C 06 From Chromosomes To Genomes

AREA OF STUDY 1 HOW IS INHERITANCE EXPLAINED?
From chromosomes to
6 genomes
KEY KNOWLEDGE
In this topic, you will investigate:
From chromosomes to genomes
• the distinction between genes, alleles and a genome
• the nature of a pair of homologous chromosomes carrying the same gene loci and the
distinction between autosomes and sex chromosomes
• variability of chromosomes in terms of size and number in different organisms
• karyotypes as a visual representation that can be used to identify chromosome abnormalities
• the production of haploid gametes from diploid cells by meiosis, including the significance of
crossing over of chromatids and independent assortment for genetic diversity
Source: VCE Biology Study Design (2022–2026) extracts © VCAA; reproduced by permission.
PRACTICAL WORK AND INVESTIGATIONS

Practical work is a central component of learning and assessment. Experiments and
investigations, supported by a practical investigation eLogbook and teacher-led videos,
are included in this topic to provide opportunities to undertake investigations and communicate
findings.
6.1 Overview
Numerous videos and interactivities are available just where you need them, at the point of learning, in your
digital formats, learnON and eBookPLUS at www.jacplus.com.au.
6.1.1 Introduction
FIGURE 6.1 Chromosomes were
Do you share any characteristics with people around you at the discovered to carry genes — the
moment? If so, what are they? Do you share any characteristics with basis of heredity — by American
your parents or grandparents? Do you look like any siblings you geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan
in 1910.
might have?
Answering these questions can be achieved through simple
observation. Seeking an explanation to these questions, however,
requires a knowledge of chromosomes, DNA, genes, alleles and
genomes. An intimate knowledge of these concepts was not achieved
until relatively recently and there is still much research being
conducted by scientists today.
In this topic, you will learn about the importance of genes, their
various forms and their contribution towards the genome of an
organism. You will learn how variability in chromosome number, size
and shape contribute towards genotypic and phenotypic differences.
You will also understand how autosomes are different from sex
chromosomes and the concept of homologous chromosomes. You
will examine the importance of karyotyping in identifying genetic
abnormalities and understand how meiosis produces variation in
haploid daughter cells.
LEARNING SEQUENCE
6.1 Overview ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 352
6.2 BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE The role of chromosomes as structures that package DNA ...............................353
6.3 The distinction between genes, alleles and a genome ....................................................................................................... 357
6.4 Homologous chromosomes, autosomes and sex chromosomes .................................................................................. 369
6.5 Variability of chromosomes ............................................................................................................................................................375
6.6 Karyotypes ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 382
6.7 Production of haploid gametes .................................................................................................................................................... 392
6.8 Review ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 402
Resources
Resourceseses
eWorkbook eWorkbook — Topic 6 (ewbk-3164)
Practical investigation eLogbook Practical investigation eLogbook — Topic 6 (elog-0166)
Digital documents Key science skills — VCE Biology Units 1–4 (doc-34648)
Key terms glossary — Topic 6 (doc-34654)
Key ideas summary — Topic 6 (doc-34665)
352 Jacaranda Nature of Biology 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Sixth Edition

6.2 BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE The role of
chromosomes as structures that package DNA
BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE
This subtopic will review concepts from the Biological sciences of Levels 9 and 10 to help you understand key
knowledge points of the Study Design for Units 1 & 2.
• The relationship between DNA and chromosomes
6.2.1 Why are chromosomes important?

Located in the nucleus in almost all cells are chromosomes. These thread-like
structures are composed of a single molecule of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) chromosome a thread-like
structure composed of DNA and
and associated proteins (figure 6.2). Chromosomes are not only found in human protein
cells, but in almost all eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Their exact chemical deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
composition, size and shape can differ between cells but their presence in so many nucleic acid containing the four
cell types indicates their importance for life. bases — adenine, guanine,
cytosine and thymine — which
The question then is, why are chromosomes so important? To answer this we need forms the major component
of chromosomes and contains
to examine their structure more carefully. This structure differs slightly depending coded genetic instructions
on whether the DNA is present in eukaryotic or prokaryotic cells.
FIGURE 6.2 a. Stained chromosomes are visible in salivary gland cells undergoing cell division.
b. SEM image of human chromosomes
a. b.
6.2.2 Eukaryotic chromosome structure

There is a huge quantity of DNA inside cells; in fact, a typical human cell
contains approximately 2 metres of DNA! This volume of DNA needs to be gene a section of a
chromosome that codes for a
carefully packaged into a cell of an average size of only 30 μm (0.00003 m). protein through the order of the
This packaging must be done in such a way that the genes retain their chemical nucleotide base sequence it
make-up and physical position. possesses
histone a protein found in
Eukaryotic chromosomes are composed of two main ingredients — DNA and eukaryotic chromosomes that
proteins called histones. A small section of DNA coils tightly around a core assists in packaging the DNA
nucleosome a section of
of eight histones to form a nucleosome, which in turn combines with other
supercoiled DNA around
nucleosomes to form supercoils of tightly compacted DNA (figure 6.3). histones
TOPIC 6 From chromosomes to genomes 353

FIGURE 6.3 Coiling and supercoiling of DNA, forming chromosomes
Nucleosome Chromosome
Linker DNA
Core of histones
DNA
The coiling of DNA around histones to form nucleosomes enables the huge quantity of DNA to condense.
This condensed DNA is now known as chromatin. Specific enzymes can control how tightly the chromatin is
packaged, which in turn can regulate how easily certain genes within these sections are expressed. Ultimately,
this coiling around the histones means the physical space into which the DNA can fit is dramatically reduced.
The integrity of the DNA is also maintained, meaning its chemical composition has not been altered, and so the
information encoded by the DNA is preserved in this process. The chromosomes formed can also be more easily
manoeuvred to the poles of the cell during cell division.
TIP: Be careful to ensure that you refer to the condensed DNA as chromatin. A common exam mistake is instead
writing chromatid, which is one half of a replicated chromosome. Many words in biology sound very similar but
have very different meanings.
If you have ever had to coil a long length of hose, you will know that it is
much easier to do if you have something to coil the hose around. This is
a useful model for how DNA is coiled around the histones.
Resources
Resourceseses
Video eLesson Coiling and supercoiling of DNA (eles-4140)
chromatin a mass of genetic

material composed of DNA and
proteins that condense to form
chromosomes during eukaryotic
cell division

6.2.3 Prokaryotic chromosome structure
Prokaryotic cells also have their DNA packaged into chromosomes. However, their DNA is usually in the form
of a single circular chromosome rather than the several linear chromosomes we find in eukaryotes (see topic 1).
The DNA that makes up the single chromosome is also less condensed compared to DNA in eukaryotes because
histones are not used in the supercoiling process. Nevertheless, the DNA in prokaryotes is still coiled very
tightly, forming the distinctive loops and twists characteristic of supercoiled DNA (figure 6.4). This looping and
twisting is the result of supercoiling of the DNA double helix.
FIGURE 6.4 a. Looping and twisting of DNA of the single circular chromosome in bacteria compared to human
DNA b.The bacterium E. coli surrounded by its supercoiled DNA, which has been released from the cell
a. Human DNA b.
Bacterial DNA
For both eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells, if the DNA is not packaged properly:
• it will not physically fit into the cell, resulting in the loss of genetic information
• the cell will not be able to distribute the DNA during cell division and so daughter cells will not receive the
correct genetic information.
CASE STUDY: Mitochondrial DNA

Mitochondria contain their own DNA, which comprises of
approximately 16 500 base pairs that code for 13 proteins. When FIGURE 6.5 Mitochondria contain
mitochondrial chromosomes are examined, they are found to be their own DNA.
very different from eukaryotic chromosomes. Mitochondrial
chromosomes do not contain any proteins and are circular, meaning
they are very similar to prokaryotic chromosomes. This is important
evidence in support of endosymbiotic theory (see topic 1).
mitochondria in eukaryotic
cells, organelles that are the
major site of ATP production;
singular = mitochondrion

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1 Comparing and contrasting eukaryotic and prokaryotic
tlvd-1753 chromosomes
Compare and contrast the features of chromosomes present in eukaryotes and
prokaryotes. (3 marks)
THINK WRITE
1. Identify what the question is asking you to do. Both involve supercoiling to condense the DNA
This question asks you to both compare (find molecule, reducing the physical space that the
the similarities) and contrast (find the DNA occupies.
differences). Start by describing the
similarities.
2. Contrast the two differences. When you Eukaryotic DNA is coiled around histones to
contrast, ensure that you address both cell produce nucleosomes. This condensed DNA is called
types, not just one. chromatin. However, prokaryotic chromosomes do
not contain histones and therefore do not contain
nucleosomes or chromatin. Eukaryotic chromosomes
are linear whereas prokaryotic chromosomes are
circular.
3. Bring both aspects of your answer together. The DNA in both cell types is highly twisted,
producing supercoiled DNA, which reduces the
physical space into which the DNA can fit (1 mark).
However, eukaryotic DNA is coiled around histones
to produce nucleosomes. This condensed DNA is
called chromatin. However, prokaryotic chromosomes
do not contain histones and therefore do not contain
nucleosomes or chromatin (1 mark). Eukaryotic
chromosomes are linear, however prokaryotic
chromosomes are circular (1 mark).
INVESTIGATION 6.1
elog-0063
Extraction of DNA from kiwi fruit
Aim
To extract DNA from within the nucleus of cells in a kiwi fruit
KEY IDEAS
• Chromosomes are condensed single molecules of DNA with associated proteins.
• Condensing of DNA allows a great deal of genetic information to be stored in a cell.
• Prokaryotic chromosomes do not contain proteins within their structure.
• Chromosomes that are highly condensed can be safely moved around the cell during cell division.

6.2 Activities
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go to
your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. A downloadable solutions file is also available in the resources tab.
6.2 Quick quiz 6.2 Exercise
6.2 Exercise
1. State the two major components of eukaryotic chromosomes.
2. DNA is negatively charged but histones are positively charged. Explain why this is an advantage to the cell.
3. The human cell contains approximately 2 metres in length of DNA. Explain why E. coli cells cannot contain such
a large volume of DNA.
4. A mutation in the gene that codes for histone protein production has been found in a cell. Explain a
consequence of this mutation in the ability of a cell to package its DNA.
5. Suggest why cells undergoing replication with uncondensed DNA are more at risk of DNA damage occurring
during the cell division process.
6. Cells can control access to their DNA by modifying their chromatin so that some sections are more tightly
packed than others. For cells in the retina of the eye, explain whether the insulin gene is tightly packaged
or not.
6.3 The distinction between genes, alleles and

a genome
KEY KNOWLEDGE
• The distinction between genes, alleles and a genome
6.3.1 DNA and its bases

In the previous subtopic we learned about the importance of chromosomes in storing huge quantities of DNA.
We also know that the DNA has specific sections, called genes, which possess the information to code for
proteins.
CASE STUDY: DNA and its bases

The genetic material of an organism is its DNA. DNA is a complex molecule built of many basic building blocks
called nucleotides, which contain a phosphate group, a nitrogenous base and a sugar (deoxyribose). There are
four bases — adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C) and guanine (G). The nucleotides form long chains, with
bases on one chain pairing in a specific manner with bases on a second chain. This pairing occurs according
to Chargaff’s rules — adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine pairs with guanine to form a complete DNA
molecule with the famous double-helix shape (figure 6.6).
Further information can be found in the digital document.

FIGURE 6.6 The double-helix shape of DNA showing complementary base pairing nucleotide a sub-unit of DNA
consisting of a phosphate group,
3' 3' 5'
a nitrogenous base and a sugar
G C
adenine (A) one of the purine bases
T A
found in the nucleotides that are the
1 spiral coil: 3–4 nm

A T
building blocks of DNA (and RNA)
T thymine (T) one of the pyrimidine
T A bases found in the nucleotides that
C G are the building blocks of DNA
A T cytosine (C) one of the pyrimidine
bases found in the nucleotides that
are the building blocks of DNA (and
Sugar–phosphate backbone RNA)
G C
C
guanine (G) one of the purine bases
G
found in the nucleotides that are the
A T
building blocks of DNA (and RNA)
A
Chargaff’s rules the relative
T proportions of bases A and T are
T A equal and C and G are equal
3' 5' genome the sum total of an
organism’s DNA
5' Adenine (A) Thymine (T) Guanine (G) Cytosine (C)
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital document Case study: DNA and its bases (doc-36101)
6.3.2 How do genes differ?

