonded by earth mortar as shown in Figure
2.9 below (Houben & Guillaud, 1994; Guillaud, 1995; Kahya, Guler, & Guler 2020).
22
Figure 2. 9: Different techniques of adobe brick bonding
Source: (Houben & Guillaud, 1994; Guillaud, 1995: Reproduced)
The surface of the adobe walls both the exterior and the interior, is slightly very
fragile, although not as weak as newly applied plaster. Its weakness is mainly on the
surface not structural. The treatment on the surface varies which categorically has its
advantages and disadvantages. The surface treatment with natural earth material is
achieved with a very lower cost, and easy to maintain. While the ornamentation
method of finishing is at higher cost which also demands costly maintenance due to
the frequency of the need for the surface treatment (Tanacan, 2008; McHenry, 1989).
There are methods of adobe wall finishing which protects it from decaying or any
external deterioration (Figure 2.10). These finishing types are basically the plaster
application with mortar and surface treatment with mortar and shapely design
according to the design specification as shown in Figure 2.10 (Houben & Guillard,
1989).
23
Figure 2. 10: Adobe wall finishing
Source: (Houben & Guillard, 1989)
2.2 Adobe Building Typology
Building Typology refers to the formal and structural characteristics of buildings

embedded in structure and function. Throughout this context, typology is seen as a
Model Classification (Salama, 2006; Ayyıldız, Ertürk, Durak& Dülger, 2017).
The typologies of adobe buildings are generally of different types; the plan, elevation
and the general layout taxonomy of the building as shown in Figure 2.11. The most
dominant one is the rectangular shape, and a very less circular shape. The L-shape is
found in specific areas but is not as dominant as the usual rectangular shape (Houben
& Guillard, 1989). The general typologies of adobe building are shown in Figure
2.11. The rectangular, is one of the most predominant typology shape, which is
usually having the entire household space into a one general layout with no complex
setting (Salama, 2006). While rectangular and square form attached together as
colony typology is nucleated group of geometric shapes, mostly dense together and
in connection with each other and form a living spaces. The typology also gives the
building a structural integrity and harness the lateral force against the building. The
circular typology is very rare and mostly found in remote areas or in suburbs
designated for a specific function. The circular form which is mostly roofed with a
thatched roof encompasses the household units functions all into a particular space.
This type of typology is mainly for a small number of occupants (Remali et al, 2016).
The circular form combined with rectangular and square geometric shapes typology
24
comprises of different types of shapes conjoined together to form the spaces. The
geometrical shapes which mostly are circular and rectangular shape are put together
to create a living spaces (Salama, 2006). There is an obvious modulation in normal
floor plan based on room in Turkish House. Flooring and ceiling in the adobe
buildings was constructed with typical wood. There are same windows in the houses
which are made of timber, therefore the houses construction tend to be fast and
economically feasible. When considered from the facade of the buildings, the
features aspect, window cages in terms of harmony created with different building
materials on the ground floor and first floor. The opening having standard scales and
forming a common rhythm creates an entirely not only to the houses but also to the
street and the town (Ayyıldız et al, 2017).
25
Figure 2. 11: Different plan typology of adobe buildings
Source: (semanticscholar.org, Accessed: 20 June, 2020); Obafemi & Kurt, 2016;
Paul & Zango, 2014
26
2.3 International Adobe Building Standards
International standard of adobe buildings have been neglected for a while.

Considering the lack of commitment towards the development of adobe architecture.
Some of the standards are out dated and need to be updated in respect to the current
events. Some of the earthquake that happened in various part of the world, adobe
buildings were mostly the affected buildings (Tayyibi et al, 2016). This is why this
study selected 3 out of the international adobe standard from 3 countries, namely;
New Zealand, New Mexico and Turkey. Out of these 3 countries, Turkish standard is
more comprehensive and detailed which has more information needed for this study.
Different factors are controlled which contribute to a building's performance in terms

of public health, safety and welfare. Several of these major factors are defined by the
international building code as addressing structural power, egress, sanitation and
other environmental concerns, fire and life protection issues, and energy
conservation (Thornburg, Kimball, & Bracken, 2018).
27
2.3.1 Nigeria Adobe Building Standards
The absence of a standardized manuscript for adobe building construction has led to
substantial building failure in the country. The adobe buildings were constructed
without a standardized specifications. One of the main reasons that influence this
study is to find out a workable building standard that can substitute the offhand
construction that has been existing for decade.
The building components such as the material elements, foundation, wall, roof and
other building elements are not specified, the absence of these standardised
dimension led to the initiation of this study and identification of problems related to
these building components. The standards are shown in Table 2.2.
Table 2. 2 Nigerian Adobe Standards

Building component Standard Details
Material Component Not specified Not specified
Adobe Brick Dimension Not specified Not specified
Foundation Not specified Not specified
Wall Not specified Not specified
Wall finishing Not specified Not specified
Roof Not specified Not specified
2.3.2 Turkish Adobe Building Standards
While Turkish adobe structures are theatrically declining in numbers in towns. They
are still prevalent in rural areas and hold about 20 percent of all buildings that have
been designed as masonry buildings (Tanacan 2008). Apart from being used in a
structural way, adobe bricks can also be used in timber framed construction as filling
material. “Turkish Standard Institute and Ministry of Reconstruction and
Resettlement‟‟ was established to provide standard and code provided for the
intended objective (Tanacan 2008). The standards which are shown in Table 2.3
gives a standardised dimension of the diffrnet building elemsts. The wall, foundation,
roof and other building components dimensiion and standards were given. These
28
standarsds gives details and specifications of each an every building elemsnts that is
the focus of this study.
Table 2. 3: Turkish Standards

Material Component Clayey earth, straw, clay Stabilized with cement or
fibers
Adobe Brick Dimension Group I: 12x19x40 cm Volume (dm3)/ Weight(kp) =
12x30x40 cm 9.12/10-12. &14.40/15-25
Group II: 12x18x30 cm 6.48/7-11 &
12x25x30 cm (for 9.00/10-15
single story height)
Cement Treated Adobe brick

7x11.5x24 (for 1 storey)
11x23x36.5 (for 2 storey)
Foundation Depth= 70-80 cm -Stone course layer= 50 cm
Width 50-60 cm above the ground level
-60 cm stone wall for
basement wall
Wall For a double storey building 40 External wall 30 cm and
cm for ground floor wall internal wall 45 cm thickness
thickness and 50 cm for first and 18cm wall thickness for
floor non-structural walls
4 Tie Beams. Standard base on wall height

Tie beam interval- 40 cm 40 cm thickness for 250 cm
Tie beam dim. - 10x15 cm 50 cm thickness for 300 cm
60 cm thickness for 350 cm
Earthquake code restrict this

height to 270cm for all cases,
Wall finishing Plaster thickness suggested as Not specified
20-30 mm
Roof Eaves out – 50 cm
Earth cover thickness –15cm
Timber Beam 10x15 cm
Wooden board 2 cm
Impervious clay 5 cm
Source: Tanacan, 2008
2.3.3 Other Countries Standards
Among the international adobe building codes standards, New Zealand and New
Mexico were choosen in consideration with their material correlation with Nigeria
and Turkish Standard.
29
New Zealand Standard: This allows for the construction of unfired earthen wall
buildings for strength and durability. The variety is restricted to adobe, pressed
bricks, poured earth and rammed earth, containing mud and other aggregates, and
depending on the existing soil particles to obtain reasonable support with or without
chemical stabilisation (Kiroff, & Roedel, 2010). The New Zealand Code contains
three manuals dealing with several of the methods including that of the three primary
ones which are the rammed earth, adobe, and compressed earth block (Tayyibi et al,
2016). Table 2.4 shows the standard of Adobe buildings in New Zealand.
The standards of adobe building in New Zealand gives a detailed explanation on the
foundation and the material; while the other construction materials like the wall
components and roof standards were not specified. The adobe brick dimension also
given in brief while the detailed specifications of the building construction were also
not specified in the standards as shown in Table 2.4.
Table 2. 4: New Zealand building codes

Material Component Earth with grains stabilized Grain size is 2.5 cm
with cement 1600 kg/m3
Adobe Brick Dimension 30x14x10 cm Not specified
Foundation Foundation to be determined Minimum foundation height to

from the external forces and surface 24 cm.
moment resulting from the Masonry footing .
factored load Walls wider than 30 cm
Reinforced concrete footing to
be used
Wall The Wall thickness is 28-30 cm Not specified
Wall finishing Not specified Not specified
Roof Not specified Not specified

Source: Smith & Austin, 1989
New Mexico: New Mexico possesses a predominant adobe building structures within
the United States. In New Mexico in 1987 through 1988, during field research and
analysis, there were 33 industrial producers of adobe bricks, 28 firms with pressed-
earth-block machinery and 2 contractors on rammed-earth, 17 of them were closed
due to failure of adobe building constructions projects (Smith, 1989). Table 2.5
30
shows the standard of Adobe buildings in New Mexico. The standard in New
Mexico, gives some certain standard in detail such as foundation, whereas the other
adobe building standards were not specified. The roof and material components are
one of the elements that were not thoroughly specified which gives very limited
information about its standardization (Code, 2008).
Table 2. 5: New Mexico Standards

