Exhaustivity - This principle refers to the extent to which concepts or topics are made retrievable by

means of index terms. There are two identified basic degrees of Exhaustivity.

1. Depth indexing aims to extract all the main concepts dealt with in a document, recognizing
many subthemes and subtopics. This has been traditionally practiced for the subject analysis of
parts of items (e.g. journals, articles, chapters in books, etc.).
2. Summarization identifies only a dominant, over-all subject of the item, recognizing only
concepts embodied in the main theme. This is usually observed in library cataloging subject
analysis.

This diagram illustrates the concept that summarization leads to document retrieval and depth
indexing leads to information retrieval. re line that runs halfway in between suggests that it is
possible to have subject analysis system that is halfway between the two extremes.

Specificity - This principle refers to the extent to which a concept or topic in a document is identified
by a precise term in the hierarchy of its genus-species relationship. If the heading used is parallel to
the concept contained in the item and represents this concept correctly, then the level of specificity
is high.

Consistency - This refers to the extent to which agreement exists on the terms to be used to index
some documents. It requires that items on the same subject be conceptually analyzed and
translated in the same way. There are two types of consistency level.

1. Inter-indexer consistency refers to the agreement between or among indexers working as a

team.
2. Intra-indexer consistency refers to the extent to which one indexer is consistent to
himself/herself.

INDEXING PURPOSE AND USES

The functions and uses of an index are as follows.

 An index identifies potentially relevant information in the document or collection being indexed.
 An index analyzes concepts treated in a document so as to produce suitable index headings
based on its terminology.
 An index indicates relationships among topics.
 An index groups together information on topics scattered by arrangement of the document or
collection.
 An index organizes headings and their modifying subheadings into index entries.
 An index directs users seeking information under terms not chosen as index headings to
headings that have been chosen, by means of See references.

TYPES OF INDEX

1. By Arrangement
a. Alphabetical - This index is based on the orderly principles of letters in the alphabet and is
used for the arrangement of subject headings, cross references, and qualifying terms, as
 well as main headings. It is more convenient to use since it follows an order that is familiar
to any user. However, problems of synonymy and scattering may arise. Scattering means
that subcategories of a subject are not drawn together under the generic term, but are
frequently cross referenced from the not preferred terms to the preferred ones.
b. Classified - The classified index has its contents arranged on the basis of relation among
concepts represented by headings (e.g. hierarchy, inclusion, chronology, and other
association). Classified indexes are often based on existing classification schemes (e.g. DDC).
c. Concordance - An alphabetical index of all the principal words appearing in a single text or in
the multi-volume work of a single author with a pointer to the precise point at which the
word counts.
The need for indexes was first felt when the English Bible was made available to ordinary
people. This paved the way for Alexander Cruden in 1737 to prepare The Concordance of
the Bible.
A concordance is used to:
 to locate a partly or completely remembered passage
 to assemble subject matter
 to compare and analyze word meaning and usage
d. Numerical/Serial Order - Included in this group are patent-number indexes (e.g. The
Numerical Patent Index of Chemical Abstracts) and table indexes.

2. By Type/Form
a. Book Index - The book index, or back-of-the-book index, is an alphabetical list of words, or
group of words at the back of the book giving a page location of the subject or name
associated with each word or group of words. A book index is prepared in order to:
 reduce the frustration of information overload
 permit a browser in a bookstore to compare books prior to purchase
 collect the different ways of wording the same concept
 provide well-worded sub-entries (rather than long strings of unanalyzed page
references
 guide a user directly to a specific aspect of a topic
 filter information for the reader
b. Periodical Index - The periodical index is based on the same principles and has the same
general objective as a book index but has a broader scope. Periodical indexes are open-
ended projects usually performed by a group of people. Each issue of a periodical may deal
with unrelated topics by several authors, written in different styles and aimed at different
users.
The following table summarizes the major distinctions between the book and periodical
indexes…
c. Newspaper Index - This index uses the same principles and objectives with the previous
index types, except for some problems occurring to them.
 A newspaper article may contain names, places, or even subjects that may not occur
again (problem in vocabulary control).
 Multiple editions that some newspapers tend to have may cause some stories to be
added, dropped, or shifted to other pages.
 d. Audiovisual Materials Index
e. Card Index
f. Printed Index - Printed indexes (e.g. indexes in printed book or serial formats) - These
indexes contain indexer's markings on the items. They are constructed through the use of
bibliographic worksheets.
g. Microform Index - Many microform collections are accompanied by a paper guide that aids
in scholarship by acting as an index, often by author, title, or subject.
h. Computerized Index - The intervention of computers in indexing can either be automated or
computer-assisted. In automated indexing, the computer is left to construct the index
without human intervention. In computer-assisted indexing, humans are responsible for the
intellectual part of the task while the mundane work is done by computers (e.g. sorting,
organizing, etc.).

Indexes can also be categorized by the type of index headings they contain. These include the following:

 Subject Index - This index provides access to the topics treated in documents and/or features of
documentary units (e.g. genre, format, etc.). Index subject headings are arranged alphabetically
or in other systematic order.
 Author Index - This index provides access to information on documents cited by the author's
name in the indexed document, or it lists documents distinguished by author's name in the
indexed collection.
 Name Index - The name index provides access to names contained in documents, whether or
persons, organizations, or other animate or inanimate objects which are identified by a proper
name.