Genes are sequences of bases located on chromosomes that code for specific proteins. These proteins control a
particular characteristic or trait of the organism.
Every genetic instruction can be shown as a sequence of bases in the nucleotides that form the DNA of the
gene. The genetic material of all organisms is DNA and the structure of DNA is identical, regardless of whether
it comes from wheat, jellyfish, wombats, bacteria, insects or humans. In all organisms, genes are built of the
same alphabet of four letters, namely the A, T, C and G of the bases in the nucleotide sub-units of DNA. So the
genetic instruction kit of the great white shark, that of an oak tree and that of a human consists of thousands of
different instructions, each made up of DNA with different base sequences.
These proteins control nearly every aspect of cellular function. Some genes code for enzymes that catalyse
important chemical reactions such as those involved in cellular respiration or photosynthesis. Others produce
fibrous proteins such as keratin, which is the structural material present in hair, skin, nails, feather and horns.
Alternatively, regulatory genes code for proteins that are involved in controlling how other genes are expressed.
There are an estimated 20 000 to 25 000 genes in the human genome, but only around 1 per cent of our DNA
is classified as containing genes. The other 99 per cent of bases do not code for a protein and scientists are still
working to understand the specific function of the so-called non-coding regions.
How much DNA is in a gene?

An average gene consists of about 3000 base pairs (bp). Genes, however, differ markedly in size (figure 6.7).
The longest human gene is the DMD gene that encodes the muscle protein dystrophin and is 2 220 223
nucleotides long. An error in this gene is the cause of the inherited disorder Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
Among the shortest human genes is a gene that encodes a histone protein and consists of about
500 nucleotides.

FIGURE 6.7 a. Human male sex chromosomes. The larger of the two chromosomes shown is the X chromosome.
The DMD gene is found here along with approximately another 800 genes across 153 million base pairs.
b. Space-filling molecular model of the DMD protein. During protein production, each sequence of three bases
codes for a specific amino acid. In the DMD protein there are 3685 amino acids!
a. b.
EXTENSION: How does DNA produce a protein?

The information to produce a protein is in the specific order and sequence of the four
messenger RNA (mRNA)
nitrogenous bases. A copy of the sequence of DNA bases is made in the form of single-stranded RNA formed by
another information molecule called messenger RNA (mRNA). The base thymine (T) transcription of a DNA template
is replaced by uracil (U) in the strand of mRNA. This mRNA molecule leaves the strand in the nucleus; mRNA
nucleus, and each sequence of three bases codes for one of 20 amino acids. The carries a copy of the genetic
order of the amino acids determines the shape, and in turn, the specific function information into the cytoplasm
of the protein (figure 6.8).
FIGURE 6.8 Overview of protein synthesis. The DNA base sequence of each gene differs and therefore so
does the sequence of amino acids in a protein.
A T G C C T G G C C A A T G C
DNA sequence of gene
T A C G G A C C G G T T A C G
Transcription
A U G C C U G G C C A A U G C
mRNA sequence of gene
Translation
MET PRO GLY GLN CYS Amino acid sequence

6.3.3 Alleles — forms of a gene
In many organisms, pairs of chromosomes exist with the same genes at the same locations. One chromosome is
inherited from each parent and so each individual has two copies of every gene. Less than 1 per cent of these
copies can have a slightly different sequence of nitrogenous bases and therefore code for slightly different
proteins. These alternative forms of genes are called alleles (figure 6.9). One gene can have several alleles, and
each is identified in terms of its specific action.
The effect of alleles of a single gene can be demonstrated by the ability to taste a
bitter chemical called phenylthiocarbamide (PTC). This gene (TAS2R38) is located alleles the different forms of a
particular gene
on chromosome 7. One allele codes for a protein that acts as a taste receptor for
genotype both the double set of
bitterness. The other allele also codes for a receptor but it cannot detect the bitterness genetic instructions present in a
of PTC. Having one copy of the PTC-tasting allele (T) on each of the chromosomes diploid organism and the genetic
in the pair (TT), or only on one (Tt), enables an individual to taste PTC (figure 6.10). make-up of an organism at one
particular gene locus
Individuals who cannot detect PTC have the genotype tt.
FIGURE 6.9 Three pairs of chromosomes, each pair from a different individual and showing a different
combination of alleles. A and a are different versions of the same gene and therefore code for slightly different
proteins.
A A a a A a
FIGURE 6.10 The combinations of the alleles for the TAS2R38 gene on chromosome 7. T indicates the allele for
PTC tasting and t is the allele for non-PTC tasting.
T T T t t t

Multiple alleles for each gene
Within any population there is variation between individual members and this variation is due to the
combinations of alleles they possess. Almost all characteristics in humans are controlled by several genes, each
with multiple alleles, giving rise to a great deal of variation in traits such as eye colour, hair colour, skin colour,
the presence of freckles and height (figure 6.11).
When three or more alleles exist for a gene, it is said to have multiple alleles. Some regions of a chromosome are
hypervariable, meaning between 10 and 40 alleles can exist (table 6.1).
FIGURE 6.11 Variations in eye colour, skin colour and hair shape are considerable due to multiple
genes controlling each trait. Each gene has multiple different versions or alleles.
TABLE 6.1 Multiple alleles of selected genes in various organisms. Not all alleles for each gene are shown; for
example, there are 12 alleles for eye colour in Drosophilia.
Gene function Multiple alleles and their action
Controls human ABO blood type IA Antigen A present
IB Antigen B present
i Neither antigen present
Controls white spotting in dogs S White spots absent
si Irish spotting (as in collies) (see figure 6.12a)
sp Piebald spotting (as in fox terriers) (see figure 6.12b)
se Produces extreme spotting (as in Samoyeds and Maltese terriers)
Controls pigment levels in cats C Intense pigment (as in a black cat, see figure 6.13a)
cb Burmese dilution (see figure 6.13b)
cs Siamese dilution (see figure 6.13c)
Controls colour intensity in rabbits C Intense pigment (as in solid black)
cch Chinchilla colouring (white fur with black tips)
ch Himalayan colouring (colour on ears, nose, feet and tail only)
c Albino (white fur and pink eyes)
Controls white markings in cattle S White band around middle (as in Galloways)
sh Hereford-type spotting
sc Solid colour with no spots (as in Belmont Reds)
s Friesian-type spotting
Controls eye colour in fruit fly w+ Red eye
(Drosophila sp.) wa Apricot
w White
TIP: Allele notation varies across scientific literature. They are commonly shown in italics, however, bold notation
can also be used.

FIGURE 6.12 Dogs showing a. Irish spotting phenotype and b. piebald spotting phenotype
a. b.
FIGURE 6.13 Cats showing a. intense black pigment; b. Burmese dilution, in which the black pigment is reduced
to brown; and c. Siamese pigment, in which the pigment is further reduced and restricted to the ears, face, feet
and tail. The order of dominance is C > cb = cs .
a.
(a) b. c.
Allele variation in plants

Alleles are also responsible for the variation in plants (table 6.2 and figure 6.14). Note that the gene controls
a general function, such as flower colour, but its alleles produce specific expressions of that function, such
as purple and white. Figure 6.14a shows the smooth and wrinkled kernel textures in corn (Zea mays). These
differences in texture are due to the difference in sugar levels in the kernels. Kernels with a high sugar content
take up more water and swell more than kernels with a high starch content. As the kernels dry out, the greater
loss of water from the sugary kernels causes them to become wrinkled. Figure 6.14b shows the purple and
yellow kernels in corn, while figure 6.15 shows some of the mature fruit colours in capsicum.
TABLE 6.2 Alleles of some genes in plants

Gene function Alleles and their action
Flower colour in delphinium P purple
p white
Kernel texture in corn Su smooth (starchy)
(figure 6.14a) su wrinkled (sugary)
Kernel colour in corn Pr purple
(figure 6.14b) pr yellow
Mature fruit colour in capsicum R red
(figure 6.15) r yellow

FIGURE 6.14 Corn showing a.wrinkled (sugary) and smooth (starchy) kernels, and b. purple and yellow kernels
a. b.
FIGURE 6.15 Various colours in mature

fruit of capsicum (Capsicum annum)
6.3.4 The genome

A genome is the complete set of genetic instructions for an organism; it is the total DNA of an organism. The field
of study of genomes is called genomics.
Genomes of eukaryotes
During fertilisation of an egg, two gametes fuse to form a zygote. The human zygote consists of 46 DNA
molecules (chromosomes) arranged into 23 pairs, where one in each pair is inherited from each parent.
The zygote cell is diploid (2n) and will divide by mitosis to form the cells of the human. Since the pairs of
chromosomes are essentially copies and almost identical, the information in a somatic cell is in duplicate.
To determine the sum total of an organism’s DNA — its genome — the haploid (n) number of base pairs is
measured. This ensures only the number of base pairs from one of each of the nearly identical chromosomes is
measured. Even so, in humans this number is still astonishing large — 3 234 830 000 base pairs — and includes
the relatively small quantity of DNA in mitochondria. If you stretched the DNA
genomics the study of the entire
out in one of your diploid somatic cells it would be about 2 metres long! If you genetic make-up or genome of a
did the same for all your cells and put them end to end, it would be approximately species
the same distance as twice the diameter of the solar system — a total of fertilisation the union of egg
575 billion kilometres! and sperm to form a zygote
gamete an egg (ovum) or a
Similarly, the genomes of other eukaryotes (animals, plants, fungi and protists) sperm cell
are the DNA of the haploid sets of their chromosomes. When we refer to the diploid (2n) having two copies
of each specific chromosome in
genome of a eukaryotic organism, such as the chimpanzee genome or the rice each set
genome, we are speaking about the nuclear DNA. We can also talk about haploid (n) having one copy of
the genomes of those cell organelles that contain DNA, such as the mitochondrial each specific chromosome in
genome or the chloroplast genome. each set

Genomes of prokaryotes
The genomes of prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) comprise the DNA of their single circular chromosome
that carries the genetic instructions of each species. The genomes of viruses consist of their entire genetic
instructions encoded in one DNA molecule, or, in the case of retroviruses, in one RNA molecule.
Each genome is the sum total of an organism’s DNA and is expressed as the base sequence of the haploid set of
chromosomes.
CASE STUDY: The Human Genome Project

In 1990, an international team of scientists embarked on a huge task — to find the sequence of bases (adenine,
cytosine, guanine and thymine) present in the human genome. It was not until 2003 that the Human Genome
Project finally ended, with scientists announcing they had sequenced the genome. The project cost around
US$1 billion. Nowadays, with more sophisticated computer hardware and software, we can sequence a human
genome in only one to two days for a cost of around US$3000. Sequencing the genome has allowed scientists
to find the specific chromosomal locations of important genes, which may offer some help in seeking cures for
diseases. The genomes of other organisms have also been sequenced (see table 6.3).
TABLE 6.3 Dates of sequencing of genomes of a virus and various organisms

Date Size of genome Estimated number
Organism published (base pairs, bp) of coding genes Comment
Virus phiX174 Apr. 1993 5 386 11 First genome
sequenced
Haemophilus influenzae July 1995 1 830 000 1 850 First bacterium
(bacterium)
Saccharomyces cerevisiae Apr. 1996 12 069 000 6 294 First eukaryote
(brewer’s yeast) and first fungus
Methanococcus jannaschii Aug. 1998 1 700 000 1 738 First archaean
(archaean found at
hydrothermal vents)
Caenorhabditis elegans Dec. 1998 97 000 000 19 099 First animal
(nematode worm)
Arabidopsis thaliana Dec. 2000 115 000 000 25 498 First plant
(thale cress)
Equus caballus (horse) Nov. 2009 2 689 000 20 322 Thoroughbred
Yersinia pestis (bacterium) Aug. 2011 4 553 Cause of Black
Death plague
Brassica rapa Aug. 2011 485 000
(Chinese cabbage)
Anolis carolinensis Aug. 2011 2 200 000 16 533
(green anole lizard)
Anopheles gambiae 2002 278 268 413 12 843 Main vector of
(mosquito) malaria in
sub-Saharan
Africa
Gallus gallus (chicken) 2004 1 072 544 763 15 508
Canis familiaris (dog) 2005 2 392 715 236 19 856
Felis catus (domestic cat) 2007 2 365 745 914 19 493
(continued)

TABLE 6.3 Dates of sequencing of genomes of a virus and various organisms (continued)
Date Size of genome Estimated number
Organism published (base pairs, bp) of coding genes Comment
Oryctolagus cuniculus Nov. 2009 2 604 023 284 19 293
(rabbit)
Pongo pygmaeus 2011 3 109 347 532 20 424 One of the five
(orang-utan) great apes
Macropus eugenii Aug. 2011 2 549 429 531 15 290
(tammar wallaby)
Sarcophilus harrisii Feb. 2011 2 931 556 433 18 788
(Tasmanian devil)
Escherichia coli 0111 2011 5 766 081 5 407 10 000th genome
(bacterium) in GOLD
database
Falco peregrinus 2013 1 200 000 000 16 263 A top predator
(Peregrine falcon) in some
ecosystems
Panthera tigris Sep. 2013 ~2 440 000 000 20 226 First entire
(Amur (Siberian) tiger) genome of the
endangered
Amur tiger
Phascolarctos cinereus Apr. 2013 ~3 000 000 000 Approx. 15 000
(koala)
DISCUSSION
The following statement appeared in November 2014:
Ultimately, the goal is for all of us to have our genomes sequenced and available as a medical reference for
our clinical care.
William Biggs, ‘iCommunity Newsletter’, November 2014
Another statement is as follows:

It may be decades before interactions between genes, behavior and environment are understood well
enough to provide substantial utility to warrant individualized recommendations based on genomic profiles.
Furthermore, behavior change interventions that take advantage of some of the more unique aspects of
genetic risk information are in their infancy.
Kurt D Christensen and Robert C Green, ‘How could disclosing incidental information from whole-genome
sequencing affect patient behavior?’, vol. 10, no. 4, 10.2217/pme.13.24
Discuss with your classmates your thoughts about these statements. Identify any positive perspectives in favour
of the statements and any negative standpoints against the statements.
Resources
Resourceseses
Weblink The Human Genome Project

There is considerable variation in the sizes of genomes, as shown in
FIGURE 6.16 The largest
table 6.3. The human genome has around three billion base pairs, but the
known genome belongs to the
largest genome belongs to the flower Paris japonica (figure 6.16). It is an plant Paris japonica.
incredible 50 times larger than the human genome, containing around
130 billion base pairs. If all the DNA from a P. japonica cell was stretched
out end to end it would be 91 metres long!
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2 Calculating percentages in genomes

tlvd-1754
The genome of a blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) was sequenced. Cytosine made up 35% of the
bases present. Calculate the percentage of thymine present in the genome. (2 marks)
THINK WRITE
1. Identify what the question is asking you to do. Cytosine always pairs with guanine (Chargaff’s rules).
Use previous detailed scientific understanding Therefore, there must be 35% guanine present.
as a basis for your answer, remembering
Chargaff’s rules for base-pairing.
2. When being asked to calculate, you need to 35% cytosine + 35% guanine = 70% (1 mark)
show your working. Therefore, the remaining 30% must be divided evenly
between the remaining bases of adenine and thymine.
30
= 15% adenine, 15% thymine (1 mark)
2
Resources
Resourceseses
eWorkbook Worksheet 6.1 Exploring genes and alleles (ewbk-2898)
Worksheet 6.2 Genomes and the Human Genome Project (ewbk-2899)
KEY IDEAS
• A genome is the sum total of an organism’s DNA measured in the haploid number of base pairs.
• A gene is a section of DNA, which is composed of the bases A, T, C and G.
• A gene codes for a protein.
• Alleles are alternative forms of genes.
• Variation in populations exists due to individuals possessing different genes and alleles.

6.3 Activities
6.3 Quick quiz 6.3 Exercise 6.3 Exam questions
6.3 Exercise
1. Distinguish between a gene and an allele.
2. If you saw the base sequence of part of a gene, could you identify if it came from a dog or from a flea? Briefly
explain.
3. State whether each of the following entries refers to a gene, or to the particular alleles of a gene:
a. The … that control(s) eye colour in humans
b. The … that produce(s) blue eye colour in humans
c. The … that produce(s) non-blue eye colour in humans.
4. Using the information in table 6.2, explain what colour a capsicum would be if it had the alleles r on one
chromosome and r on the other.
5. Explain why the genome of the eastern grey kangaroo (Macropus giganteus) must contain 12 per cent cytosine
if 38 per cent of the genome contains adenine.
6. A cob of corn consists of many individual cobs that are the offspring of a pair of parents. In one particular cob
it is seen that some of the cobs are smooth and swollen but a smaller number are wrinkled and shrunken. This
variation is due to the action of a single gene with two alleles. Using table 6.2, suggest which alleles of this
gene might give rise to these two phenotypes.
7. Explain why plants with very large genomes, such as Paris japonica, grow very slowly.
8. Sequencing the human genome began in 1990 and took 13 years to complete. Sequencing the genome
allowed scientists to obtain the specific base sequences present in a human and identify the locations of
specific genes. Today, an individual’s complete genome can be sequenced in just two days.
a. Suggest why a person may want their genome to be sequenced.
b. Despite possible benefits to sequencing a genome, some people were opposed to sequencing the genome
in the 1990s. Suggest two reasons why.
6.3 Exam questions

Question 1 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2008 Biology Exam 2, Section A, Q17
MC Biologists have sequenced the genomes of many organisms. The number of genes found in organisms
varies greatly. Some examples are listed in the table below.
Size of genome
(approximate number of Number of genes
Species of organism millions of base pairs) (approximate)
Escherichia coli (bacterium) 4.6 3 000
C. elegans (nematode worm) 100 20 621
Fugu rubripes (puffer fish) 365 38 000
Mus musculus (mouse) 3 000 22 000
Homo sapiens (human) 3 300 22 000
Psilotum nudum (whisk fern, a fern 250 000 unknown
that grows in cracks in rocks)
Arabidopsis thaliana (flowering 100 28 000
mustard plant)

From this data it can be concluded that
A. larger organisms have larger genomes.
B. puffer fish show greater genetic variety than E. coli.
C. a nematode and flowering mustard plant have the same number of chromosomes.
D. the larger the genome of an organism, the greater the number of proteins it produces.
Question 2 (1 mark)
MC In eukaryotic organisms genes are
A. composed of DNA.
B. alternative forms of an allele.
C. composed of DNA and protein.
D. the same length as a chromosome.
Question 3 (1 mark)
MC The genome of the woodland strawberry Fragaria vesca has been recently sequenced to show a relatively
small genome of just 206 million base pairs. F. vesca is an ancestor of the garden strawberry and is a relative of
apples and peaches.
The genome of F. vesca

A. is found only in the stem cells of the woodland strawberry.
B. includes all of the proteins made by F. vesca.
C. comprises all of the genes of F. vesca.
D. is the same as the genome of the apple.
Use the following information to answer Questions 4 and 5.
The complete genomes of many species have been sequenced. The genome size and the number of genes
present in the genome for several species are shown in the table.
Number of genes Number of base Number of haploid

Common in genome pairs in genome chromosomes
name Species name (estimate) (bp) (n)
Bacterium Haemophilus 11 5 386 1
influenzae
Yeast Saccharomyces 1 850 1 830 000 16
cerevisiae
Rice Oryza sativa 40 000 450 000 000 12
Capsicum Capsicum annum 35 000 3 480 000 000 12
Horse Equus cabullus 20 322 2 689 000 32
Human Homo sapiens 20 000 3 000 000 23
Question 4 (2 marks)
Which organism listed in the table has the largest genome? Explain your choice.
A biology student stated that ‘The greater the number of chromosomes present in an organism, the larger its
genome’. From the information in the table, explain whether or not you agree with this statement and to what
extent.
More exam questions are available in your learnON title.

6.4 Homologous chromosomes, autosomes and sex
chromosomes
KEY KNOWLEDGE
• The nature of a pair of homologous chromosomes carrying the same gene loci and the distinction between
autosomes and sex chromosomes
6.4.1 Homologous chromosomes

In section 6.3.3, we learned that in many organisms — including humans — the
chromosomes are found in pairs. One of each pair is inherited from each parent. homologous matching pairs
of chromosomes that have
Therefore, of the 46 chromosomes in a human cell, 23 are inherited from the the same genes at the same
father and 23 from the mother. In females all 46 chromosomes can be matched up positions
with another chomosome, and in males 44 chromosomes can be matched up with locus the position of a gene on
another chromosome. Each of these matched pairs are termed homologous, which a chromosome; plural = loci
non-homologous non-matching
means that the same genes are found in the same locations or loci (figure 6.17a).
chromosomes
Chromosomesthat do not have the same gene loci are termed non-homologous ideogram a stylised
(figure 6.17b). To help scientists assign chromosomes to their homologous representation of a haploid set
partner, they can be stained with a chemical called Giemsa. Parts of the of chromosomes arranged by
decreasing size
chromosomes that have a high concentration of adenine and thymine produce
dark bands, whilethe light bands have high concentrations of cytosine and
guanine. Figure 6.17 is an ideogram showing the stylised representation of
chromosomes that demonstrates their relative sizes and their distinctive banding patterns.
FIGURE 6.17 a. Homologous chromosomes and b. non-homologous chromosomes stained to show banding
patterns
Same gene at
same loci Different genes
at same loci
Even though homologous chromosomes share the same gene loci, it does not necessarily mean the alleles are the
same. Remember that each chromosome has been inherited from a different parent and so the forms of genes on
those chromosomes may be the same or different (section 6.3.3).

6.4.2 Autosomes and sex chromosomes
Chromosomes can also be divided up into two groups depending on whether they are involved in determining
the sex of the organisms. The sex chromosomes, or allosomes, determine the sex, whereas the autosomes
do not. In mammals, a pair of chromosomes — X and Y in males, and X and X in females— are the sex
chromosomes or allosomes.
Autosomes
As discussed above, the 46 human chromosomes can be arranged into 23 pairs of chromosomes, consisting of 22
matched pairs and one ‘odd’ pair. The 22 matched pairs of chromosomes present in both males and females are
termed autosomes. These different autosomes can be distinguished by:
• their relative size
• the position of the centromere, which appears as a constriction along the chromosome. In some cases the
centromere is near the middle, while in others it is close to one end.
• patterns of light and dark bands that result from special staining techniques. sex chromosomes a pair of
chromosomes that differ in males
In humans, autosomes are identified by the numbers 1 to 22 in order of decreasing and females of a species; allosomes
size; the number-1 chromosomes are the longest, and the number-21 and number-22 autosome any one of a pair of
chromosomes are the smallest (figure 6.18). The larger the chromosome, the homologous chromosomes that
are identical in appearance in both
more DNA it contains and usually the greater the number of genes that it carries. males and females
The members of each matching pair of chromosomes, such as the two number-5 centromere the position where the
chromosomes, are homologous. Non-matching chromosomes, such as a number-5 chromatids are held together in a
chromosome and a number-14 chromosome, are non-homologous. chromosome
FIGURE 6.18 An ideogram of human chromosomes. Only one chromosome from each homologous pair is shown.
The banding patterns are produced from staining the chromosomes and help in their identification.
Sex chromosomes
The remaining ‘odd’ pair of chromosomes are the sex chromosomes. In a human male with a normal set of
chromosomes, the ‘odd’ pair is made up of one larger X chromosome and a smaller Y chromosome. A
shorthand way of denoting this is: 46, XY. In a human female with a normal set of chromosomes, a similar
arrangement is seen, except that there are two X chromosomes and no Y chromosome. A shorthand way of
denoting this is: 46, XX.

Note that in these shorthand abbreviations, the number indicates the total number of chromosomes including
the sex chromosomes, and the letters denote the sex chromosomes. A similar pattern is seen in other mammals,
where the female typically has two X chromosomes and the male has one X and one Y chromosome. This is not
the case in other animal groups.
6.4.3 Sex determination

Mammals: XX/XY system
The X chromosome in humans contains approximately 800 genes (see figure 6.7a) whereas the Y chromosome
only has 50. The Y chromosome plays a crucial role in determining the sex of the developing embryo. A
gene found at the top of the Y chromosome, SRY, codes for a protein that controls the development of male
characteristics. Therefore, if an embryo contains a Y chromosome, it will develop into a male (XY) and if not,
it will develop into a female (XX). A similar XX/XY situation applies, with a few rare exceptions, to other
mammals. During meiosis in males, the X and Y chromosomes pair up during metaphase before they are
separated into daughter cells. This means there is a 50 per cent chance that a sperm cell produced will have
either an X chromosome or a Y chromosome (figure 6.19). This is discussed in further detail in subtopic 6.7.
FIGURE 6.19 Diagram representing sex cell formation from 44 + XX (female) and 44 + XY (male) cells. Half of the
sperm cells contain X chromosomes and the other half contain Y chromosomes.
22 + X
22 + X
46 46
22 + X
44 + 2X 44 + XX
Meiosis
22 + X
Female
Eggs
22 + Y
22 + X
46 46
44 + XY 44 + XY
Meiosis 22 + Y
22 + X Male
Sperm
Since all egg cells contain an X chromosome, there is a 50 per cent chance the
resulting fertilised cell will be 44 + XX (female sex) and a 50 per cent chance it meiosis a type of cell division
that produces haploid gametes
will be 44 + XY (male sex). The 44 chromosomes are the autosomes. When these
autosomes are added to the sex chromosomes, it adds up to the 46 chromosomes
present in all human somatic (non-sex) cells.