Material Component Adobe mortar stabilized with Not specified
lime
Adobe Brick Dimension 10.16x25.4x35.56 cm Not specified
Foundation The foundation is a rubble filled Footing is 25.4 cm
foundation Adobe material not allowed to
be used in foundation.
Only Reinforced concrete
foundation allowed.
Wall The wall dimension is 25-60 cm This applies to all storey
building
Wall finishing 4 mm plaster thickness Not specified
Roof Roofing is flat roof supported Dimension details not

by timber beams Specified
Source: Tayyibi et al, 2016
Among the above mentioned adobe building standards, the Turkish standard has
been chosen to be used for this study because of its comprehensive detailed
information and breakdown. It also covers all the sub elements classification that this
research will be focusing on CI/SfB Manual classification (Jørgensen, 2009; Ray-
Jones, 1974). Moreover, another reason for choosing the adobe standard of Turkey
is because of the similarity of characteristics with Northern Nigeria, in terms of
climate, culture, and tradition which is a huge contributing factor that influence the
traditional architecture of the region.
In the next chapter, the general literature overview and characteristics of adobe
building of both Turkey and Northern Nigeria will be studied and explained in detail.
31
CHAPTER 3
OVERVIEW OF ADOBE ARCHITECTURE IN NIGERIA AND

TURKEY
3.1 Adobe Architecture of Northern Nigeria
Over the ages, Nigeria, a nation situated in western Africa, has been the site of
various empires and ethnic states and is divided into northern and southern regions
with the Hausa-Fulani, a multicultural yet ethnically homogenous community living
in Northern Nigeria (Danja, Li & Dalibi, 2017). Nigerian Architecture has been
characterized in recent years by the post-modern buildings of the 1990s and a
common new design paradigm and rooted in new construction materials primarily
imported from China (Agboola & Zango, 2014; Auwalu, 2019).
Adobe buildings still suffer from may defects such as erosion of the soil, partial
cracking, humidity and hollowed bases. It is evident that the state of earth-building
quality control hangs in delicate balance with very limited tolerance for satisfactory
performance. (Hunwick & Lovejoy, 1993). A typical adobe vernacular building
structure in Northern Nigeria which has some engravings and ornamentations on the
façade. These are the typical identity and feature of vernacular architecture of
Northern Nigeria as shown in Figure 3.1 (Brittanica Encyclopedia 2013),
Figure 3. 1: Adobe house in Zaria, Northern Nigeria,

Source (Britannica Encyclopedia 2013)
32
In general, the contemporary architecture in Nigeria uses materials like, reinforced
concrete, frames and roofing, which are very popular nowadays. Yet there is a
notable influence and features of traditional adobe architecture on these buildings
more especially the residential buildings. The features which are entrance foyer of
the house which is found at the entrance space of the residential buildings as in
Figure 3.2 (Batagarawa, & Tukur, 2019). The materials of these traditional adobe
buildings are mostly not factory manufactured materials or pre-fabricated. They are
mostly locally available building materials that are of close proximity to the
construction sites; materials like earth/soil, timber, stone, reeds and grass/straw
(Dmochowski, 1980; Marcus 2016). The typical residential house in Northern
Nigeria comprises of the households spaces where all the bedrooms are dispersed
and arranged based on the affiliation of the occupant. The typology and geometry of
the spaces are not systemically defined most of the times. They tend to be
constructed and arranged base on the preference of the user as shown in Figure 3.2
(Rowan 1981).
Foyer
Figure 3. 2: Typical plan layout of Hausa courtyard house

Source: (Rowan, 1981)
33
It was emphasized that entrance foyer is one of the multi-purpose space in the house
that serves as a transition space before entering into the main house space. The foyer
is also used for a mini gathering for family or guest. The space is also a sign
declaring that only closed relatives are allowed to cross over that zone of the house
as shown in Figure 3.3 (Adeyemi, 2008). Another function of the entrance foyer
includes privacy, security, reception, protection, ethnic and moral ideas, with
decorations and administration (Adamu, 2005). Furthermore, the provision of large
space around the neighbourhood vicinity is mainly for the function of social
gatherings such as wedding naming ceremony, playground for children and festivals
(Agboola & Zango, 2014).
Foyer
Figure 3. 3: Typical plan layout of Hausa residential building

Source: (Adeyemi, 2008)
34
3.1.1 Overview of the Northern Nigerian Settlement
The settlement pattern of Northern Nigeria is been influenced by the cultural

nomadic style of the residents of the region. The residents are mostly farmers and
nomads, which their place of living is influenced by their movement. The
morphology of the region changes based on their activities. A modest and simple
hierarchy of a typical village settlement has influenced over Hausa land. The house is
mostly based on a sub division of spaces of extended family that comprises the
family house and composed of different compounds in the family house. The
network of the rural apex settlement is the town. These towns are historic which also
reflects a dense dispersed settlement enclosed with the defensive walls (Agboola &
Zango, 2014; Osasuna 2007). Figure 3.4 shows the regions of Northern Nigeria and
the settlement segregation and shows the most dominated area with Hausa adobe
architecture as highlighted.
Figure 3. 4: Map of Nigeria with the Northern Region

Source: Agboola & Zango, (2014)
35
The vernacular architecture of Northern Nigeria is highly influenced by socio-
cultural traditions, culture, environment and the material obtainable. The patterns of
architecture from both settlements and also family residences have been influenced
by social and cultural activities. There are three significant key elements in the
settlement of Northern Nigeria. Those are the Emir‟s palace who is the leader of the
community, mosque, and the marketplace (Lodson, Ogbeba, & Elinwa, 2018).
The domestic architecture which deals with the residential buildings in Kofar mata
ward of Kano state Nigeria, and the official house of the district head office in Kano
state Nigeria, respectively. The researches were mostly technical and descriptive and
as well lacks social content (Hakim & Ahmed, 2006). According to history the
settlements of Runada which is also known as the “slave settlement” had an impact
on the layout pattern of the rural area of Zaria, Kaduna State Nigeria. It shows the
functional arrangement of the plan layout which shows close proximity of the
working space and the living area of the occupants. As a result, eventually these
settlements have evolved into township settlement, example of that is the Tabongari
area. The suburban settlement basically exists in most of the Hausa ground, which
tends to grow side by side. Figure 3.5 displays the layout of most of the complex
buildings and boundary walls, as well as the position of trees and shrubs. A black dot
shows the entrance of each compound into the entrance foyer (Foyle, 1959).
Northern cities such as Kano, Katsina and Sokoto also served as regional citadels and
political centres. Cities were developed in the Southeast to promote coastal trade. In
both instances culture, history and landscape interacted to shape distinctive physical
patterns. Cities in the north were surrounded by city walls, allowing expansion taking
place within them (Prussin, 1974). A central market, administrative buildings, and a
main mosque were at the centre. For each group of skilled craft makers Northern
cities had different quarters. Their main layout was shaped by roads that run from the
gates to the city centre. In the north, these new quarters were referred to as "new
town" and accommodated non-residents who were not subject to the Emir‟s religious
36
as well as other restrictions. Strong rural-urban linkages also defined both north and
southwest cities. (Bloch, Monroy, Fox, & Ojo, 2015).
Figure 3. 5: Nearby cluster of 26 compounds in Zaria city of Northern Nigeria.

Source: Hakimn, & Ahmed, (2006)
37
Meanwhile, the decision on whether a settlement should be dispersed or nucleated
depends upon the security situation of the area. One of the most historic cities of
Hausa land is Zaria, known with a very well configured settlement having an
enclosed protective ancient wall. For example historical walled city of Kano and
Zaria (Danja et al. 2017).
The proximity of the district head leader‟s residence to the marketplace is also a clear
purpose tailored because of effective defensive majors of the town. This recapitulates
the morphology of the nucleated Hausa settlement design and pattern.
In Figure 3.6, the courtyard of the house is the focal points of the general house
layout. Surrounding the courtyard are the other spaces of the households which
include the bedrooms, veranda, storage, and kitchen. The foyer which is the
dominant space is located in the middle of the entrance (Danja et al, 2017).
Figure 3. 6: A typical plan layout of a compound in Hausa Region.