INDEXING LANGUAGE - An indexing language is a system of naming or identifying subjects contained in a

document. Like languages used in daily living, it also serves as a tool for communication, a means of
expressing feeling or thoughts and is a method of combining a group of words or word-like symbols so
that they can be understood by daily users. In indexing, it is used for the representation of topics and
features of a documentary unit and for the retrieval of documentary units from an information-retrieval
system.

1. Natural Language – also called as ‘derived-term system’, ‘indexing by extraction’

- This type of language uses significant terms or words occurring in the text as is as index
entries. Words extracted from the text that use natural language for indexing purposes are
often called keywords.
o Natural language tends to improve recall because it provides more access points but
reduces precision.
o In natural language, redundancy is greater.
o Natural language uses more current terms.
o Natural language tends to be favored by subject specialists or the end user
2. Controlled Vocabulary/Language - Controlled vocabulary makes use of authority lists that enable
an indexer to establish a standard description for each concept and use that description each
time it is appropriate. It serves several purposes.
o It controls synonyms by choosing one form as the standard term.
o It makes distinctions among homographs. E.g. Security (Law); Security (Psychology)
 o It establishes the size or scope (e.g. whether the word baseball would include
softball).
o It usually records hierarchical and affinitive/associative relations.
o It controls variant spellings.
- Controlled vocabulary uses several syndetic devices.
- There is a possibility that the controlled vocabulary may be inadequate. The indexer and the
searcher are limited to the terminology used, to the scope of each content (term or
notation), and to the structure of the existing system.
- Controlled vocabulary is channeled in (2) basic forms:
1) Authority List/Subject Heading List - This is an alphabetical list of subject headings with
cross references from not preferred terms and headings to preferred ones, and linking
devices between related terms and headings. It often includes separate sequences of
standardized subheadings that may be combined with subject headings. Rules for
applying subheadings usually accompany the list. A subject heading is used primarily to
index textual, book-length documents, with one or two terms that capture what the
document is all about.
Examples of subject heading lists are the following.
- Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH) - LCSH is used in conjunction
with the Subject Cataloging Manual: Subject Headings, a document that
contains policies and practices of the Library of Congress. LCSH is updated
continuously. Electronic updates are available via subscriptions to
Cataloger's Desktop and through various bibliographic utilities such as RLIN
and OCLC.
- Sears List of Subject Headings - This list is intended for small collections used
by persons with general needs. Its main users are public and school libraries.
It is also continuously updated (updates are available in electronic form).
- Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) - This list is used to provide subject access
points on every bibliographic record created at the National Library of
Medicine. In printed version, MeSH is comprised of three (3) volumes - one
volume for a hierarchical listing, another volume that is alphabetically-
arranged that includes scope note, and a volume of permuted alphabetical
listing. in which every word of a phrase is brought into lead position.
2) Thesaurus - The term thesaurus is derived from Latin, which means "treasure". It is used
to control indexing vocabulary in one subject or field of interest, ranging from
Agriculture to Vocational Training and to the European Communities. It is a controlled
indexing language vocabulary arranged in a known order and structured so that
equivalence, homographic, hierarchical, and associative relationship indicators among
terms are displayed clearly and identified by standardized relationship indicators that
are reciprocally employed. More than the subject heading list, a thesaurus is based on
terms and concepts that appear on the actual text of documents being indexed. A
thesaurus aims to promote consistency in the indexing of documents, predominantly for
post-coordinate information retrieval systems, and to facilitate searching by linking
lead-in terms with descriptors.

LEVELS OF INDEXING
INDEXING SYSTEMS

1. Coordinate Indexes – an indexing scheme that combines single index terms to create composite
subject concepts.
a. Post Coordinate Indexing - one entry is prepared for each keyword selected to represent
the subject of a given document, and all the entries are organized in a file. This term
serves as a lead term to the document.
b. Pre-Coordinate Indexing - keywords chosen at the subject analysis stage are coordinated
at the indexing state, and thus each entry represents the full content of the document
concerned.
PRECIS, POPSI, Chain procedure, Relational Indexing, NEPHIS, etc., are examples of pre-
coordinate indexing systems.

2. Classified Indexes – contents are arranged systematically by classes or subject headings.

a. Enumerative Indexes – DDC, LC, UDC are examples of enumerative classifications.
Enumerative classifications are top-down methods of analysis.
b. Faceted Indexes - often called as analytico-synthetic system. A facet analysis is a tightly
controlled process by which simple concepts are organized into carefully defined
categories by connecting class numbers of the basic concepts.
3. Title based Derivative Index – A title-based derivative index is generated merely by obtaining
and analyzing contexts present in document or article titles. There are two (2) known indexing
systems that are centered in this principle:
a. KWIC (Keyword in Context) indexing was introduced by Hans Peter Luhn in 1959. It is a
rotated index commonly derived from the titles of documents. Each keyword appearing
in the title becomes an entry point and highlighting in some way by setting it off at the
center of the page.
b. KWOK (Keyword Out of Context) indexing system is also a rotated index, but uses a
different method. Keywords that become the access points are set off on the left-hand
margin of the page or sometimes, they are used as though they were subject headings.
A keyword used as an entry point in a KWOC index is not usually repeated in the title but
is replaced by an asterisk (*) or some other symbols.
c. KWAC (Keyword Alongside Context) – also produced by computer algorithm, are
designed to preserve work pairs and phrases in the alphabetical sequence of keywords
while at the same time imitating the traditional format with the lead term on the left.