Birds and reptiles: WZ/ZZ system
Sex chromosome differences also occur in birds, but the arrangement is different FIGURE 6.20 A mating
from mammals. Male birds have two similar sex chromosomes that are known pair of Cardinal birds
as Z chromosomes. In contrast, the pair of sex chromosomes in female birds
comprises one W and one Z chromosome, and so it is the female parent in these
groups that determines the sex of the offspring. This WZ/ZZ genetic system
of sex determination is also seen in some reptiles, such as snakes and monitor
lizards (e.g. goannas), and in amphibians, such as some frog species. Tiger snakes
(Notechis spp.), for example, have a total of 34 chromosomes, with males having
two Z chromosomes and females having one Z and one W chromosome.
Reptiles:environmental sex determination

It was discovered that in some reptiles the sex of offspring depends on the
incubation temperature of the eggs. This is an example of environmental sex
determination (ESD) and is seen in green turtles (Chelonia midas). Female
turtles lay an average of 110 eggs and bury them in the sandy beaches along
Australia’s tropical coastline. After laying, the female turtles return to the sea.
Male turtle hatchlings result from eggs that are incubated at high temperatures environmental sex determination
(ESD) the sex of the offspring is
(above 31 °C), female hatchlings are produced when the incubation temperature established by environmental
is lower (27 °C and below), while at intermediate temperatures (around 29 °C) conditions rather than genetic
about equal numbers of both sexes are produced. factors
FIGURE 6.21 Environmental sex determination is seen in the endangered green turtle.
32°
Males
31°
30°
29° 50% males

50% females
28°
27°
Females
26°
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3 Explaining male sex chromosomes

tlvd-1755
In humans, if the sex chromosomes possessed by an individual are XY, the person is biologically
male. Explain why. (3 marks)
THINK WRITE
1. Identify what the question is asking you to The Y chromosome (1 mark) has the gene SRY
do. When being asked to explain you need (1 mark).
to account for the reasoning why something
occurs.
2. Your answer should include detailed scientific This gene codes for a protein that controls the
understanding. development of male sexual characteristics (1 mark).

Resources
Resourceseses
eWorkbook Worksheet 6.3 Different types of chromosomes (ewbk-2900)
Digital document Case study: Comparison of gender and sex determination (doc-36189)
KEY IDEAS
• In humans there are 44 autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes.
• Homologous chromosomes have the same gene loci but not necessarily the same alleles.
• Chromosomes that determine the sex of the organism are called allosomes or sex chromosomes. The other
chromosomes are called autosomes.
• In humans, the Y chromosome is much smaller than the X chromosome and its presence controls
the development of male sexual characteristics. Therefore, females are XX and males are XY for sex
chromosomes.
• The genes that are carried on the autosomes are the same in both males and females.
• There is a 50 per cent chance of a sperm cell carrying an X chromosome and a 50 per cent chance it will
carry a Y.
6.4 Activities
6.4 Exercise
1. Distinguish between the terms autosome and sex chromosome.
2. The image shows several autosomes that have been stained to show the banding patterns.
2
A 3
B
4
a. Match each numbered chromosome with its lettered homologous partner.

b. Identify the three physical features that allowed you to match up the chromosomes in part a.
3. John states that, ‘Human females have the same number of homologous chromosomes as human males.’ Do
you agree with this statement? Explain why.
4. Would the banding patterns on one of the chromosomes from human chromosome pair 1 be identical to the
banding pattern on a chromosome from chimpanzee pair 1? Explain why.

5. Klinefelter syndrome is a genetic condition in which individuals have an extra sex chromosome — XXY. It
usually results in infertility, weaker muscles, greater height, poor coordination, less body hair, breast growth
and less interest in sex. Will Klinefelter syndrome affect both males and females? Explain your answer.
6.4 Exam questions

Question 1 (1 mark)
MC How many pairs of autosomes does a human have?
A. 1 B. 22 C. 23 D. 46
Question 2 (1 mark)
MC The genetic system of sex determination in Male ruby-throated
birds differs from that of humans. Male birds have hummingbird
two similar sex chromosomes, ZZ, while female birds Sex chromosomes
have a non-matching pair, WZ. are ZZ
Most birds have a diploid number 2n = 80.
How many pairs of matching chromosomes do

most female birds have? Female ruby-throated
A. 2 hummingbird
B. 40 Sex chromosomes
are WZ
C. 39
D. 79
Question 3 (1 mark)
MC Which statement correctly describes homologous chromosomes?
A. They carry identical alleles.
B. They have the same gene loci.
C. They come from the same parent.
D. Their DNA sequences are identical.
MC The horse (Equus caballus) has a diploid number of 2n = 64. Male horses have sex chromosomes X and Y,
while female horses have two X chromosomes.
a. How many autosomes does a female horse have? 1 mark

A. 32 B. 62 C. 64 D. 66
b. How many matching pairs of chromosomes does a male horse have? 1 mark
A. 31 B. 32 C. 63 D. 64

How many chromosomes are present in a human
a. skin cell 1 mark
b. liver cell? 1 mark
6.5 Variability of chromosomes

KEY KNOWLEDGE
• Variability of chromosomes in terms of size and number in different organisms
6.5.1 Do all chromosomes look the same?

In human cells, the DNA is divided up into 46 chromosomes. When
FIGURE 6.22 SEM image
examined under an electron microscope, it is clear to see that the showing physical variation of
chromosomes vary in appearance (figure 6.22). human chromosomes
You may recall from topic 2 that during S-phase of the cell cycle, all the
DNA inside the cell must replicate. Once this has occurred the cell can
enter prophase, where the chromosomes condense and take on the familiar
‘X’ shape (figure 6.23). The arms of the ‘X’-shaped chromosomes are
called sister chromatids. The shorter arms are called p arms whereas
the longer arms are called q arms.
FIGURE 6.23 a. A chromosome before replication consisting of a single

molecule of DNA b. ‘X’-shaped chromosome formed by replication during
S-phase
a. b.
p arm p arm
Centromere
q arm
q arm
Sister
chromatids
sister chromatids identical

copies of DNA formed by the
replication of a chromosome

Along the lengths of chromosomes are constriction points called centromeres, which occur in chromosomes both
before and after replication. The centromeres are the regions where the spindle fibre proteins attached to move
the chromosomes during cell division. Chromosomes can be classified based on the position of their centromere
(table 6.4).
TABLE 6.4 Classification of chromosomes based on position of centromere

Appearance Classification Description
Metacentric • Centromere is positioned in the middle of
the chromosome
• p and q arms are of equal length
Submetacentric • Centromere positioned towards

one end
• q arms approximately twice the length of
the shorter p arms
Acrocentric • Centromere is positioned very close to

one end
• p arms are very short
Telocentric • Centromere is positioned at the tip of the

chromosome
• No p arms

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4 Differences between metacentric and submetacentric chromosomes
tlvd-1756
Describe the differences between metacentric and submetacentric chromosomes. You may use a
diagram to assist in your description. (4 marks)
THINK WRITE
1. Identify what the question is asking you Metacentric chromosomes have a centromere in
to do. In a describe question, you need to the middle of the chromosome (1 mark), whereas
clearly show factual recall and communicate submetacentric chromosomes have a centromere
a concept. If diagrams are allowed, they closer to one end, with the q arms being
should be included as they can communicate approximately twice the length of the p arms
knowledge very effectively. In your response, (1 mark).
clearly contrast the differences that exist
between the chromosomes. You must refer
to the centromere and p and q arms.
2. Draw clear, simple diagrams with annotations. Metacentric

You must label each chromosome and
p arm
its centromere. Ensure the diagrams and
annotations complement your writing and do
not contradict it. Centromere
q arm
The centromere can be seen in the middle of the

chromosome arms (1 mark).
Submetacentric
p arm
Centromere
q arm
The centromere is positioned towards one end of the

chromosome. The p arms can be seen as being only
half as long as the larger q arms (1 mark).
6.5.2 Size differences of chromosomes

Human chromosomes, like the chromosomes of many different organisms, show considerable size differences
across the 23 pairs found in the nucleus (figure 6.24).
There are approximately 25 000 genes across all the different chromosomes in the human cell, coding for
specific proteins. The longest chromosome, chromosome 1, contains around 2000 genes, whereas
chromosome 22 only has around 500 genes (figure 6.24). Across many eukaryotic cells the chromosome
sizes can differ dramatically, indicating the difference in the number of genes that they contain (table 6.5).

FIGURE 6.24 False-colour image showing differences
in sizes of human chromosomes (normal human male)
TABLE 6.5 Human chromosome size as revealed by DNA sequencing

Chromosome Length (bp) Number of genes (bp)
1 248 956 422 2000
2 242 193 529 1300
3 198 295 559 1000
4 190 214 555 1000
5 181 538 259 900
6 170 805 979 1000
7 159 345 973 900
8 145 138 636 700
9 138 394 717 800
10 133 797 422 700
11 135 086 622 1300
12 133 275 309 1100
13 114 364 328 300
14 107 043 718 800
15 101 991 189 600
16 90 338 345 800
17 83 257 441 1200
18 80 373 285 200
19 58 617 616 1500
20 64 444 167 500
21 46 709 983 200
22 50 818 468 500
X (sex chromosome) 156 040 895 800
Y (sex chromosome) 57 227 415 50

The specific location where each gene is found is called a locus. Between genes are sections of DNA that do
not appear to carry the instructions to produce proteins (figure 6.25). These are called non-coding regions and
scientists are still working to fully understand their purpose.
FIGURE 6.25 DNA indicating positions of genes (loci) with non-coding regions between
Chromosome
Non-coding DNA
Gene locus Gene locus
6.5.3 Differences in chromosome number

So far we have shown that the size of chromosomes
FIGURE 6.26 Chromosomes from the common
and position of their centromeres vary. These factors
fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster)
help scientists to identify the type of organism that
the chromosomes belong to. For example, human
chromosomes (figure 6.24) differ in size and centromere
positions to those of a fruit fly (figure 6.26). In the
common fruit fly (Drosophila melonogaster), the sex
chromosomes are chromosome 1.
It is evident that humans and the common fruit fly also
have different numbers of chromosomes. Humans have
46 whereas the fruit fly only has 8. This difference
in number is very important in allowing scientists to
identify the species to which chromosomes belong.
These differences can be seen when comparing
chromosome numbers from different species (table 6.6).
TABLE 6.6 Comparison of number of chromosomes across a selection of different animal and plant species
Species Number of chromosomes
Animal
Chicken (Gallus gallus) 78
Butterfly (Lysandra nivescens) 190
Cat (Felis catus) 38
(continued)

TABLE 6.6 Comparison of number of chromosomes across a selection of different animal and plant species
(continued)
Species Number of chromosomes

Dog (Canis familiaris) 78
Bilby (Macrotis lagotis) 19 (male) 18 (female)
Garden snail (Helix aspersa) 54
Honey bee (Apis mellifera) 32
Housefly (Musca domestica) 12
Leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx) 34
Platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) 52
Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) 44
Eastern tiger snake (Notechis scutatus) 34
Fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) 8
Ant (Myrmecia pilosula) 2
Plant
Crimson bottlebrush (Callistemon citrinus) 22
Drooping she-oak (Allocasuarina verticillata) 26
Edible pea (Pisum sativum) 14
Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba) 24
Iceland poppy (Papaver nudicaule) 14
Kangaroo paw (Anigozanthos flavidus) 12
Ovens wattle (Acacia pravissima) 26
Pineapple (Ananas comosus) 50
River red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) 22
Silky oak (Grevillea robusta) 20
Silver wattle (Acacia dealbata) 26
Sydney blue gum (Eucalyptus saligna) 22
Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) 24
Corn (Zea mays) 20
Resources
Resourceseses
eWorkbook Worksheet 6.4 Chromosome variability (ewbk-2901)
Video eLesson Chromosome structure (eles-4373)
KEY IDEAS
• Once chromosomes have passed through S phase of the cell cycle they replicate, taking on an X-shaped
appearance consisting of sister chromatids joined at the centromere.
• There are four major types of chromosomes based on centromere position: metacentric, submetacentric,
acrocentric and telocentric.
• Chromosome sizes vary in a eukaryotic cell and between cells of different species.
• Number and sizes of chromosomes can help to identify the species to which a cell belongs.

6.5 Activities
6.5 Exercise
1. Draw a submetacentric chromosome and label the centromere, sister chromatids, p and q arms.
2. The image shows all the chromosomes from the cell of an organism.
a. Using the data from table 6.6, identify which species the chromosomes
belong to. Justify your answer.
b. The geneticist examining the chromosomes classified them as being
telocentric. Explain whether you agree or disagree with the geneticist.
3. Explain the function of the centromere.
4. Compare and contrast the appearance of acrocentric and telocentric
chromosomes. You may use a diagram to assist in your answer.
5. Human chromosomes contain approximately 20 000 genes spread across
the 46 chromosomes. Bananas contain 36 000 genes spread across 33 chromosomes. What does this
suggest about the size of the non-coding regions in human chromosomes compared with the sizes of
non-coding regions in bananas, assuming all genes were the same size?
6. The non-coding regions that exist between genes are found in all chromosomes. Scientists have some
theories about their possible functions. Suggest a possible reason why non-coding regions exist.
6.5 Exam questions

Question 1 (1 mark)
MC If two chromosomes have the same length, centromere position and banding pattern when stained, they
are called
A. homozygous. B. homologous.
C. heterozygous. D. heterogeneous.
Question 2 (1 mark)
MC The diploid number of the domestic cat is 38. It is reasonable to conclude that
A. somatic cells of the cat would each contain 38 chromosomes.
B. mature gametes of the cat would each contain 38 chromosomes.
C. the chromosomes of the cat in a non-dividing cell would contain sister chromatids.
D. 38 chromosomes would be visible in each somatic cell of a cat.
Question 3 (1 mark)
MC The following information shows the chromosome number in root tip cells from a range of plants.
Species Common name Chromosome number

Arabis holboellii rockcress 14 or 21 or 28
Nasturtium spp. flowery peppery goodness 32 or 64
Vitis vinifera common grape vine 38 or 57 or 76
Viola spp. violets 12 or 24 or 36 or 48
It is reasonable to conclude that

A. common grape vine plants all show triploidy.
B. only two of the three kinds of rockcress could reproduce by seed.
C. those plants with odd numbers of chromosomes must be haploids.
D. many of the flowery peppery goodness plants would be unable to carry out meiosis.