Source: Lodson et al., (2018)
38
3.1.2 Adobe Material in Northern Nigeria
Adobe material in Nigeria is one of the constructional materials that are very much
abundant and available compared to other materials (Batagarawa & Tukur, 2019).
Dating back to its history, it is recognized as the first building material of the early
15th century, connecting back to the West African region which traced back its
history to the northern part of Sudan with Libyan descendant (Batagarawa & Tukur,
2019).
Adobe building material in Northern Nigeria is used mostly in the rural areas. The
adobe buildings that are only found in the urban areas are buildings which are
constructed in the city are the compressed earth brick (CEB) which will be explained
in the next section. During the construction process, the material contains no clay
content and cement mortar is used to arrange the brick walls. While the material that
has clay content is the one that is being constructed manually (Shittu 2012;
Urbanowicz, 1979).
The material of adobe building in Northern Nigeria varies based on the regions,
especially the material composition. The laterite soil which is also known as the red
soil is the most predominantly used earthen material for the adobe construction
especially the compressed earth brick. The laterite earth material does not contain
clay content but has itself a sticky texture that allows the material to be compacted
together and also the material dries faster than the normal earthen mud (Batagarawa
& Tukur, 2019). Meanwhile the design planning involves the establishment of an
open air space for residential design which require privacy of living space. In regards
to this, the Hausa compound is categorized and divided into two zones, namely: the
front area and the entrance foyer which is found at the first quarter main entrance of
the house (Danja et al, 2017; Urbanowicz, 1979).
3.1.2.1 Mixture Types and Physical Properties in Northern Nigeria
In Northern Nigeria, the local materials for building construction consist of different
materials like; namely, adobe, straws, stones and timber (Moughtin, 1986;
Dmochowski, 1980). The method of construction involves egg-shaped (Figure 3.7)
39
like sun dried adobe brick that are sculptured and moulded form a laterite earth soil,
which is prepared with mostly in-situ soil. The laterite earth contains a very high
concentration of fibre content when nit and skilfully moulded. It also gives a very
durable building material for the roofs and walls (Batagarawa & Tukur, 2019). The
production of the adobe mud bricks consist of mixing water together with the laterite
soil systematically. After the mixture, the mud bricks will be exposed to sunlight to
get dried and then will be ready to get laid in regular pattern with its points facing
upward direction (Agboola & Zango, 2014).
The two types of adobe production are being practiced in Northern Nigeria; the
traditional and pressed types of adobe. Predominantly, the traditional type of adobe is
mostly used which is having two method. The first method is the pressing of earth in
a form work and the second type is the scooping of the mixture of earth and straw
(cob) which is called the egg-shaped adobe brick.
The egg-shaped adobe brick method of construction which is also referred to as the
cob shaped brick unit of adobe, covered/plastered with earth is been arranged
together to create walls. The brick is usually covered with mortar giving a
monumental monolithic appearance on the building structure as shown in Figure 3.7.
Figure 3. 7: A detail of tubali (egg-shaped like adobe brick)

Source: Ede, Olofinnade, Edwin, & Bamigboye, (2017)
40
The properties of adobe material which involve the thermal regulation especially in
hot and dry weather like the one of Northern Nigeria, is to be considered a very
valuable factor. The usage of laterite soil on the floor and wall finishing regulates the
climatic effect of cold and hot weather. The interior spaces maintain a room
temperature during the especially during the rainy season. The occupants of adobe
buildings in Northern Nigeria mostly experience challenges with heat during the dry
seasons (Danja et al, 2017). The roof always serves as the insulation for sound to
some certain degree (Batagarawa & Tukur, 2019).
The aspect of energy efficiency proves that building sector consumes over 1/3 of the
global energy which contributes massively to global warming (Iwuagwu &
Azubuine, 2015). On the contrary, adobe buildings emits very less greenhouse gas,
maintain a very high level of thermal comfort, and consumes very lower amount of
energy, irrespective of dominant solar radiation outside (Onyegiri & Ugochukwu,
2016).
3.1.2.2 Use of Adobe in Building Construction in Northern Nigeria
The usage of adobe material in the construction sector of Northern Nigeria has a
significant and unique style. There the two methods that are mainly used in the
building construction of adobe in Northern Nigeria, are the traditional moulding
method and the machine base method which is also known as CEB (Figure 3.8). The
CEB is mostly practiced in the cities where the contemporary buildings are more
dominant so as to fit into the context of the postmodern buildings, whereas the
traditional moulding method is mostly found in the rural areas where there is limited
infrastructure and labor. As seen in Figure 3.8 is the example of the machine base
adobe compressing machine from Katsina State in Northern Nigeria (Mustapha &
Allu, 2017). The CEB are anti-seismic bricks, their usage in Northern Nigeria are not
very dominant. The labor cost is higher than the locally produced and constructed
adobe building. The aesthetic aspect is also a promising as visual quality is more than
the local adobe building (Mustapha & Allu, 2017).
41
Figure 3. 8: CEB Machine for adobe
Source: Mustapha & Allu, (2017)
3.1.2.2.1 Structural Use of Adobe Material in Northern Nigeria
Abode structure in Northern Nigeria are mostly attached and built together with the
entire building structure. The structural elements are mostly on-site built with the
locally produced building materials available (Batagarawa & Tukur, 2019). The
walls, foundation, and roofs, as are the key components that make a stronghold
adobe structure. There structural components and their details are studied below:
Foundation: The foundation is dug beneath the surface for about 40 cm to 60 cm.
The foundation will be as low as it reaches a softer layer of the soil. The soil in
Northern Nigeria is mostly laterite (soft in nature) (Yar‟adua et al, 2012). The width
of the foundation ranges between 50-60 cm. A study shows that the method of adobe
building in Northern Nigeria, foundation has been weak and prone to quick and
easier damage in case of rainfall or any natural disaster (Eneh & Ati, 2010). The use
of sandcrete at the base of the foundation (Figure 3.9) for 2-4 layers has been
recommended by researchers and builders in the field so as to strengthen the
foundation and also reducing the moisture penetration and strengthen the foundation
and stability (Danja et al, 2017). Even though this procedure is not yet dominant in
42
the adobe constructions, it has been proven to be effective in improving the
foundation and structural integrity of adobe buildings (Eneh & Ati, 2010). While in
some places, stones pebbles are coursed beneath the foundation also due to its ability
to absorb moisture and prevent the moisture from moving upwards to the wall (Danja
et al, 2017).
Figure 3. 9: Foundation construction in Northern Nigeria.

Source: Photo taken by (Jakak Gabriel Mafulul, 2020)
Walls: The earth wall consists of mud bricks with dimension of (10 x 25 cm) and (10
x 15 cm). Approximately half meter (40–60 cm) of depth is created to reach beneath
rough topsoil. In the course the egg-shaped (adobe brick) is laid, which is coated
with a carefully formulated mud mortar for insertion and bonding component till the
height of the wall attains. The base is thicker with a width of around 60 cm and
becoming thinner with a width of around 20 cm (Umar et al, 2019). These adobe
bricks are been made from the excavated sand mixed with straws thoroughly after
43
been dried for few days under the sun so as to achieve maximum stability and
strength as shown in Figure 3.10. The walls thermal capacity is paramount at all
weather seasons, during the season the interior space is warm and comfy, because of
its high thermal quality (Umar et al, 2019). The constructional method was also to
make the walls wider to meet the demands of the building. Relatively because the
thick wall makes it cooler inside the room and partially because labour is affordable.
Furthermore, wall failures such as, collapse, cracks, or decay of the wall surface, are
rarely recognized without the need to take precautionary measures during the phase
of the construction works. Furthermore, construction of adobe walls consist of
scooping a moulding an egg-shaped like mud made up of from laterite soil and water.
They are being mixed to make the adobe brick. The bricks are then arranged in
regular layers with the edges looking upwards. The monolithic appearance comes
from the finishing of the wall surface, the mortar has been placed in between the
bricks by the builder which traditionally been mould and thrown at him from his
fellow builder (Batagarawa & Tukur, 2019). The thickness of the wall is reduced to
20 cm when elevated to the upper level and the upper part is been protruded into the
interior on the walls and will be set course to the outside with a bit of supporting
buttress. These days, the adobe walls are constructed with reinforced mixture for a
better reinforcement as shown in Figure 3.10 (Umar et al, 2019).
Figure 3. 10: Adobe wall construction in Northern Nigeria

Source: Batagarawa, (2019)
44
Roof: Local builders consider the adobe roof to be one of the most tricky,
challenging and yet interesting part of adobe building construction. This seems to be
judged based on the decoration and the efforts that are been applied. The frequently
used type of mud roof is made with timber beam spanning 180 cm wide which is
been supported by mud walls at both ends. Wider span roof structure are also be
spanned up to 170-500 cm. This is achieved by using corbels of mud above the wall
which extends about 40 cm to create the face of the wall which is usually supported
with Timber beam as shown in Figure 3.11 (Umar et al, 2019). However, the sizes of
the spaces can be changed up to 400 cm by using the elements diagonally or
horizontally on the parallel span of the space or room which will serve as beam
support especially for larger spaces. The columns which are arranged on a grid are
supporting the timber beam and the interiors also equally distributed (Umar et al,
2019).
Furthermore, adobe roofs consist a simple thatch straw roofs which is mostly on
circular shape building forms. In some places like the urban local areas have the
thatch on a polygonal building form. The geographical location, climate and human
physiology and geography influenced to initiation of conical, curvilinear and mud
roof structures in the adobe building of Northern Nigeria (Batagarawa & Tukur,
2019). On the other hand, earthen roof structure helped to achieve the regulation of
temperature equilibrium especially during extreme weather condition between days
and nights also serves as a buffer between the spaces as shown in Figure 3.11
(Agboola & Zango 2014).
45
Figure 3. 11: The use of Timber beam and Thatch on Roof Structures and columns
Source: Batagarawa & Tukur, (2019)
Meanwhile, the use of mud and flat roofs in the Northern Nigeria portrays a method
of preventing the risk of urban fire spread. Therefore, the implementation of rules
and regulations which prohibits the use of thatched roof around the urban settlement
and metropolis. This rules initiated a distinctive disparity among rural and urban
architectural settlement in Hausa land. Therefore, the structures sub-urban areas have
thatched roofing with a circular building shape, which are installed from above the
roofing because the ends are laid upon the exterior walls as shown in Figure 3.12.
While the urban settlements had mud roofs with rectangular shaped building forms
(Lodson et al, 2018).
46
Figure 3. 12: Timber beam installation for flat roof
Source: Lodson et al, (2018)
Response to the extreme temperature changes between nights and days resulted to
the use of mud roofs. This type of roof has been used because they retain the room
temperature due to their semi-conductors feature as well as barrier between the
external and inner spaces. The introduction of buildings materials like roofing zinc
sheet, and reinforced concrete bring about a drastic change in the construction sector
and effect on the physical appearance of the adobe buildings, for example the arrival
of zinc from Europe (which is also one of the effect of colonialism). This gained a
tremendous acceptance which resulted to abandonment of thatch roof as it is
flammable. However the use of corrugated iron sheets influenced the building shapes
making it difficult to use the rectangular iron sheets on circular forms, so the
influence made most of the buildings structure to rectangular shapes (Agboola &
Zango, 2014).
The implementation of new construction materials into the tradition construction