Question 4 (1 mark)
Describe one structural difference between the X and Y chromosomes in a human.
Identify two features that can be used to distinguish different non-homologous chromosomes from each other.
6.6 Karyotypes
KEY KNOWLEDGE
• Karyotypes as a visual representation that can be used to identify chromosome abnormalities
6.6.1 Organising chromosomes

When viewed down a microscope, chromosomes can often be seen randomly arranged
(figure 6.27a). This can make it difficult for their number, size and shape to be karyotype an image of
chromosomes from a cell arranged
analysed properly. By looking carefully at their size, centromere position and staining in an organised manner
pattern they can be positioned into homologous pairs. This regular arrangement is
known as a karyotype (figure 6.27b).
FIGURE 6.27 a. The random arrangement of chromosomes in a cell b. Coloured light micrograph of the human
female karyotype (XX), the complete set of chromosomes. Humans have 46 chromosomes: 23 inherited from the
mother and 23 from the father. The sex chromosomes (bottom right) show two XX chromosomes.
a. b.

Karyotypes are used to assist in the analysis of the chromosomes that are present in cells. In a karyotype, the
chromosome images are organised in a pattern according to an international convention. Such an arrangement
enables any abnormality in either number or structure of the chromosomes to be quickly identified.
As well as using conventional stains, a range of probes with fluorescent labels that bind to specific segments
of DNA on the different human chromosomes can also be used. Figure 6.28 shows a karyotype with these
fluorescent labels. Each chromosome has a distinctive colour.
FIGURE 6.28 A spectral karyotype showing the distinctive colours of each

human chromosome. Each homologous pair of chromosomes fluoresces with a
distinctive colour, as determined by the colour of specific fluorescent probes that
bind to specific sequences in the DNA of each particular chromosome.
6.6.2 Analysing karyotypes

Mistakes in chromosome numbers or abnormalities of single chromosomes can produce congenital disorders.
In addition, specific chromosome abnormalities are associated with various cancers, and these chromosome
changes can indicate the likelihood of remission. Scientists who specialise in the study of human karyotypes
are known as cytogeneticists.
Today, in hospital cytogenetic laboratories, images of chromosome sets from cells
are captured by a camera attached to a microscope (see figures 6.27a and 6.29). cytogeneticist a scientist
who specialises in the study
The images are then transferred to a computer, where a scientist uses special of human karyotypes
software — such as CytoVision® — that analyses the chromosomes from cells Down syndrome (DS) a
and automatically generates a karyotype (see figure 6.29). The chromosomes in a chromosomal disorder due to
minimum of 15 cells must be examined before a karyotype can be decided. This the presence of an additional
number-21 chromosome, either
computer-based automation has increased the capacity of hospital laboratories as a separate chromosome
to prepare the karyotypes that are important in diagnosis of conditions such as (trisomy or triplo-DS) or attached
Down syndrome (DS), where an extra number-21 chromosome is present, or to another chromosome
(translocation DS)
Prader–Willi syndrome, in which a small deletion of the number-15 chromosome
deletion type of chromosome
occurs. change in which part of a
chromosome is lost

FIGURE 6.29 Automatic karyotype generation in the laboratory
6.6.3 Chromosome abnormalities

Various changes can occur involving chromosomes, including:
• changes in the total number of chromosomes
• changes involving part of one chromosome
• changed arrangements of chromosomes.
Changes in the total number of chromosomes

Some newborn babies have an abnormal number of chromosomes in their cells. A baby may have an additional
chromosome, giving a total of 47 instead of the normal 46. One additional chromosome or one missing
chromosome typically has deleterious effects on development and, for most chromosomes, death occurs during
early development and the pregnancy never proceeds to term.
A pregnancy may still be carried to term if the chromosomal changes involve a few particular chromosomes
(see table 6.7).
Two conditions that involve changes in the total number of chromosomes are as follows:
• Trisomy refers to when three copies of a chromosome occur, instead of the typical pair of chromosomes.
The most common chromosomal anomaly seen in human populations is Down syndrome (DS), in which
there is an additional copy of the number-21 chromosome. For this reason it is also known as trisomy 21
(see Case study box).
• Monosomy refers to when one member of the typical pair of chromosomes is missing. Monosomy causes
embryonic death, except for a monosomy involving the sex chromosomes.
Using the karyotype shorthand mentioned in section 6.4.2 — for example, 46, XX trisomy a condition in which a cell
— a missing sex chromosome is usually indicated with the symbol ‘O’. If an extra or organism has three copies of
entire autosome is present, this is shown by the chromosome number with a plus a particular chromosome that is
normally present as a homologous
sign in front of it — for example, +21. A plus or a minus sign after the chromosome pair
number indicates that only part of a chromosome is either present (+) or missing (−), monosomy a condition in which a
and either a ‘p’ (short) or a ‘q’ (long) symbol is used to denote which arm of the cell or organism has only one copy
chromosome is involved. Table 6.7 gives some examples of shorthand notations of a particular chromosome that is
normally present as a homologous
of a karyotype. pair

TABLE 6.7 Chromosome abnormalities with respective incidence rates
Chromosome change Resulting syndrome Approximate incidence rate
Addition: whole chromosome
Extra number-21 (47, +21) Down syndrome 1/700 live births
Extra number-18 (47, +18) Edwards syndrome 1/3000 live births
Extra number-13 (47, +13) Patau syndrome 1/5000 live births
Extra sex chromosome (47, XXY) Klinefelter syndrome 1/1000 male births
Extra Y chromosome (47, XYY) N/a 1/1000 male births
Deletion: whole chromosome
Missing sex chromosome (46, XO) Turner syndrome 1/5000 female births
Deletion: part chromosome
Missing part of short arm of number-4 (46, 4p–) Wolf–Hirschhorn syndrome 1/50 000 live births
Missing part of short arm of number-5 (46, 5p–) Cri-du-chat syndrome 1/25 000 live births
CASE STUDY: Down syndrome

People with 47 chromosomes in their body cells instead of the normal 46 due to the presence of an extra
number-21 chromosome have the condition Down syndrome (DS). A karyotype of the individual in figure 6.30a
is denoted as 47, XY, +21 (where ‘47’ denotes the total number of chromosomes, ‘XY’ denotes the sex
chromosomes present and ‘+21’ denotes the identity of the extra chromosome).
FIGURE 6.30 a. A young man with Down syndrome b. A typical karyotype from a DS male. Which
chromosome is present as a trisomy?
a. b.
About one in 700 babies born in Australia has an extra number-21 chromosome, but the rate differs according
to the age of the mother (see figure 6.31). The risk of having a DS baby increases with maternal age; the risk for
mothers aged 20 is about 1/2300, while the risk for mothers aged 40 is about 1/100. Increased father’s age also
increases the risk, but to a lesser extent.

The most common form of DS is the trisomy
condition, in which three separate copies FIGURE 6.31 Incidence of DS births for mothers of
of the number-21 chromosome are present different ages
in the karyotype. In most cases, the extra
0.03
number-21 chromosome is transmitted via
Frequency of DS per live births

an abnormal egg with 24 chromosomes,
including two number-21 chromosomes. If 1
this egg is fertilised by a normal sperm (with 0.02 46
23 chromosomes, including one number-21
chromosome), a DS embryo will result
(figure 6.32). 1
0.01 100
An abnormal egg with 24 chromosomes results 1
1 1
when, during the process of egg formation by 290
2300 880
meiosis in the ovary, the normal separation of
the two copies of chromosome 21 to opposite 0.00
poles of the spindle does not occur. This type 20 25 30 35 40 45
of error is known as a nondisjunction and is Age of mother
unpredictable. It may also occur during sperm
production in the father. The chance of a sibling with DS is low.
The presence of the extra chromosome in people with DS produces various

symptoms including: a fold on the inner margin of the upper eyelid; a smaller than nondisjunction failure of normal
normal mouth cavity; distinctive creases on the palms of the hands and the soles of the chromosome separation during cell
division
feet; poor muscle tone and loose joints; upward slanting, almond-shaped eyes; and a
translocation type of chromosome
short stature. When a child with DS is born, new challenges arise for the family.
change in which a chromosome
A much rarer form of DS can also occur, called translocation. This is discussed in the breaks and a portion of it reattaches
‘Rearrangements of chromosomes’ section later in this subtopic. to a different chromosome
FIGURE 6.32 a. Fertilisation of normal gametes b. Possible gametes involved in fertilisation to produce a DS
zygote (Note that in both a and b the number-21 chromosomes are shown separately.)
a. Egg
n = 23
Fertilisation
21 2n = 46
n = 23
Sperm 21 21
21
b. Egg
n = 24
Fertilisation
21 21 2n = 47
n = 23
Sperm 21 21 21
21

Errors in sex chromosomes
The chromosomes that determine sex are also found in the gametes, or sex cells, of the organism. All females
produce egg cells that contain an X chromosome, whereas in males the sperm may contain either an X or a Y
chromosome. These cells are formed by meiosis (see subtopic 6.7).
During the formation of gametes, critical events include the orderly disjunction of homologous chromosomes
(figure 6.33a) to opposite poles of the spindle. However, if nondisjunction of homologous chromosomes occurs,
or if homologous chromosomes fail to separate to opposite poles of their spindle at anaphase, errors in sex
chromosomes can occur. For example:
• a gamete may have two copies of one chromosome instead of the normal single copy
• a gamete may be lacking a copy of one chromosome (figure 6.33b).
The fertilisation of an abnormal gamete by a normal gamete will produce a zygote with an imbalance in its
sex chromosomes. Table 6.8 shows some possible abnormal outcomes, as well as the normal XX female
and the normal XY male outcomes. Remember that the ‘O’ does not denote a chromosome, it denotes that a
chromosome is missing. Gametes that are the result of a nondisjunction at anaphase II of meiosis are shown
in red.
FIGURE 6.33 a. The disjunction of a chromosome pair during an error-free meiosis. The duplicated pair of
homologous chromosomes in the cell in the top of the diagram undergoes two anaphase separations to produce
four gametes, each with a single copy of the chromosome. b. The result of a nondisjunction of homologous
chromosomes in anaphase II of meiosis
a. b.
Nondisjunction
TABLE 6.8 Possible outcomes, in terms of sex chromosomes, of fertilisation of an egg by a sperm. In some cases
one gamete is abnormal because of a nondisjunction of the sex chromosomes at anaphase II of meiosis (as
shown in red).
Egg of female parent Sperm of male parent Resulting zygote
X X XX, normal female
X Y XY, normal male
XX X XXX, triple X female
XX Y XXY, Klinefelter syndrome
X XY XXY, Klinefelter syndrome
O X XO, Turner syndrome
(continued)

TABLE 6.8 Possible outcomes, in terms of sex chromosomes, of fertilisation of an egg by a sperm. In some cases
one gamete is abnormal because of a nondisjunction of the sex chromosomes at anaphase II of meiosis (as
shown in red). (continued)
Egg of female parent Sperm of male parent Resulting zygote
X O XO, Turner syndrome
O Y OY, non-viable
X YY XYY, double Y male
Of the possible outcomes, two result in a person with clinical abnormalities:

• Turner syndrome (45, XO): Persons with Turner syndrome are female and display clinical signs that
include sterility because of the absence of a uterus.
• Klinefelter syndrome (47, XXY): Persons with Klinefelter syndrome are male and display clinical signs
that include sterility and often female-type breast development.
In contrast, females who are 47, XXX and males who are 47, XYY show no clinical signs, are fertile and
typically would be unaware of their less usual chromosomal status.
Comparing errors in autosomes and sex chromosomes

If we compare the situation between the autosomes and the sex chromosomes, it becomes apparent that
changes to the numbers of autosomes are far more drastic in their effects than changes to the numbers of sex
chromosomes.
All cases of monosomy of an autosome are non-viable, resulting in embryonic death, but the monosomy
involving a sex chromosome, XO (Turner syndrome), is viable. This indicates that two copies of each autosome
are essential for prenatal development. In contrast, even with only one X chromosome, prenatal development
proceeds and the affected female survives into adulthood. However, the absence of both X chromosomes creates
a non-viable situation. Only a few cases of trisomy of an autosome are viable and of these, only trisomy 21
(Down syndrome) normally survives into adulthood. In contrast, a person with an XXX trisomy shows no
clinical signs.
Changes to parts of chromosomes

Changes can occur that involve part of a chromosome, such as:
• duplication, in which part of a chromosome is duplicated (see figure 6.34a)
• deletion, in which part of a chromosome is missing (figure 6.34b) — as in cri-du-chat syndrome, for
example, so named because affected babies have a cat-like cry (see table 6.7).
Rearrangements of chromosomes
Structural changes may occur in which the location of a chromosome segment is altered so that it becomes
relocated to a new region within the karyotype. Such a change is known as a translocation. One example is
related to a special case of Down syndrome, when part of the number-21 chromosome becomes physically
attached to a number-14 chromosome (figure 6.34c). The parental origin of the
chromosomes is also important. Normally a child inherits one member of each duplication type of chromosome
change in which part of a
chromosome pair from each of its parents. If both copies of a particular chromosome chromosome is repeated
are inherited from one parent, instead of the usual one from each parent, abnormalities deletion type of chromosome
of development result. For example, Angelman syndrome, characterised by poor motor change in which part of a
coordination and developmental delay, can result if an embryo inherits a faulty gene on chromosomes is lost
the number-15 chromosome from its mother (as only the maternal copy of this gene is Angelman syndrome a genetic
disorder resulting from the loss of
active in certain parts of the brain). function of a gene on
chromosome-15 inherited from
the mother; it primarily affects the
central nervous system

FIGURE 6.34 a. Normal chromosome and the same chromosome showing a duplication b. Normal chromosome
and the same chromosome showing a deletion c. An example of a 14/21 translocation
a. Duplication b. Deletion
Site of
Breakage deletion
Duplicated points
segment
Normal Chromosome
chromosome with a segment
Normal deleted
Chromosome chromosome
with a segment
duplicated
c. Translocation
21
Breakage New join
points
14
Normal Normal 14/21 translocated

chromosome 14 chromosome 21 chromosome
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5 Identifying sex and abnormalities from human karyotypes

tlvd-1757
Identify the following human karyotype, state the sex of the individual and which chromosomal
abnormality, if any, is present. Use tables 6.7 and 6.8 to help in your answer. (2 marks)
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16 17 18
19 20 21 22 X Y
THINK WRITE
1. Check that all the homologous chromosomes Not all the chromosomes are in homologous pairs;
are in pairs. therefore a chromosomal abnormality is present.

2. If there are missing or additional There is an additional X chromosome. XXY is a
chromosomes, determine whether they are Klinefelter syndrome karyotype (1 mark).
autosomes or sex chromosomes. Use the
reference tables to determine the name of
the abnormality.
3. Look carefully at the sex chromosomes and A Y chromosome is present; therefore it is a male
determine whether a Y chromosome is Klinefelter syndrome karyotype (1 mark).
present. If so, it is a male.
INVESTIGATION 6.2
elog-0064
Modelling karyotypes
Aim
To model and analyse different karyotypes
Resources
Resourceseses
eWorkbook Worksheet 6.5 Analysing karyotypes (ewbk-2902)
Video eLesson Changes in chromosomes (eles-4201)
Weblink Online karyotyping
KEY IDEAS
• Chromosome sets can be ordered into karyotypes.
• Chromosomal changes can occur, including:
• changes in the total number of chromosomes
• changes involving part of one chromosome
• changed arrangements of chromosomes.
• Additional or missing chromosomes can be readily identified by analysis of karyotypes.
• The sex of an individual can be identified from karyotype analysis.
6.6 Activities
6.6 Exercise
1. Describe how the karyotype of a human male would differ from a human female.
2. Distinguish between the terms monosomy and trisomy.
3. Explain why all those affected with Turner syndrome are female.
4. Explain how nondisjunction may result in a female giving birth to a Down syndrome child.
5. A karyotype of a developing human embryo is examined. The individual is diagnosed with Edwards syndrome.
Describe how this karyotype would differ from a normal human karyotype and explain whether Edwards
syndrome can affect boys and girls.

6. A newborn baby showed facial abnormalities and other signs, including deformed kidneys and nails, and an
unusual way of clenching its fist. Its karyotype was prepared as shown.
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16 17 18
19 20 21 22 X Y
a. What is the total number of chromosomes in the karyotype?

b. What is the sex of the baby?
c. What abnormality is visible in the karyotype?
d. What name is given to this condition?
7. Suggest why the incidence rates of Patau syndrome (1/5000 live births) is lower than Edwards syndrome
(1/3000 live births), which is in turn lower than Down syndrome (1/700 live births). Use table 6.7 to help.
6.6 Exam questions

Question 1 (1 mark)
MC What is a karyotype?
A. The data output from DNA sequencing
B. A map of a chromosome showing all of its gene loci
C. The combination of alleles that an individual has for a particular gene
D. The ordered arrangement of images of a diploid set of chromosomes
Question 2 (1 mark)
MC Which cell could provide the data to construct a karyotype?
A. An ovum
B. A sperm cell
C. A skin cell in metaphase
D. A liver cell during interphase
Question 3 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2011 Biology Exam 2, Section B, Q5a
The quarter horse, as a breed, originated by selective breeding. The first Australian quarter horses were imported
from North America in the 1950s. A genetic condition called Hereditary Equine Regional Dermal Asthemia
(HERDA) affects certain individuals. HERDA horses have a reduced life expectancy. Affected horses have a
pedigree that is linked to an American stallion, Polo Bueno, which lived in the 1940s.
Which cells in the body of Polo Bueno were affected by the mutation allowing HERDA to be inherited?

Question 4 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2016 Biology Exam, Section A, Q31
MC Consider the following karyotype.
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16 17 18
19 20 21 22 x y
Source: MA Hill
The cell from which these chromosomes were taken

A. has a diploid number of 44.
B. comes from a human female.
C. has two copies of each of the genes found on chromosome 18.
D. has inherited one chromosome number 4 from the mother and inherited one chromosome number 4 from
the father.
Consider a karyotype with an additional copy of an entire chromosome, specifically chromosome X.
a. How would this chromosomal change appear in a human karyotype? 2 marks
b. Explain the differences that may appear between a male and female with an additional X
chromosome. 2 marks
6.7 Production of haploid gametes

KEY KNOWLEDGE
• The production of haploid gametes from diploid cells by meiosis, including the significance of crossing over
of chromatids and independent assortment for genetic diversity
6.7.1 How many chromosomes?

In sexual reproduction, each parent makes an essentially equal genetic contribution to each of its offspring
in the form of a gamete; that is, an egg and a sperm. These gametes, and the cells used to produce them, are
often referred to as the germline. If, in the case of humans, these gametes each contained 46 chromosomes,
an offspring would have a total of 46 + 46 = 92 chromosomes. Over successive generations, this chromosome
number would increase further. However, this doubling of the number of chromosomes does not occur across
generations. Each generation of human beings has a constant 46 chromosomes in their somatic cells. In
consequence, this means that each normal human gamete must have just 23 chromosomes, so that an offspring
receives 23 + 23 = 46 chromosomes in total from its parents (see figure 6.35).

FIGURE 6.35 The life cycle of the human species. In sexual reproduction, offspring result from the fusion of two
parental contributions (one egg and one sperm).
Adults (2n) Mitosis Baby (2n)

Mitosis, differentiation
and growth
Early
embryo (2n)
Meiosis
Sperm (n)
Fertilisation
Egg (n) to form diploid
zygote (2n)
In humans, the normal somatic cells have 46 chromosomes, while FIGURE 6.36 An egg cell with
sperm cells adhering. Only one
the gametes (either eggs or sperm) have just 23 chromosomes.
sperm will succeed in fertilising
Alternatively, dogs have 78 chromosomes, while their gametes have the egg.
39 chromosomes. The number of chromosomes in the gametes
is the haploid number and is denoted by the symbol n. Hence, in
humans n = 23 and in dogs n = 39. It is then reasonable to conclude
that the process of gamete formation in a person involves a reduction
division. In humans, a starting cell with 46 chromosomes gives rise
to gametes, either egg or sperm, that have only 23 chromosomes. This
reduction division is a process called meiosis. The fertilisation of an
egg by a sperm restores the diploid number (see figure 6.36).
We will see in the following section that meiosis is a non-conservative
division in which the chromosome number is halved and, as we will see
later, the genetic information on the chromosomes is shuffled.
A key feature of sexual reproduction is that offspring produced through
this mode of reproduction differ genetically from each other and also reduction division production
of gametes through cellular
from their parents. In contrast, asexual reproduction involves a cellular process division in meiosis I that reduces
called mitosis that is conservative, so it faithfully reproduces an exact copy of the the chromosome number from
genetic information of the single parent cell in the two daughter cells. diploid to haploid
• Sexual reproduction depends upon meiosis, which halves the chromosome number to produce gametes. The
offspring produced differ genetically from each other and also from their parents.
• Asexual reproduction involves a cellular process called mitosis that reproduces an exact copy of the genetic
information of the single parent cell in the two daughter cells.
6.7.2 Meiosis: the stages

Meiosis is the process that produces gametes with the haploid number of chromosomes; that is, half the number
present in somatic cells. After fertilisation, when the nucleus of a sperm fuses with that of an egg, the diploid
number of chromosomes is restored (see figure 6.37).

FIGURE 6.37 Diploid animals produce haploid gametes that fuse at fertilisation to produce a diploid zygote.
Diploid — 2n Haploid — n Diploid — 2n
46 Meiosis
23 Egg
Fertilisation Mitosis 46
46
Zygote
Meiosis 23 Sperm
46
In order to create haploid daughter cells that are genetically different from each other, a series of carefully
coordinated stages of meiosis are necessary. Figure 6.38 shows how a diploid cell with a total of four
chromosomes (2n = 4) undergoes meiosis to produce four haploid gametes.
6.7.3 Introducing variation

The biological significance of meiosis is that it produces genetic variability among the offspring produced by
sexual reproduction involving gametes from two parents. No two offspring are the same!
A litter of pups may consist of an odd mixture of colours and patterns (see figure 6.39). Siblings (brothers and
sisters) in a human family can show differences in hair colour, eye colour, blood types and other traits. Inherited
differences between offspring can be traced back to the process of meiosis and to the genetic variation that it
produces in gametes.
Crossing over
Meiosis produces variation because of two mechanisms:
1. Crossing over
2. Independent assortment.
Let’s look at these two mechanisms in more detail. Firstly, as mentioned briefly in the previous section, crossing
over occurs during prophase I. The homologous chromosomes become connected and are known as a bivalent.
While connected non-sister chromatids become entangled, the DNA breaks and recombines, causing new
combinations of alleles to form along the length of chromatids (figure 6.40).
Figure 6.40 shows three genes represented as different letters, each with two alleles
signified by upper- or lowercase text. The haploid gametes produced have different
combinations of alleles of the three genes. The parental diploid cell had alleles P,
Q and R on one chromosome and p, q and r on the other homologous chromosome, crossing over an event that
occurs during meiosis, involving
whereas the haploid daughter cells have the combinations shown in figure 6.41. the exchange of corresponding
segments of non-sister chromatids
It is possible to appreciate how this process alone could produce a huge genetic of homologous chromosomes
variety in the daughter cells. Remember that humans have 22 pairs of autosomes that independent assortment the
can all engage in crossing over, shuffling thousands of alleles. Therefore, the offspring formation of random chromosome
that result from fertilisation of two daughter cells do not look identical to their parents combinations during meiosis that
contributes towards producing
since they do not have exactly the same alleles that either parent had; instead they variation
have a combination of alleles from both parents. Similarly, siblings (unless they are bivalent a pair of homologous
identical twins) do not look identical because the gametes from which they arose were chromosomes that are held together
not identical. It is amazing to think that every sperm a male produces and every egg a by at least one crossover
female produces in their lifetime are likely to be unique.

FIGURE 6.38 Stages in the process of meiosis, from the starting diploid cell (2n = 4) to the
final haploid gametes (n = 2)
A a
E Before meiosis, a diploid cell with four chromosomes (2n = 4)

B
b e
1.
a
A Interphase: The DNA is replicated, producing the X-shaped
e chromosomes, each consisting of sister chromatids joined at the
E centromere (section 6.5.1).
b
B
2.
Prophase I of meiosis: The chromosomes condense and the nuclear

a envelope degrades.
A
Crossing over (section 6.7.3) occurs between corresponding sections
E of homologous chromosomes, causing DNA to move between the
e
b homologous chromosomes and therefore alleles are transferred.
B
3. This creates new combinations of alleles along the chromosomes.
e eE E Metaphase I: The homologous chromosomes line up alongside each

other down the equator of the cell.
A Aa a Anaphase I: They are then separated from each other when
their centromeres are pulled to opposite poles of the cell by the
4. spindle fibres.
b Bb B
A a Telophase I: A nuclear envelope reforms around each set of

A a
chromosomes.
e e E E The spindle fibres disappear and cytokinesis occurs. Cytokinesis
5. b B involves the division of the cytoplasm, forming two new cells, and
b B
the nuclear envelope reforms within each.
Prophase II: During meiosis, another round of division occurs. The chromosomes may re-condense if
necessary and the nuclear envelope again breaks down.
b A Metaphase II: The chromosomes again line up along the equator

a B of each cell.
e E
e Anaphase II: The replicated chromosomes are separated into
B A E a b single-stranded ones by the spindle fibres pulling the sister
6. chromatids.
A A a a
Telophase II: A new nuclear envelope reforms around each set of
e E E chromosomes. Cytokinesis occurs, forming four haploid daughter
b e
B B b cells (n = 2).
7.