sector drives the acceptance of the conventional roofing material. The corrugated
sheet is now the most dominant roofing material applied on most adobe buildings of
these days. Moreover the difficulty of roofing a circular shape adobe buildings with
47
the new corrugated roofing sheet keeps increasing, the gradually the circular shaped
building form is vanishing. The common methods of roofing a huge polygonal
building form is by decreasing the span by putting brackets on two sides of the room
space. The brackets are projection of the upper layer of the steel rods that are
arranged on the top, projecting out horizontally from the walls. The two supports
(brackets) buttressed the wooden beam that passes parallel to the walls (Gali &
Umar, 2017).
Another functional use of the timber beams is also used for the construction of frame
structure, buttress, beams and corbels. They are also used as roof carrying element
both domed and flat roofs. Another insulation material used is the timber ashes
which is been spread on the flat roof, serves also as water proof agent (Figure 3.12)
(Umar et al, 2019).
3.1.2.2.2 Constructional Use and Detailing of Adobe in Northern Nigeria
The adobe buildings of Northern Nigeria possess numerous unique appearances and
features which made it stand different and distinguishable from any other type of
adobe architecture. Among the notable features of the architecture are the fine
engravings that are on the façade of walls, which buildings materials like stones,
reeds, and muds are being used. Furthermore, within the structures like foundation,
windows, beams, doors, slab, columns, walls, plastering and renovations process,
timbers are also used. These notable sophisticated features form a colorful, diverse
and intricate form of unique architecture which can only be seen in the architectural
context of Northern Nigeria (Danja et al, 2017). The spaces of the house in Northern
Nigeria are categorized in a cluster comprising of spaces like the courtyard, foyers
for gatherings both public and semipublic, and in the other segment of the house
contain the bedrooms as shown in Figure 3.13.
48
Figure 3. 13 A plan of a Hausa family house
Source: Muazu & Alibaba, (2017)
3.1.3 Adobe Building Typology of Northern Nigeria
The typology of adobe buildings in Northern Nigeria are predominantly of two types,
the rectangular type and circular type. The plan typology of adobe building in
Nigeria can also be nucleated, which is a mixture of different geometrical shapes,
rectangular, circular and square shape. This is shown in buildings that are mostly for
a large family or a royal family which consist different households. The typology of
Hausa architecture differs in the layout configuration, which basically has a
distinctive relevance to the activity and morphology of the context around it (Umar et
al, 2019). The plan typology is significant for its socio cultural relevance, a
characteristic recognized for larger significance than the technology of the building
design. The typology of Northern Nigeria is shown in the Figure 3.14.
The plan typology base on the functional relation of the spaces is divided with
private and semi-private especially in residential houses. The public and semi-public
49
buildings are also arranged base on the function of the occupants, for example if the
house is for public gathering like the house of the district head. The semi-public area
in the house is where the homage activities take place like the naming and turbaning
event (Danja et al, 2017).
The façade typologies of adobe building of Northern Nigeria are categorized into
three, which are named: ornamental, calligraphy, and surface design (Adamu, 2005).
These façade categories could be represented on a particular façade entrance foyer
even though the decisions depends on the position or social status of the occupant.
”Graffito” is the terminology given to the colorful decorative layers that are laid on
the plaster surface, which the design is made by scrabbling out the upper layers.
These engravings and decorations may instill some religious or magical significance
(Denyer, 1978). The ‘Graffito’’ has been used for the decorative designs with the use
of a flat metal scratched against the plaster on the wall, resulting to different textures
and patterns.
The first typology in Figure 3.14 is the most dominant type which comprises spaces
in cluster form spaces are categorized in a group comprising of spaces like the
courtyard, foyers for gatherings both public and semipublic, and in the other section
of the house comprising the bedrooms. This is mostly for very larger family
occupants. The second typology is the square type of typology which has a spacious
courtyard in the middle and the other spaces like the bedroom, kitchen and storage
are attached on the building edge fence. This is also big family type of housing
typology. The last typology which is the circular typology attached with different
geometrical forms; as the circular focal point it serves as the foyer which its
importance were highlighted in the adobe building settings in Northern Nigeria it
(Umar et al, 2019).
50
Figure 3. 14: Typology of adobe building in Nigeria
The facade typology of adobe house in Northern Nigeria signifies the social status of
the occupant within a particular community. The main focal places on the façade
which are painted or designed are the pinnacles, window frames, the entrance and the
lower layer of the window right above the foundation as shown in Figure 3.15.
(Danja et al, 2017).
51
Figure 3. 15: Gidan dan Hausa Museum in Kano State
Source: Photo taken by: Rahama Sadau, (2019)
The practice of plastering the wall recently has been the usage of ordinary sand or in
some cases use of stone pebbles, but unfortunately that method has not been lasting
longer. It has been ending up with the plaster peeling off the wall especially after a
heavy downpour. A solution to that is to mix the mud with pebbles and cement to
apply it to the wall as plaster which will increase the plaster span and its strength.
However, the thickness of the plaster has been eventually increased to not more than
2 cm, any thickness more than that may result to failure of the plaster (Eneh & Ati,
2010). The pinnacles which are another identifiable feature of Hausa architecture
which comes in different sizes and shapes, and also improves the aesthetic quality of
the building. The pinnacles are part of the parapet. (Umar et al, 2019).
3.2 Adobe Architecture of Turkey
Adobe buildings in Turkey have been in existence for hundreds of years, widely in
the regions of Anatolia, Çatalhöyük, Central and South-Eastern Turkey (Tanacan,
2008). There are reasons that motivate the growing interest in the use of adobe
architecture in Turkey, being it an environmental friendly building material, and also
for heritage purpose. The most common and predominantly used construction
52
material for the construction of residential houses in the countryside and rural areas
is the adobe material.
3.2.1 Overview of Turkish Settlement
There are buildings in Turkey designed to fit the physical and climatic conditions of
a particular region. Local materials have been used expertly to create the structures
formed which are influenced by human activities.
The activities which include agriculture and business, have an exalted effect on the
formation of the settlements. The climate of the regions also affects the movement of
the settlements. The climate especially in the coastal areas bordering the Aegean Sea
in Turkey experience hot-summer. The coastal areas bordering the Black Sea and
Mediterranean possess a temperate oceanic climate. (Salgın, Bayram, Akgün, &
Agyekum, 2017). However, government institutions have lately been involved in the
preparation of inventory levels of rural settlements covering wider areas in various
regions, that are associated not only with architectural features but also with their
cultural , social and economic dimensions (Tunçoku, Ġnceköse, AkıĢ, & Yalçın,
2015;Torus, 2011). The details of the buildings vary, according to the regional
characteristics, ethnicity, historical and political events. These houses are mostly
renamed base of their locations or the occupant‟s origin, e.g. Bulgarians referred to
theirs as „‟Bulgarian Houses‟‟, Macedonian referred to theirs as „‟Macedonian
house‟‟ and Greek also called their houses the „‟Greek house‟‟ (BektaĢ, 2007). After
the Ottoman succeeded in taking over Rumeli, the local culture of the people also
amalgamated with the Ottoman culture and these integration influenced the civilian
architecture movement. Therefore the buildings have traces of the Ottomans and can
be referred to as Ottoman Houses in general (Eldem, 1984). These regions are shown
in Figure 3.16.
53
Figure 3. 16: The Map of the Ottoman Empire
Source: Torus, (2011)
According to ġakar (2018), it was identified that the residential buildings in Anatolia
were one storey until the 17th century. Adobe building structures and the Ottoman
structures, especially the ones constructed with timber begins to spread from Istanbul
into Anatolia and eventually spreading to their whole region where is govern by the
Ottoman Empire. During the 15th & 16th centuries the land survey conducted by the
Ottoman shows that the Oghuz migratory nomadic community happened to preserve
and protect their transhumant character (ġakar 2018). However, most of the time
they are engaged with practicing agricultural farming which is their secondary source
of income and occupation (Tanyeli, 1999). However, with the exception of some
specific settlement that built a strong connection with Istanbul, the remote villages
only started to develop and change during the 19th century. (Davun, 2013). At first
sight, the adobe houses in Turkey are common identity to the region, and from time
to time various religious, cultural and ethnic groups make up these settlements. The
various architectural styles and the construction materials have produced a rich
mosaic in Turkey (Tanyeli, 1999).
The Turkish settlement has been the focal point of discussion throughout the history
and has been the topic of discussion of various scholars and researches. The house
54
types differ from one another with distinctive features were normally adopted to their
climatic and geological conditions (Eldem, 1984). Apart from these, the culture,
religion, ethnicity, historical and political events are all having an influence on the
formation of the house (Torus, 2011). Geographical, cultural and climatic factors
influence the architecture of the buildings in the Northern Black Sea region and in
the Balkans. Turkish regular life is an important consideration for the design of the
home. If the house has one floor, the floor would be built high above the ground.
High garden walls defend Ottoman-style houses (Davun, 2013).
3.2.2 Adobe Material in Turkey
Adobe material in Turkey is found mostly in the suburban regions and rarely in the
urbanized region. Some of the contemporary construction materials are sometimes
being imported from outside the country, unlike the locally produced building
materials. The most usual and common method and material of construction in the
remote areas is the burnt adobe bricks (Eriç, 2017). Adobe material is a vastly used
especially in the rural areas in Turkey. The material is considered sustainable and
low cost as it is locally available for construction purpose. Some of the adobe
structures in the rural areas were built for 50-100 years ago before the contemporary
building material emerges (Yüksek & Esin, 2013). Adobe houses were commonly
used in the 18th century for the infill of interior walls while the external surfaces were
plastered. Such walls were plastered with mud first, and then lime mortar. Just the
studs at the corner had been left unplastered. The beams were cladded with
mouldings in between the walls (Kuyrukçu & Kuyrukçu, 2015). Therefore the
plastered areas have been kept to a minimum as a measure against potential cracks,
which may arise from wood working. Canopies offered over windows often left even
less plastered surface. At the plastered surface is painted patterns of alternating cut
stone and brick.
55
3.2.2.1 Mixture Types and Physical Properties of Adobe Material in Turkey
Adobe building materials in Turkey are generally earth, sand, straw, and water. The
earth used in here is purely excavated from a 15 cm below the earth surface ground
which is black in color, free form gravels, lumps or shrubs, usually moist and less
salty (Tanaçan, 2008). The sand is extracted from the river with a size of 1-3 mm
grain. The straw fibers are also used mostly with a dimension of 40 x 60 by 120 cm.
The water is very essential also to the mixture, which is added as much as it is
needed to dilute the mixture and make it coarse for construction (Tanaçan, 2008).
The majority of the adobe buildings in Turkey are 2-3 storey height. Earth is the
main construction material; the earth is being incorporated with stone masonry in a
building especially for a better reinforcement, which also differs, depending on the
region. In some houses wood serves as a decorative material or used as a roof
structure. The house does have a courtyard cloisters, atriums or similar semi-open
and open spaces. The different characteristics of adobe buildings differ based on their
geographical location as seen in Table 3.1 (Torus, 2001).
Table 3. 1: Characteristics of adobe buildings in Turkey base on their geographical

location
Inner areas of Mediterranean Region East Region Near the Taurus
Anatolia Mountains
-Use of Ashlars or cut -Rubble wall is been -Rubble wall together -Wooden beam and
stone wall covering. used together with with mortar and also rubble wall are
-The house consists of mortar. wooden beam is been used.
open and semi-open -Usually have hipped used.
spaces, atriums, roofs or flat roofs -Majority of the
courtyards and -Some residential buildings have flat roof.
cloisters. houses have wooden
oriel.
Source: ġakar & Güçhan, 2018
56
3.2.2.2 Use of Adobe Material in Building Construction in Turkey
The construction sector of in Turkey, adobe buildings are widespread and make up to
20% of the current settlement, mostly rampant in the rural areas, but decreasing
sharply in number in the urban areas. It is more popular in areas where farming is the
sole form of living occupation. Climatic condition is another major factor affecting
its existence, areas with a land climate tends to benefit more and favorable from
adobe material (Yorulmaz, 1981).
In the past years, adobe buildings in Turkey face many challenges like natural
disasters and earth quakes which made the buildings collapsed resulting to loss of
lives and properties (ġakar & Güçhan, 2018). In regards to this, investigations were
made so as to establish a standard building code for adobe building construction.
“Turkish Standard Institute and Ministry of Reconstruction and Settlement” goal to
achieve the said objectives in implementing a standard building code for adobe
buildings.
3.2.2.2.1 Structural Use of Adobe Material in Turkey
Wall: In Turkey, the standard dimension for adobe wall thickness is 400 mm for one
storey height and double storey building. The wall thickness dimension of the ground
floor of a two story building should be 500 mm (Tanacan 2008). Earthquake code
ascertains the dimension of adobe brick as 30 cm, which is different from the
standard brick length and dictates 45 cm to be the wall dimension thickness for outer
walls and 30 cm for the internal ones (Erarslan, 2018). Standards also approve the
use of 18 cm wall dimension for non-structural wall. Experiments were made in 82
local areas which gives the average thickness of the wall to be 57 cm for the external
walls and having a standard deviation of 100 mm. For the internal walls, the average
dimension is set as 50 cm and a standard deviation of 130 mm (Yorulmaz, 1981;
Tanacan, 2008). According to the standards, the height of the walls is set on a
maximum dimension to be constructed as (Tanacan, 2008).
57
For a 400 mm thickness the height should be 250 cm
Moreover, the standard in conjunction with earthquake code also ascertains that the
building forms should be rectangular in layout and symmetrical for both directions.
The adobe wall projects from the foundation of reinforced concrete of 40 cm

thickness. Reinforced concrete is used for seismic conditions, on top of the RC
foundation a course of stone wall is been placed on top which they all served as a
base for the adobe wall, and to maintain a common appearance the wall has to have
same thickness of 40 cm. The building standard approved the use of four ring tie
beams (Figure 3.17). The ring tie beams which are placed above the foundation, one
on top and under the window and the other one below the roof level (Yorulmaz,
1981). The first 10 by 10 cm ring-beam wood with a steel wire is set to be above the
stone foundation (Figure 3.17). The second beam and the third one are placed in a
medium height to the level of the lintel. The main purpose of this ring beam is to
extract and absorb the horizontal loads and also to improve the rigidity and stability
of the wall by minimizing the concentrated force of earthquake with high bending
stress and high tensile pressure. Another function of the tie-beams is also helps
distribute the vertical force evenly, solidify the wall to minimize the risk of
collapsing and serve as holder for both the roof and the floor. Moreover, ensuring the
efficiency of the connection, the adobe bricks must be bonded very well to the tie
beams wood with a 2 cm mortar connecting them and then followed by adobe bricks
of 27 x 12 x 9 cm (Tanaçan, 2008). The lintel is usually above the door height level
beneath the roof cap (Figure 3.18). It usually sits above the door which is made of
timber unlike the usual lintel that is known to be as a ring round the building on a
regular lintel level.
58
Figure 3. 17: Turkey Representation of the adobe walls with the tie ring beam used
for reinforcement,
Source: (Tanacan, 2008: Reproduced)
Figure 3. 18: Adobe wall, showing the masonry layered bricks in Anatolia region,
Source: archdaily, Accessed July 2020
59
Foundation: The foundation is one of the most vital phase of the construction,
making reinforced foundation determines the sustainability of the building structural
integrity. The foundation of adobe building in Turkey the base is always a concrete
base which followed by a sandcrete course layer which is beneath the adobe wall but
maintaining the same dimension and thickness as the sandcrete layer so as to achieve
a uniform thickness from the foundation to the upper wall height. As mentioned
above, part of the reinforcement of the foundation, there is the application of 10 by
10 cm ring beam bonded with mortar to the concrete foundation layer with a
reinforcing steel wire (Tanaçan, 2008).
The standard for the depth of foundation ditch gives a minimum of 70 cm, with a
condition that it may vary or change depending on the soil type and condition. The
earthquake code allows the depth to reach up to 80 cm or lower than that, up to the
freezing level (The point of freezing is the level at which the surface temperature
drops below the 32 degrees level) of the construction site. Standards also ascertain
the width of the foundation to be 60 cm for two storey and 50 cm for a single storey
building and still the width dimension also might change depending on the soil
condition (Yorulmaz, 1981). The Figure 3.19 is showing the concrete foundation
underneath the concrete layers bonded with mortar, the bonding system popularly
known as English bonding (Tanaçan, 2008). The importance of the sandcrete layers
before the adobe layers is giving the adobe wall a stronger base which will prevent it
from decay, and also it will serve as a protection from the surface erosion. The adobe
concrete material is will resisit more pressure from the eroding soil and water in the
event of natural disaster.
60
Figure 3. 19: Foundation construction showing the sandcrete layer and the adobe
brick layer. Source: Tanacan, (2008)
Roof: The standard code for roofs calls for having a lighter weight roof structure
with 50 cm eaves out of the building. Earth covered roof is prohibited in some earth
quake zone like the Northern region of Turkey, but is allowed where the seismic
effect is less such as the Southern region (Ünal, 2014). This acceptable in situation
where the earth cover is not thicker than 13 cm. Standard also emphasizes on light
roofs, gives constructional details for several types of roofing including pitch tile
roof, as shown in Figure 3.20. The Figure shows the roof layers arranged after the
roof tile, mud, rashes, cane and timber beam. The roof is lightweight, not as heavy as
the mud roof.
61
Figure 3. 20: Graphical representation of roof together with wall to foundation
Source: (Hurol, Yüceer, & ġahali, 2015: Reproduced)
3.2.2.2.2 Constructional Use and Detailing of Adobe in Turkey
The identity of vernacular houses such as adobe is what defines it and gives meaning,
bearing the socio-cultural characteristics and physical ones from its original
62
architecture has a strong metaphor to be considered (Erarslan, 2018). While the
building structures depicts a certain symbol or sign that represents the culture or
tradition of the occupant. Behind it lies a certain knowledge, skill set, language and a
craftsmanship that has been succeeded for generation and possess qualities which are
deem to be peculiar to that particular settlement (Erarslan, 2018). The local
architectural setting depicts the unconscious identity of the community‟s day to day
life into material within its framework of certain requirements. This architecture
possesses features that have aesthetics and institutional claims, respect and
consideration shown of the existing context and natural environment as well as other
structures. The vernacular buildings in Turkey carries a cultural rather and ethnic
meaning (Cengiz, 2007) The Façade of adobe building in Turkey usually conceal the
adobe texture and is covered with a plaster and paint as shown in Figure 3.21.
Figure 3. 21: Adobe building façade in Turkey