FIGURE 6.39 Pups from two parents show variation in colour and pattern.
FIGURE 6.40 a. One pair of homologous replicated chromosomes (left) at interphase of meiosis. Note the genetic
information that they carry. b. The exchange of segments when crossing over occurs during prophase I of meiosis
c. The resulting recombination of genetic material
Bivalent
a. b. c.
P p P p P P p p
Q q Q q q q Q Q
R r R r r R r R
FIGURE 6.41 The combinations present in the haploid daughter cells resulting from the process shown in
figure 6.40
P P p p
q q Q Q
r R r R
P, q, r P, q, R p, Q, r p, Q, R
Independent assortment
Another source of considerable variation is independent assortment. This describes how pairs of alleles separate
independently from each other during meiosis. Let’s look at the example shown in figure 6.42, which has a cell
with just two pairs of homologous chromosomes (2n = 4).

During metaphase I, the homologous chromosomes line up along the middle of the cell. There are two different
possibilities of how the chromosomes could be orientated in relation to each other. If the purple T-containing
chromosome is positioned above the orange t-containing chromosome, then gametes containing RT are formed
along with rt gametes. However, there is an equal chance that the purple and orange chromosomes line up on
different sides of the equator of the cell. In this case, different combinations of chromosomes are present in the
gametes — Rt and rT.
FIGURE 6.42 Meiosis showing different outcomes from independent assortment of chromosomes in a cell
containing two homologous pairs of chromosomes
R T R T
1
– RT
R T R T 4
R T
R T
r t
r t r t
r t 1
– rt
r t 4
r t
R t R t
1
– Rt
R t R t 4
R t
R t
r T
r T r T r T
1
– rT
r T 4
r T
Anaphase 1 Anaphase 2 Gametes
It is possible to imagine that with more chromosomes in a cell, a greater variety of chromosome combinations
would occur. In fact, for a human cell containing 23 pairs of chromosomes, there are over 8 million possible
chromosome combinations. This is given by the formula 2n (where n = number of chromosome pairs). We can
check this formula using the example in figure 6.42. There are two pairs of chromosomes, therefore 2² = 4. A
check of the chromosome combinations reveals there are indeed four possible outcomes.
The advantage of sexual reproduction comes from the genetic diversity that it creates in offspring. In contrast to
a population generated by asexual reproduction that is composed of genetically identical organisms, a population
of organisms produced by sexual reproduction contains a remarkable level of genetic diversity. The presence
of this variation within its gene pool means that such a population is better equipped to survive in changing,
unstable environmental conditions, in order to cope with an outbreak of a new viral or bacterial disease, or to
survive a disaster.
Genetic diversity
• Meiosis produces sex cells with almost infinite variation due to crossing over and independent assortment.
• Crossing over is the exchange of corresponding segments of non-sister chromatids of homologous
chromosomes.
• Independent assortment is the formation of random chromosome combinations.
• The genetic diversity of the resulting offspring is the main advantage of sexual reproduction over asexual
reproduction, since this variation allows species to adapt to changing environments.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 6 Identifying the stages of meiosis
tlvd-1758
Four diagrams demonstrating various stages of meiosis are shown. State the correct order and
identify the name of each stage. (2 marks)
A B C D
THINK WRITE
1. Look closely at the number and appearance of the chromosomes. A — prophase I
Cells with four chromosomes (A and D) must not have yet gone D — metaphase I (1 mark)
through one round of division and so must be in an earlier stage
of meiosis. Chromosomes still within a nuclear membrane and
undergoing crossing over (A) are in prophase I, which is before they
line up along the middle of the cell at metaphase I (D).
2. Cells with half the number of chromosomes have already undergone C — metaphase II
one round of division. During metaphase II the chromosomes again B — telophase II (1 mark)
line up in the middle of the cell. The nuclear envelope reforms at the
end of the process (telophase II).
INVESTIGATION 6.3
elog-0065
Modelling and observing meiosis
Aim
To model the formation of haploid cells through meiosis and observe meiosis under the microscope
INVESTIGATION 6.4
elog-0066
Investigating inheritance of chromosomes from grandparents
Aim
To observe how chromosomes are inherited across generations
Resources
Resourceseses
eWorkbook Worksheet 6.6 The process of meiosis (ewbk-2903)
Video eLesson Stages of meiosis (eles-4216)
Interactivity Labelling the stages of meiosis (int-8129)
Weblink What is meiosis?

CASE STUDY: Identical twins
Do you know any identical twins? Can you tell them apart? It can be very difficult to distinguish between identical
twins since their physical characteristics are very similar. This is because identical twins are formed after a
single sperm fertilises a single egg cell. Rather than dividing by mitosis to produce a single embryo, instead, the
resulting zygote divides to produce two embryos shortly after fertilisation. Since the embryos are from the union
of the same single sperm and egg, their genetic information is also the same. The twins will, therefore, also have
the same alleles. This can make it difficult to tell the twins apart.
Identical twins are termed monozygotic — mono meaning ‘one’ and zygotic meaning ’the organism that develops
from the fertilised egg’.
FIGURE 6.43 Identical twins have the same genetic information as they result from the division of a single
zygote.
Fertilised egg Two-cell stage Single zygote

divides in two
KEY IDEAS
• Apart from identical twins, every human is genetically unique.
• Meiosis is the process that produces haploid gametes from a diploid cell.
• Genetic variation in gametes results from crossing over and from independent assortment.
• Crossing over and independent assortment contribute to the recombination of genetic information in
gametes.
• Increased genetic diversity from sexual reproduction aids species survival.
6.7 Activities
6.7 Exercise
1. What name is given to the haploid gametes produced by human females?
2. An organism has a diploid number of 32.
a. How many chromosomes are present in a sex cell of this organism?
b. How many chromosome combinations are possible due to independent assortment? Show your working.
3. What behaviour of chromosomes in meiosis gives rise to the segregation of alleles of one gene into different
gametes?
4. Using diagrams, draw the arrangements of chromosomes in a cell (2n = 4) undergoing anaphase I and then
anaphase II of meiosis.
5. Describe the process of crossing over and explain how it contributes towards genetic variation in a species.
6. Suggest why increased genetic diversity is beneficial to the survival of a species.
7. Horses have a chromosome number of 64 (2n = 64). Donkeys have a chromosome number of 62 (2n = 62).
Horses can breed with donkeys to produce mules that are infertile. Using the information of the number of
chromosomes of horses and donkeys, and your knowledge of meiosis, explain why mules are infertile.

6.7 Exam questions
Question 1 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2013 Biology Section B, Q8a
Mice have a diploid number of 40.
How many chromosomes are there in each of the following cells?
answer answer
sperm of fertilised egg

a mouse of a mouse
Question 2 (1 mark)
MC The following images show stages in meiosis in the order in which they occur.
1. 2. 3. 4.
5. 6. 7. 8.
9. 10. 11. 12.
13. 14. 15. 16.
Source: Radboud University Nijmegen, Faculty of Science,

www.vcbio.science.ru.nl (Virtual Classroom Biology)
Which one of the following statements is correct?

A. During the stage shown in image 9, chromatids separate.
B. Cells after the stage shown in image 10 are haploid.
C. During the stage shown in image 11, DNA will be replicated.
D. Homologous chromosomes pair up in the stage shown in image 12.

The cause of abnormal chromosome number is nondisjunction. Nondisjunction occurs during production of a
gamete that creates the abnormal baby. It may occur during anaphase of meiosis I or meiosis II.
a. What is nondisjunction? 2 marks
b. Explain how nondisjunction can lead to an abnormal number of chromosomes in a baby. 2 marks
Examine the diagram of the life cycle of a fern. Different stages of the fern’s life are indicated by the letters
A to D.
Sporophyte (2n)
D
Sporophyte (2n)
Sori
Rhizome
Gametophyte (n)
Roots
A Sori
Sperm
FERTILISATION
C
Egg Gametophyte (n)
Spores (n)
B
Germination
of spore
Life cycle of a fern
a. Which letter indicates the stage in the fern’s life cycle that performs meiosis? Explain your choice. 2 marks
b. The diploid number of this fern is 2n = 148. The sperm fertilises the egg to produce the first cell of the
sporophyte. The sporophyte grows by mitosis. How many chromosomes would be present in the fern’s:
i. sporophyte cells 1 mark
ii. spores 1 mark
iii. gametophyte cells 1 mark
iv. sperm and egg? 1 mark
Source: VCAA 2011 Biology Exam 2, Section B, Q4
Species of the fruit fly Drosophila generally have four pairs of homologous chromosomes.
a. What is meant by the term homologous chromosomes? 1 mark
The number of chromosomes
sometimes varies from the usual
four pairs. Karyotypes of two
different Drosophila are shown in
the following diagram. Note that
one is a subspecies of the other.
b. Describe an event that could
have caused the chromosome
differences between D. nasuta 2 2 3 3 4 4
and D. nasuta subspecies X Y
albomicans. 1 mark chromosomes of chromosomes of
Drosophila nasuta Drosophila nasuta subspecies albomicans
A cross between a female D. nasuta
and a male D. nasuta subspecies albomicans results in offspring.
c. What would be the diploid number of these hybrid flies? 1 mark
d. Explain how chromosome differences between Drosophila nasuta and Drosophila nasuta subspecies
albomicans could result in their reproductive isolation and speciation. 2 marks

6.8 Review
6.8.1 Topic summary
Genes
Alleles are
forms of genes
Alleles
A genome is all
Genomes the DNA in an
organism
Autosomes:
pairs of
Homologous chromosomes
chromosomes:
same gene loci Sex chromosomes:
biological sex of
an organism
Chromosomes have
‘X’ shape when the
DNA has replicated
From
Variability of Centromere
chromosomes
chromosomes positions vary
to genomes
Numbers of
chromosomes vary
dramatically in
different organisms
Image of homologous
chromosomes
paired together
Karyotypes can be Autosomal

used to identify abnormalities
Karyotypes chromosome Sex chromosome
abnormalities abnormalities
Numbers of
chromosomes vary
dramatically in
different organisms
Haploid:
half the usual number
of chromosomes
Diploid:
two homologous
Production of
chromosomes
haploid gametes
from diploid cells
by meiosis New combinations
Crossing over
of alleles
Independent
assortment produces New combinations
new chromosome of chromosomes
combinations

Resources
Resourceseses
eWorkbook Worksheet 6.7 Reflection — Topic 6 (ewbk-2904)
Practical investigation eLogbook Practical investigation eLogbook — Topic 6 (elog-0166)
Digital documents Key terms glossary — Topic 6 (doc-34654)

Key ideas summary — Topic 6 (doc-34665)
6.8 Exercises
6.8 Exercise 1: Review questions

1. If monosomy of an autosome occurs, the zygote is non-viable. However, there is one case of monosomy of a
sex chromosome that is viable.
a. Identify the name of this syndrome and how it is represented.
b. Explain why all suffers of the condition are the same sex.
2. Where would you locate each of the following?
a. Human cells undergoing meiosis
b. Haploid cells in a cat
c. Cells containing 20 unpaired chromosomes in a mouse
d. The genetic instruction for your ABO blood type
3. Use words and/or diagrams to identify the differences, if any, between the items in each of the following
pairs:
a. Haploid and diploid
b. Autosome and sex chromosome
c. Somatic cell and gamete
d. Gene and allele.
4. Match the processes in the table to the outcome.
Process Outcome
a. Meiosis A. Exchange of segments occurs between homologous
chromosomes
b. Crossing over B. Haploid gametes produced from a diploid cell
c. Disjunction of homologous chromosomes C. Diploid number of chromosomes restored — one set

from each parent
d. Independent disjoining of non-homologous D. Alleles of one gene segregate from each other
chromosomes
e. Fusion of gametes at fertilisation E. Random combinations of different genes produced in

gametes
5. Using a diagram, show how crossing over can result in the production of chromosomes with new allele
combinations.

6. A sample of DNA from a human cell is found to contain 28% guanine. What percentage of thymine is
present? Show your working
7. a. Referring to the diagram provided, place the stages of meiosis in the correct order.
A B C
E F G D
b. What is the diploid number of this organism?

c. What is the haploid number of the gamete produced?
8. Explain why chromosomes have an ‘X’-shaped appearance at particular parts of the cell cycle.
9. Explain how the appearance of acrocentric and submetacentric chromosomes differ. You may use an
annotated diagram to assist in your answer.
10. In humans, only the sex chromosomes determine the biological sex of the individual. However, in some
reptiles, the environment plays a role too. Describe how one environmental factor can determine the sex.
6.8 Exercise 2: Exam questions

Resources
Resourceseses
Teacher-led videos Teacher-led videos for every exam question
Section A — Multiple choice questions
All correct answers are worth 1 mark each; an incorrect answer is worth 0.
Question 1
Consider the following diagram of a cellular structure.
centromere
This structure is
A. visible only using an electron microscope.