Source: Erarslan, (2018)
3.2.3 Adobe Building Typology of Turkey
The building typology of adobe in Turkey varies especially in the general layout; the
typology of the buildings ranges within the rectangular type and rectangular with
square shape type of typologies and while circular and circular shaped incorporated
with other geometric shape typology are rare as described in Chapter 2. The plan
63
layout typologies as shown in Figure 3.22 are mostly a regular layout and less
nucleated (Erarslan, 2018). The topographic terrain in Turkey especially in the region
where tectonic plates moves, the plan typology is usually in modular layout which
helps the rigidity of the entire structure (Eriç, 2017). The typology of the adobe
building in Turkey is composed of terrace houses built on inclined plots of land, with
their grounds on top of each other. The houses are two or three stories, with their
heights varying in slope from the starting point of the parcel to its end (Ozorhon &
Ozorhon, 2014). Most of the buildings are having courtyards. The courtyards
regulates the climatic conditions in ways like; the courtyard increases ventilation and
keeps out the dust, the summer night courtyard air is kept uninterrupted for several
hours, It offers a mild micro climate making it a pleasant outdoor place to live and
the spaces attract light from the courtyard, and cool air (Sayigh, 1998). Figure 3.22
shows the different typologies of adobe building that are found in Turkey.
The first typology; the square shape is mostly found in the city areas which is having
a double story height. The adobe material is concealed with paint and plaster and the
windows are rectangular portrait made up of timber. This type of typology does not
have a courtyard. The second typology; the rectangular shape is also found in the
rural area which also incorporates the living spaces in one form. The nomads usually
are the occupants of this type of buildings. This particular typology also does not
have a courtyard; the compound of the house is being used for an outdoor function.
The third typology; an incorporation of two or three geometric forms with usually
arcade facade is the typology that is both found in the urban and rural areas, it
usually has a courtyard and also a semipublic living area for family activities and
events. There is also another typology which is a combination of square shape-like
spaces, and is only found in the rural areas. This type of adobe building is
constructed purely with adobe material and the material texture is not hidden. The
earth mortar is used as a finishing material on the wall surface. The typologies are
very regular and modular in pattern, which are quite understandable and readable
especially the spatial organization of the buildings. The typological classification
varies from the user and the function of the building (BektaĢ, 2007).
64
Figure 3. 22: Typology of adobe buildings in Turkey
Sources: Ozorhon & Ozorhon, 2014; Yüksek & Esin, 2013; Karaman & Zeren,
2015; Bekleyen, (1998)
65
CHAPTER 4
COMPARATIVE DATA AND ANALYSIS OF ADOBE BUILDING

IN NORTHERN NIGERIA AND TURKEY
4.1 Adobe Material Correlation
Adobe building material is generally a mixture of minimum of two to three

components. The mixture of the material is crucial to the building construction and
its structural integrity. There are different methods of treating the adobe material
mixture in different regions. Similarities and differences exist depending on the
geographical location and the building codes of the respective area. The material
mixture correlation between Northern Nigeria and Turkey has been studied and base
on the study, the following factors were identified.
4.1.1 Adobe Material in Northern Nigeria
Adobe material in Northern Nigeria is made up of sun-dried mud bricks molded from
the red laterite soil found in the surrounding area. The materials used are mud, water,
sand and shrubs. When masterfully sculpted, the red soil produces great materials to
construct walls and roofs, with high fiber content. Molding the bricks of the mud
walls often requires extensive mixing of laterite soil and water. The amount of mud
used is two-third of the entire mixture. It is assumed that the more the mud, the
stronger the mixture, so as to have a stronger conductivity. None of the materials
used are company manufactured or pre-fabricated. They are all manually and locally
produced. The straw in the mortar is also required to be one-third of the mixture, its
importance is to hold the mixture firmly and prevent it from decay as shown in
Figure 4.1 the mixing process and steps of adobe material. As seen in step A, the
material is been prepared on bare floor together with other mixing materials like the
water and straws. Step B shows the diluting and shuffling process where all the
materials are been mixed up and matched with bare foot so as to be compacted
together. Step C is the molding process of the adobe bricks after they are sculptured
from the frame work.
66
Figure 4. 1: Method of Material Mixture in Northern Nigeria
Source: Yar‟adua, Mudi, & Aliyu, (2012)
67
4.1.2 Adobe Material in Turkey
There are several materials used in the Adobe building materials in Turkey, namely;
earth, sand, straw, and water. The earth used in here is purely excavated from a 15
cm below the earth surface ground which is black in color, free form gravels, lumps
or shrubs, usually moist and less silty. The sand is extracted from the river with a
size of 1-3 mm grain. The straw fibers are also used mostly with a dimension of 40 x
60 x 120 cm reference. Water is very essential also to the mixture, which is added as
much as it is needed (Tanaçan, 2008). As shown in Figure 4.2 the mixture steps on
image (a) & (b) the material getting sieved to take out all the particles and shrubs,
40% of the ground soil is been examined from 0.062 mm sift and there should not be
gravel inside bigger than 3 cm. Image (c) & (d) showing the soil being prepped and
ready for usage, before mixing soil, water is been poured to the soil so as to soften
and disperse the compacted soil, the water content is not more than 8 litres to avoid
making the material mixture too dumpy. While in the image (e) the mud is being
mixed and match with legs for thorough mixing. The mud should be within the range
of 40% quantity, the image (f) & (g) shows the already mixed material been wrapped
in a canvas, the heat in the canvas improves the adhesive quality of the material. And
the last image (h) showing the material ready for construction. The mixture usually
contains less straw fibers so as to give the surface texture a smooth appearance,
having too much straw fiber in the mixture can cause the material mixture to loose
adhesion quality. Mud clay is more important in the mixture as it will be used during
the mixture process and also during the bonding process of the adobe brick.
The adobe applications in Turkey that were developed and used in structures similar
to the current vernacular architecture were typically built in two systems as with
large adobe walls and adobe systems with timber frames. The process used in the
manufacture of adobe material is almost similar everywhere around Turkey, though
the clay shows regional differences.
68
Figure 4. 2: Adobe material mixture methods in turkey
Source: Dalkılıç & Nabikoğlu (2017)
69
4.1.3 Comparison of Adobe Building Material in Northern Nigeria and Turkey
Mixture: The adobe material mixture of Turkey and Northern Nigeria are most
restively similar (Table 4.1). The mixture in Northern Nigeria is mostly done on a
bare floor close to the construction site for easier movement of the bricks to the
layering site. The mixture consists of mud, straw, water, sand (from the river bank).
The predominant method used to shuffle the mixture materials is the use of feet to
parade on the materials to make it compact together and sticky so as to make the
mortar stronger. In Turkey the mixing method is relatively the same with Nigeria.
The only notable difference is after the mortar is been mixed it is covered with
canvas so as to improve the material strength and let it stabilized and improving the
material quality. The material is covered for 2-3 days and then it will be ready for
construction usage. Stones and gravels are also used in the adobe material mixture in
order to increase the structural strength and compatibility of the material mixtures in
Turkey.
Table 4. 1: Adobe material Comparison between Turkey and Northern Nigeria

Northern Nigeria Turkey
Mud/earth Earth
Grass/ straw fibers Straw
Water Water
Sand Sand
Type: The type of adobe brick that has been used in Northern Nigeria are mostly
traditional and compressed type of adobe brick. While pressed and burnt adobe brick
is the predominant type of adobe bricks used in Turkey. The type of the adobe brick
of Northern Nigeria and Turkey is conventional type. In Northern Nigeria where
CEB bricks are used, the anti-seismic bricks are been used for construction but are
very rare. The CEB nowadays are only found the the urban areas due to their
production process. The production require a machinery which is costly than the
traditional method of producing adobe bricks.
70
Figure 4.3 and 4.4 shows the types of adobe bricks used in Northern Nigeria and
Turkey, respectively. The adobe bricks in Northern Nigeria moulded using the timber
form work the Adobe bricks in Turkey undergoing burning process after moulding.
Figure 4. 3: Adobe bricks of Northern Nigeria

Source: Olotuah & Taiwo, (2013)
Figure 4. 4: Adobe bricks of Turkey
Source: Tanacan, (2008)
Physical Properties: The physical property of adobe in Northern Nigeria differs from
the one of Turkey. The percentage of mud used in the Northern Nigeria is relatively
higher than the one in Turkey. The fiber content is also higher which makes the
texture more rough and coarse. The pebbles content in Turkey is also higher than
Northern Nigeria. Similarly the dimensions of the bricks are relatively comparable.
As described on the previous sections, it is now identified that the material mixture
correlation between adobe of Northern Nigeria and Turkey are considered to be
71
relatively similar, with a few obvious differences in the material components.
However, the procedure and the mixture are hereby considered to have some
similarities in the production and differences as explained.
4.2 Structural and Constructional Elements Correlation
Structural elements in buildings play a significant role in improving the structural

integrity of any particular building. In adobe buildings; the structural components
differ pertaining the geographical location or the context of the building site. In this
section, the structural systems which include the foundation, wall and roof will be
analyzed referencing with the scope of the thesis analyzing base on the CI/SfB
manual structure and sub structure category.
4.2.1 Structural and Constructional Elements in Northern Nigeria
Foundation: The foundation of adobe building in Northern Nigeria has a depth of

40-60 cm and a width range of 50-60 cm. The foundation layer configuration is
simply the juxtaposition of mortar base then followed by the adobe brick layer
course. Moreover, 4-5 layers of the adobe bricks have been buried as the foundation
which aligns with the floor surface, as seen in Figure 4.5.
Figure 4. 5: Adobe foundation in Northern Nigeria
72
Wall: The adobe wall in Northern Nigeria has a width of 15-25 cm including the
finishing plaster the wall height does not exceed 200-250 cm for fence, and for the
interior space is in between 250-300 cm The wall surface is coarse and rough with
visible straws and in another method the surface is been covered and treated with
ornamentation and engravings. Although majority of the walls are not having the
ornamentation feature as shown in Figure 4.6. The impregnation method of finishing
is also used in Northern Nigeria
Figure 4. 6: Adobe Wall of Northern Nigeria
Roof: The roofing systems of Northern Nigeria are basically two types of roofing
systems, the flat muddy roof and the thatch pitch roof. The use of the steel zinc sheet
is currently dominating the roofing system of adobe buildings in Nigeria as shown in
Figure 4.7. Grass thatch straw which is labeled (A) is one of the oldest known
building materials. It is used to strengthen earth construction and roofing in the form
of thatch or straw. It has tensile strength to compact the soil and improves its
compressive strength. The mud flat roof labeled (B) is the most dominantly used
nowadays over the thatch roof, its more heavier and helps more especially resistant
to wind and rain. The best way to roof wide rectangular interiors was by installing
brackets on one or both sides of the room to minimize width. The brackets are flat
topped representations of one or more rod layers set in rows.
73
Figure 4. 7: Roof structures in Northern Nigeria
4.2.2 Structural and Constructional Elements in Turkey
Foundation: The adobe foundation in Turkey is deeper in depth, having about 70-80
cm and a width of 60-70 cm. The foundation layers ranging from bottom to top are
pebbles of stones on top of mortar, followed by a sandcrete brick of 3-4 layers, and
then followed by adobe bricks. The sandcrete layer is also visible from the surface as
shown in Figure 4.8. The presence of the stones beneath the sandcrete brick helps in
maintaining the strength of the wall.
74
Figure 4. 8: Adobe Foundation in Turkey
Wall: In Turkey, the wall surface of adobe building is normally smooth with plaster
and paint. The thickness ranges between 15-25 cm and a height of 250-350 cm as
seen in Figure 45. The wall surface in Turkey is predominantly smooth and in some
rural areas it is found to be rough and coarse depending on the location. It is known
to be the more urbanized the area, the more advanced the building.
Figure 4. 9: Adobe Wall in Turkey
75
Roof: The roofing systems of adobe buildings in Turkey is also pitch roof and rarely
in the rural areas there are mud flat roof and dome as shown in Figure 4.10. In
Turkey, unlike Northern Nigeria the pitch roof is a tile roof, which is heavier than the
steel sheet zinc of Northern Nigerian Roofing system.
Figure 4. 10: Adobe Roofing system in Turkey
4.2.3 Comparison of Structural and Constructional elements in Turkey and

Northern Nigeria
The comparison between the structure and sub-structural elements of Northern

Nigeria and Turkey shows that the foundation depth of Northern Nigeria is shallower
than the foundation of Turkey. The difference is almost about 30 cm difference of the
depth of the foundation. The width also is another factor that is also not very
different as Turkey is having 60-70 cm of width while Northern Nigeria is having
50-60 cm depth. Another notable factor in the foundation formation is that in Turkey
there is a layer of stones laid beneath the foundation course before the adobe brick of
about 2 courses. It is then followed by the concrete brick layers and after that the
adobe brick layers on top, while in Northern Nigeria; the base of the foundation is
mud mortar or cement in some cases. It is then followed by the adobe brick course
right after the mortar that was poured in the foundation ditch. Furthermore, another
factor is not part of the analyzed structural elements but it was observed in Northern
Nigeria. The floor finishing after the foundation is earth layer beneath cement, while
76
in Turkey the finishing of the floor comprises of local marble, mortar and then
finishing material on top layer.
Similarly, the wall structure of Northern Nigeria is also having a discrepancy with
Turkey as it is shown in the comparison Figure 40 that the wall in is thicker than the
wall in Northern Nigeria, with a standard deviation of about 5 cm. The wall of adobe
buildings in Turkey is coated with adobe mortar and rubbles, while in Northern
Nigeria they add a mixture of cement with mortar and in the urbanized areas the
mortar is the only wall covering element used. The wall height and the finishing
materials will be discussed in detail in further Sections (4.3).
The roof structure of both countries also has some correspondence. Thus among the
three types of roofs, it shows that in Northern Nigeria they mostly use the zinc pitch
gable roof and the flat mud roof. The structural support is the buttress, the Timber
beams beneath. In some of the rural areas the thatch roofing system is still in use.
However, in Turkey the most dominant type of roof is the tile pitch roof. The other
one is the flat mud roof which is being used rarely, more especially in the urban
settlement. The thatch roof not often used because of its high fire safety risk. Figure
4.11 shows the comparative relation of the structural constructional component of
Turkey and Northern Nigeria.
77
78
Figure 4. 11: Comparison between the structures of Northern Nigeria and Turkey
4.3 Building Typology
The main building component that made up a structure distinguishable from other
buildings are the building typology. The three categories of the building typology
which are the plan layout, façade design, floor height and dimension of Northern
Nigeria and Turkey will be studied and analyzed.
4.3.1 Adobe Building Typology in Northern Nigeria
Plan Layout: The plan layout of Northern Nigeria is mostly irregular as seen in
Figure 4.12. The plan configuration has been influenced by the space function.
However there are fewer regular shapes of circular and rectangular shapes found
mostly in rural and urban areas, respectively. The plan layout has a visible foyer
which is a mandatory requirement in Hausa traditional houses. The foyer is the
entrance space that segregates the semi-public space of the building to the main
households. The zoning of the layout depends on the type of occupant residing in the
building. The family houses comprises of more spaces, mostly randomly built to
satisfy the needs of the residents.
Figure 4. 12: Plan Layout of Northern Nigeria
79
Façade: The facade typology of adobe building in Northern Nigeria signifies a
particular rhythm and portrays the social status of the owner of the house, as shown
in the Figure 4.13. The standard residential house in some types of façade usually is
plain and does not have any ornamentation apart from the plaster finishing or the
impregnation surface finishing
Figure 4. 13: Adobe building typology of Northern Nigeria
Floor height and dimension: The floor height and dimension in Northern Nigeria are
relatively similar to the standard of Turkey. The height of a single story building is
between the ranges of 200-300 cm. Two story buildings are very rare in Northern
Nigeria due to the lack of structural strength (See Figure 4.14).
80
Figure 4. 14: Adobe building floor height of Northern Nigeria
4.3.2 Adobe Building Typology in Turkey
Plan Layout: The building typologies of adobe structures in Turkey are mostly
regular in shape. The shape of the layout is basically standardised based on the layout
shown in Figure 4.15. The L-shape and the rectangular shape are the predominant
type of adobe building layout in Turkey.
Figure 4. 15: Adobe Plan layout in layout

81
Façade: The façade of adobe building in Turkey is predominantly plain in sight, also
in texture. The façade does not have any ornamentation or distinctive detailing like
the one of Northern Nigeria. The adobe building facades in Turkey in some areas
have a visible wooden timber beam which is within the wall structure and is been
used often for aesthetic function to make the façade looks appealing. However, in the
rural remote areas, the façade of adobe buildings are found to be coarse and rough.
There is also presence of plaster and paint finishing as it is found in the city
settlement as shown in Figure 4.16.
Figure 4. 16: Façade layout of Turkey
Floor height and dimension: The floor height of adobe building in Turkey for a
single story building for 40 cm of wall thickness to have 250 cm height, and for 50
cm of wall thickness to have 300 cm height, and for 60 cm thickness to have 350 cm
height. The earthquake code restricts this height to 270 cm for all instances. Figure
4.17 shows the different building height of adobe building in different geographical
location in Turkey.
82
Figure 4. 17: Adobe Building Height of Turkey
4.3.3 Comparison of Adobe Building Typologies of Northern Nigeria and