B. found only in eukaryotic organisms.
C. found in all living organisms.
D. made up entirely of DNA.

Question 2
Crossing over occurs during which phase of meiosis?
A. Telophase II
B. Cytokinesis
C. Prophase I
D. Anaphase I
Question 3
Telocentric chromosomes have a centromere position
A. at the centre of the chromosome.

B. at the very end of the chromosome.
C. close to the end of the chromosome.
D. halfway along the p arm.
Question 4
A biologist was working with a cell culture. He viewed a cell just before it entered mitosis and he counted 18
chromosomes. Later, the nucleus of one of the daughter cells was found to contain 19 molecules of DNA and the
nucleus of the other daughter cell contained 17 molecules of DNA.
The most likely explanation for this observation is
A. the microtubules of the spindle apparatus did not connect to the centromeres of two of the chromosomes.
B. during anaphase, sister chromatids of one chromosome failed to separate.
C. during prophase, two of the chromosomes failed to line up.
D. at the end of telophase, cytokinesis failed to occur.
Question 5
A cell contains 11% cytosine.
What percentage of guanine does it contain?
A. 11
B. 27
C. 39
D. Impossible to determine
Question 6
In bees, females are diploid and males are haploid.
This means that male bees
A. produce gametes with half the haploid number of chromosomes.

B. produce gametes by meiosis.
C. produce gametes by mitosis.
D. do not produce gametes.

Question 7
The genome of the woodland strawberry Fragaria vesca has been recently sequenced to show a relatively small
genome of just 206 million base pairs. F. vesca is an ancestor of the garden strawberry and is a relative of apples
and peaches.
It is expected that an offspring produced from sexual reproduction of F. vesca
A. translates all of its 206 million base pairs.

B. has equal numbers of adenine and cytosine nucleotides.
C. receives half of its chromosomes from the female parent.
D. possesses the same combination of alleles as other strawberry plants from the same parents.
Use the following information to answer Questions 8 and 9.
The red kangaroo (Macropus rufus) has 20 chromosomes in each of its somatic cells.
Question 8
What will be the haploid number?
A. 5
B. 10
C. 20
D. 40
Question 9
Which figure is closest to the number of possible chromosome combinations that could be produced during
meiosis from a cell of the red kangaroo?
A. 10 000
B. 100 000
C. 1 000 000
D. 10 000 000
Question 10
In leaf-cutting ants, a male develops from an unfertilised egg and a female from a fertilised egg.
It is reasonable to assume that
A. sperm produced by a particular male are genetically identical.

B. males can be either homozygous or heterozygous at any gene locus.
C. unfertilised eggs from a particular female develop into identical males.
D. homologous pairs of chromosomes are found in both male and female ants.

Section B — Short answer questions
Source: VCAA 2015 Biology Exam, Section B, Q6a, Q6bi, Q6bii, Q6c
The diagrams below show a pair of homologous chromosomes during cell division.
Figure 1 shows the whole chromosomes and Figure 2 is an enlarged view of the section circled in Figure 1.
Figure 1
Figure 2
a. Name the type of cell division that would be occurring for this arrangement of chromosomes to
be observed. 1 mark
b. i. What name is given to the process occurring in the circled area in Figure 1? 1 mark
ii. What is the outcome of this process and what advantage does the result of this process give
a species? 2 marks
c. Sometimes mistakes occur in this process. One such mistake is shown in the diagrams below.
R S T U V R S T U V
R S T U V R S U V
R S T U V R S T T U V
R S T U V R S T U V
Process named in part b.i. Result of process named in part b.i.
What will be the result of this mistake for the genetic makeup of the daughter cells? 1 mark
Some chromosomes, when present as a trisomy in a human, produce obvious signs of clinical conditions in the
affected person and are typically diagnosed soon after birth.
a. Give three examples of these chromosomes and state the name of each condition. 3 marks
b. How would these conditions be diagnosed? 1 mark
c. Briefly explain how a trisomy can be produced. 2 marks

d. A student stated: ‘Strange how the number-1 and the number-2 chromosomes are not examples of clinically
recognised trisomies. It must be that they are never involved in a nondisjunction. It looks like only a few
chromosomes are subject to that kind of error.’
Carefully consider this statement and indicate whether you agree with this student, giving a reason for your
decision. 2 marks
The DNA from a patient is examined in a hospital laboratory. A karyotype is produced and analysed by geneticists
as shown.
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16 17 18
19 20 21 22 X Y
a. The chromosomes have been arranged into homologous pairs. Explain what is meant by the term
homologous chromosomes. 1 mark
b. This karyotype is from a male. Explain how the geneticists were able to determine this from only
the karyotype. 1 mark
c. The DNA in a karyotype is in the form of highly condensed chromosomes. Describe how the DNA is packaged
to form chromosomes. 2 marks
d. Explain how the karyotype from one of the male’s sperm cells would differ from the one presented. 2 marks
The sketch shown was made by a student who was observing a cell undergoing meiosis.
A a
B b
D d

a. What phase of meiosis is the student’s sketch representing? 1 mark
b. What is the diploid number of the cell? 1 mark
c. Using the labels the student has added, and assuming no crossing over occurs, write the possible
chromosome combinations that could be found in the gametes formed. 2 marks
d. Explain why the chromosome number must be halved during gamete formation. 3 marks
Scientist A carried out an investigation to determine the mass of DNA in a human somatic cell. They examined a
cell from a human kidney and found it contained 6.69 picograms of DNA. Scientist B also carried out the same
investigation but chose to examine 1000 human cells from different organs. They concluded that 6.53 picograms
of DNA is present in each cell.
a. Explain why scientist B had chosen to examine 1000 cells from different organs rather than just one cell like
scientist A. 2 marks
b. Explain why neither scientist sampled cells from the sex organs. 1 mark
A third scientist, C, decided to repeat scientist B’s experiment. Seven cells were selected at random from their
experiments and their masses are shown in the table.
Mass of cells measured by scientists B and C

Scientist Mass of cells (picograms)
B 6.51 9.33 6.52 6.44 6.84 6.21 6.41
C 6.32 6.55 6.53 6.52 6.51 6.50 6.52
c. From the sample of results shown, which scientist’s results show the most precise data? Explain
your answer. 2 marks
d. The true mass of DNA in a human somatic cell is 6.57 picograms. State whether scientist B or C has
obtained more accurate results and explain why. 4 marks
6.8 Exercise 3: Biochallenge
Resources
Resourceseses
eWorkbook Biochallenge — Topic 6 (ewbk-8076)
Solutions Solutions — Topic 6 (sol-0651)
Test maker
Create unique tests and exams from our extensive range of questions, including practice exam questions.
Access the assignments section in learnON to begin creating and assigning assessments to students.

Online Resources Resources
Below is a full list of rich resources available online for this this topic. These resources are designed to bring ideas to
life, to promote deep and lasting learning and to support the different learning needs of each individual.
eWorkbook Video eLessons

6.1 eWorkbook — Topic 6 (ewbk-3164) ⃞ 6.2 Coiling and supercoiling of DNA (eles-4140) ⃞
6.3 Worksheet 6.1 Exploring genes and alleles (ewbk-2898) ⃞ 6.5 Chromosome structure (eles-4373) ⃞
Worksheet 6.2 Genomes and the Human Genome 6.6 Changes in chromosomes (eles-4201) ⃞
Project (ewbk-2899) ⃞ 6.7 Stages of meiosis (eles-4216) ⃞
6.4 Worksheet 6.3 Different types of chromosomes
(ewbk-2900) ⃞ Interactivity
6.5 Worksheet 6.4 Chromosome variability (ewbk-2901) ⃞
6.6 Worksheet 6.5 Analysing karyotypes (ewbk-2902) ⃞ 6.7 Labelling the stages of meiosis (int-8129) ⃞
6.7 Worksheet 6.6 The process of meiosis (ewbk-2903) ⃞
6.8 Worksheet 6.7 Reflection — Topic 6 (ewbk-2904) ⃞ Weblinks
Biochallenge — Topic 6 (ewbk-8076) ⃞ 6.3 The Human Genome Project ⃞
6.6 Online karyotyping ⃞
Solutions 6.7 What is meiosis? ⃞
6.8 Solutions — Topic 6 (sol-0651) ⃞
Teacher resources
Practical investigation eLogbook There are many resources available exclusively for teachers
online
6.1 Practical investigation eLogbook — Topic 6 (elog-0166) ⃞
6.2 Investigation 6.1 Extraction of DNA from kiwi fruit
(elog-0063) ⃞
6.6 Investigation 6.2 Modelling karyotypes (elog-0064) ⃞
6.7 Investigation 6.3 Modelling and observing meiosis
(elog-0065) ⃞
Investigation 6.4 Investigating inheritance of
chromosomes from grandparents (elog-0066) ⃞
Digital documents
6.1 Key science skills — VCE Biology Units 1–4
(doc-34648) ⃞
Key terms glossary — Topic 6 (doc-34654) ⃞
Key ideas summary — Topic 6 (doc-34665) ⃞
6.3 Case study: DNA and its bases (doc-36101) ⃞
6.4 Case study: Comparison of gender and sex
determination (doc-36189) ⃞
Teacher-led videos
Exam questions — Topic 6
6.2 Sample problem 1 Comparing and contrasting eukaryotic
and prokaryotic chromosomes (tlvd-1753) ⃞
6.3 Sample problem 2 Calculating percentages in genomes
(tlvd-1754) ⃞
6.4 Sample problem 3 Explaining male sex chromosomes
(tlvd-1755) ⃞
6.5 Sample problem 4 Differences between metacentric
and submetacentric chromosomes (tlvd-1756) ⃞
6.6 Sample problem 5 Identifying sex and abnormalities
from human karyotypes (tlvd-1757) ⃞
6.7 Sample problem 6 Identifying the stages of meiosis
(tlvd-1758) ⃞
To access these online resources, log on to www.jacplus.com.au

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AREA OF STUDY 1 HOW IS INHERITANCE EXPLAINED?

PRACTICAL WORK AND INVESTIGATIONS

Practical investigation eLogbook Practical investigation eLogbook — Topic 6 (elog-0166)

352 Jacaranda Nature of Biology 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Sixth Edition

6.2.1 Why are chromosomes important?

6.2.2 Eukaryotic chromosome structure

TOPIC 6 From chromosomes to genomes 353

chromatin a mass of genetic

354 Jacaranda Nature of Biology 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Sixth Edition

CASE STUDY: Mitochondrial DNA

TOPIC 6 From chromosomes to genomes 355

356 Jacaranda Nature of Biology 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Sixth Edition

6.2 Quick quiz 6.2 Exercise

6.3 The distinction between genes, alleles and

6.3.1 DNA and its bases

CASE STUDY: DNA and its bases

TOPIC 6 From chromosomes to genomes 357

1 spiral coil: 3–4 nm

6.3.2 How do genes differ?

How much DNA is in a gene?

358 Jacaranda Nature of Biology 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Sixth Edition

EXTENSION: How does DNA produce a protein?

MET PRO GLY GLN CYS Amino acid sequence

TOPIC 6 From chromosomes to genomes 359

360 Jacaranda Nature of Biology 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Sixth Edition

TOPIC 6 From chromosomes to genomes 361

Allele variation in plants

TABLE 6.2 Alleles of some genes in plants

362 Jacaranda Nature of Biology 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Sixth Edition

FIGURE 6.15 Various colours in mature

6.3.4 The genome

TOPIC 6 From chromosomes to genomes 363

CASE STUDY: The Human Genome Project

TABLE 6.3 Dates of sequencing of genomes of a virus and various organisms

364 Jacaranda Nature of Biology 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Sixth Edition

William Biggs, ‘iCommunity Newsletter’, November 2014

Another statement is as follows:

TOPIC 6 From chromosomes to genomes 365

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2 Calculating percentages in genomes

366 Jacaranda Nature of Biology 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Sixth Edition

6.3 Quick quiz 6.3 Exercise 6.3 Exam questions

6.3 Exam questions

TOPIC 6 From chromosomes to genomes 367

The genome of F. vesca

Use the following information to answer Questions 4 and 5.

Number of genes Number of base Number of haploid

More exam questions are available in your learnON title.

368 Jacaranda Nature of Biology 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Sixth Edition

6.4.1 Homologous chromosomes

TOPIC 6 From chromosomes to genomes 369

370 Jacaranda Nature of Biology 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Sixth Edition

6.4.3 Sex determination

TOPIC 6 From chromosomes to genomes 371

Reptiles:environmental sex determination

29° 50% males

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3 Explaining male sex chromosomes

372 Jacaranda Nature of Biology 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Sixth Edition

6.4 Quick quiz 6.4 Exercise 6.4 Exam questions

a. Match each numbered chromosome with its lettered homologous partner.