Turkey.
The general comparison of the plan layout between the Northern Nigeria and Turkey
reveals that Northern Nigeria has a very diverse plan layout which comprises of a
regular and irregular layout, nucleated and dense configuration. The most dominant
plan layout is mostly the nucleated which has a middle courtyard surrounded by
other spaces such as rooms, storage, toilet and foyer. The plan layout is strongly been
influenced by the cultural practices and religious norms of making a distinctive
segregation between the private and public spaces. The lifestyle of the occupants of
Hausa community also made the plan organization adopt the zoning approach of the
households, for example the area of extended family. Meanwhile in Turkey the plan
layout is regular and having a modular arrangement, the layout is said to be a
standard layout for adobe building in Turkey.
The façade configuration of Northern Nigeria is mainly the unique obvious identity
that define the aesthetical function of adobe building in the Hausa land, the fine
engravings and arts works. Hausa buildings decorations illustrate the peak and zenith
of the feeling of celebration that exist in a local and rural builder, traditionally, being
expressive of nature and human being. These decorations are being made with as
much colors and delight, worthy of a depiction to a visual artist on a masterpieces.
The façade openings are also in proportion with each other and they are also
83
decorated with the three category of façade deign, calligraphy, surface deign and
ornamental. Meanwhile, the façade of adobe buildings in Turkey are not as
distinctively unique as the one in Northern Nigeria. The façade are mostly simple
and minimalistic in terms of design approach and construction. One of the most
obvious elements on the façade is the structural tie beams which are placed
symmetrically into the wall. The openings are also proportionally arranged. The most
distinctive difference between façade of Northern Nigeria and Turkey is the fact that
in Turkey the façade of the adobe is being painted with painting material. The adobe
texture is always concealed with cement plaster or paint, only few places especially
the remote areas tend to leave the façade without any paint or cladding.
On the other hand, in Northern Nigeria the surface of the façade is commonly having
the texture and visual appearance of the adobe mud brick, very few buildings have a
cladding or paint of any kind. Figure 4.18 shows the general comparison of adobe
building typologies between Northern Nigeria and Turkey.
84
85
Figure 4.18: Building typology comparison
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION
5.1 Conclusion
As a recap of this thesis, the research reveals the true identity of the vernacular
adobe structure of Northern Nigeria and Turkey, with a distinctive distinguishable
differences and similarities that answers the questions to things that were not
identified. It has come to a conclusion that base on the elements that were compared,
studied and analysed (CI/SfB category). There has been a gap of parameters between
the adobe building or Northern Nigeria and Turkey. The first component is the
foundation.
The importance of adobe buildings materials was highlighted. Adobe material is
indeed very sustainable, economical and effective as a low cost building material. Its
mechanical and physical properties proved it to be user friendly and acquirable.
It was also identified that the problems associated with adobe buildings in Northern
Nigeria are mostly structural problems. The adobe brick has no strengthening
materials apart from mortar and brick itself. The foundation starting from the base
has no strengthening element that can hold it to the ground. The foundation is
considered to be weak and in need of more reinforcement. Although there are
currently some architects and builders in Northern Nigeria that uses sandcrete layers
in the foundation so increase its strength. The usage of stone pebbles beneath the
foundation wall is also identified in Turkey; while in Northern Nigeria the
foundation base is purely mortar and adobe brick course. This is also recognised as
one of contributing factor of the foundation problem in adobe buildings of Northern
Nigeria.
The wall structure is also having structural problems. In Northern Nigeria the plaster
of the wall is usually earth mortar or cement mortar which are usually heavy and end
up cracking. The wall is made up of adobe bricks bonded with earthen mortar or
finishing material, which lacks any structural element to support it for example the
86
ring tie beam as it is used in Turkey. These problems attributed to adobe building of
Northern Nigeria are mostly associated with a lack of standardized dimension and
expertise during the building construction.
The Turkish adobe building standard among the other peer standards stand out to be
the most comprehensive and more detail standard that covers majority of the adobe
building aspect and characteristics with a defined specifications. This is why the
Turkish standard was used as a case study to outline the recommended dimensions of
adobe building in Northern Nigeria The adobe building standards of New Zealand,
New Mexico are less comprehensive and detailed enough to be used as a case study
for the derivation of buildings standards. The standards of both countries need to be
revised and developed.
Furthermore, similarities and differences were identified between the adobe building
of Northern Nigeria and Turkey. The material mixture in Northern Nigeria is not as
thorough as the mixture process in Turkey. In Northern Nigeria the mixture
preparation takes less time in the making and also the materials treatment like
treating the mixed earth in a canvas and preserve for few days. The advantage of that
is to increase the structural and compressive strength of the material. The absence of
gravels in the material mixture in Northern Nigeria is also another difference with the
material mixture in Turkey. The gravels also helps in improving the structural
stability of the mixture. Furthermore, another difference is the usage of ring tie beam
in Turkey while in Nigeria is not found. As highlighted in the thesis, the ring tie
beam plays a very important role in improving the structural stability of the adobe
wall. The beam also controls the lateral kinetic forces of the wall especially in
seismic conditions. The façade organisation and ornamentation is another factor that
differentiates the adobe building of both countries. The presence of engravings and
ornamentations with the arabesque calligraphy design is found in majority of the
adobe buildings of Northern Nigeria while in Turkey there is not. The engravings are
only for aesthetic and identity purpose, they do not possess any structural
characteristics. The wall finishing of adobe buildings in Turkey is plaster with paint
87
and adobe mortar finishing, coarse and grainy. The texture is mostly smooth and
plain, while in some places the timber studs are been used to decorate the façade.
This thesis which comprises of the above mentioned studies is not enough and
sufficient to fill in the gap of the need for adobe material studies of Northern Nigeria.
There is need for more studies and research in this field. There is hope that more
researchers will also give focus to contribute to the knowledge on adobe buildings.
5.2 Recommendations
After the thorough study and observation of adobe building in Nigeria, there are
some notable areas and aspects which will be subjected to correction and fixing.
Therefore, the following recommendations and suggestions will be of great benefit
and important if adopted to the adobe construction sector in Northern Nigeria and the
whole country at large.
-Foundation depth should be more increased to a deeper length which will give the
foundation more stronger status. Recommending 65-75 cm depth.
-The foundation base should be more strengthen by the use of sandcrete base and
concrete which will make the entire building stronger with a sustainable structural
integrity.
-The usage of wall strengthening elements like the ring beam and mid wall columns.
-The reduction of heavy plaster for the wall surface finishing. The wall plaster
dimension for adobe bundling should be within the range of 1-2 cm thick depending
on the mechanical properties of the earth.
- Alker material is also another material than improves the stability and strenght of
adobe. Research has proven the material as economically and ecologically
sustainable; it also has a low embodied energy, low heat transfer value and
substantial health benefit.
88
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COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN ADOBE BUILDINGS IN NORTHERN NIGERIA

Thesis · August 2020

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COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN ADOBE

Yakubu Sabo ABDULLAHI

INSTITUTE OF GRADUATE STUDIES AND RESEARCH

COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN ADOBE

Yakubu Sabo ABDULLAHI

COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN ADOBE

Yakubu Sabo ABDULLAHI

THESIS APPROVAL CERTIFICATE

Thesis Defence Date: 10/08/2020

Jury Members Signature

1) Asst. Prof. Dr. Pervin Abohorlu DOĞRAMACI ……………..

2) Asst. Prof. Dr. AyĢe ÖZTÜRK ......................

3) Asst. Prof. Dr. TuğĢad TÜLBENTÇĠ ………….......

Prof. Dr. Tahir ÇELĠK

Title of Dissertation: Comparative Study between Adobe Buildings in Northern

Supervisor(s): Asst. Prof. Dr. Pervin Abohorlu DOĞRAMACI

I hereby declare that the Cyprus International University, Institute of Graduate

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................... iii

TABLE OF CONTENT ............................................................................................. iiii

LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................... vii

LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................. viii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................1

1.1 Background of the study .................................................................................... 1

1.2 Problem Statement………………………………………………………….….2

1.4 Scope and Limitation. ........................................................................................ 3

1.5 Methodology ...................................................................................................... 4

1.6 Research Questions……………………………………………………….……4

1.7 Structure of the Thesis ....................................................................................... 4

CHAPTER 2: ADOBE AS A BUILDING MATERIAL .............................................6

2.1 Adobe Types and Use in Building Production ................................................... 6

2.1.1 Mixture, Types, Mechanical and Physical Properties ................................. 6

2.1.2 Adobe Use in Building Construction ........................................................ 12

2.1.2.1 Structural Use: Structural Elements .................................................... 13

2.1.2.2 Constructional Use and Detailing………………………………...….19

2.2 Adobe Building Typologies ............................................................................. 24

2.3 International Adobe Building Standards .......................................................... 26

2.3.1 Northern Nigeria Adobe Building Standards ............................................ 29

2.3.2 Turkish Adobe Building Standards…………………………,…………...33

CHAPTER 3: OVERVIEW OF ADOBE ARCHITECTURE IN NIGERIA AND

3.1 Adobe Architecture of Northern Nigeria ......................................................... 32

3.1.1 Overview of the Northern Nigerian Settlement......................................... 35

3.1.2 Adobe Material in Northern Nigeria ......................................................... 39

3.1.2.1 Mixture Types And Physical Properties in Northern Nigeria ............. 39

3.1.2.2 Use of Adobe in Building Construction in Northern Nigeria ............. 41

3.1.2.2.1 Structural Use in Northern Nigeria ……………………......39

3.2 Adobe Architecture in Turkey ......................................................................... 52

3.2.1 Overview of Turkish Settlement ............................................................... 53

3.2.2 Adobe Material in Turkey ......................................................................... 55

3.2.2.1 Mixture Types and Physical Properties of Adobe Material in Turkey 56

3.2.2.2 Use of Adobe in Building Construction in Turkey ............................. 57

3.2.2.2.1 Structural Use in Turkey……………………………..…....52

CHAPTER 4: COMPARATIVE DATA AND ANALYSIS OF ADOBE BUILDING

4.1 Adobe Material Correlation ............................................................................. 66

4.1.1 Adobe Material in Northern Nigeria ......................................................... 66

4.1.2 Adobe Material in Turkey ......................................................................... 67