Robotics Roadmap For Australia 2022 - Compressed 1

A Robotics Roadmap
for Australia 2022

This National Roadmap is brought to you by Robotics Australia
Group, the voice of Australia’s robotics industry.
Our Vision is to build a sustainable robotics industry in Australia. We do this by supporting

the entire robotics ecosystem, from the companies building robots, to those researching
and developing new robotic technologies, robotics educators and enthusiasts, and the
companies looking to adopt robots and robotic-related technologies.
s the peak body for Robotics in Australia, Robotics Australia Group was established to
A
facilitate the growth of a sustainable and internationally competitive national robotics
industry.
obotics Australia Group will align current robotics activity and create a focussed,
R
collaborative approach between industry, research, government, start-ups, investment
and education to build a robust and world-class robotics ecosystem.
Published by Robotics Australia Group.

ISBN: 978-0-646-84688-0
© Robotics Australia Group
This work is copyright Robotics Australia Group. All material contained in this work is copyright Robotics
Australia Group except where a third party source is indicated.
Robotics Australia Group copyright material is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution 3.0 Australia License. To view a copy of this license visit
http://creativecommons.org.au
You are free to copy, communicate and adapt the Robotics Australia Group copyright material so long
as you attribute Robotics Australia Group in the following manner:
A ROBOTICS ROADMAP FOR AUSTRALIA, 2022, Robotics Australia Group.
This roadmap was produced by Roadmap Chair, Dr Sue Keay (Robotics Australia Group). We
acknowledge Kathie van Vugt (Robotics Australia Group) for editing, Marion Baillat (42 Interactive) for
project management, Michael Evans (Evans AI) for policy advice, and thank all Roadmap Co-Chairs and
Contributors.
Website: www.roboausnet.com.au
Design by Studio 55.
Front cover images courtesy of (clockwise from top left): Universal Field Robots, Boeing, AIMS and Robotics
Education Competition Foundation
Contents
1. Introduction............................................................. 2
2. Trust and safety..................................................... 16
3. Construction..........................................................38
4. Resources..............................................................54
5. Manufacturing.......................................................68
6. Healthcare and wellness......................................84
7. Services...............................................................102
8. Transport and mobility........................................118
9. Defence................................................................130
10. Agriculture............................................................156
11. Environment........................................................168
12. Space...................................................................178
13. Drones..................................................................188
14. Education............................................................ 204
15. Skills.................................................................... 226
16. Appendices..........................................................240
1
Introduction
VISION: Robots as a tool to unlock human potential, modernise the
economy, and build national health, well-being and sustainability
1.1 Why Australia needs a
robotics industry
Robotics will impact every sector of the Australian economy and
has the potential to achieve enormous social and environmental
good. Creating robotic technologies will lead to the jobs of the
future through creating new possibilities.
The application of these technologies will help protect our environment, provide equity in
service access for rural and remote communities, reduce the cost of healthcare, supply
safer and more fulfilling jobs, and maintain our living standards. But only if we invest in
keeping the talent and technologies we are developing in robotics, here in Australia. We
must be ambitious and seek to build homegrown global companies that export to the world.
The economic benefits of adopting robotics and automation are well-understood and
reasonably well-supported by Australia’s current government policies. Surprisingly, current
economic theory does not address the uplift generated by being a country that creates
robotic technologies but it is self-evident when considering the jobs, roles and industries
that will be created. COVID-19 highlighted the importance of being able to rely on sovereign
supply chains and developing our own technologies is a crucial component of this as well as
a matter of national security. Australia invests heavily in cybersecurity ($1.67b in 20201) but
does not make a concomitant investment in technology creation. This forces Australia to be
a nation of renters, who own nothing and pay to use technologies created by other countries.
We must reverse the trend towards being passive consumers of these technologies and
define our role as value creators.
Australia invests heavily in cybersecurity but does not make

a concomitant investment in technology creation.
In the last twenty years, tech companies have come to dominate the world’s top 10
companies by market capitalisation. In 2019, seven of the top 10 were technology
companies.2 None of Australia’s top 10 companies by market capitalisation are technology
companies, with the list dominated by mining companies and the ‘big four’ banks, however
fintech company AfterPay, cloud accounting company Xero and implantable device company
Cochlear are moving up the list.3 Australia should take advantage of its strong performance
in developing technology companies for financial services, healthcare, agriculture,
resources, transport and logistics.
A Robotics Roadmap for Australia 3

Roadmap Version 2 research institutions. Interest in the The number of case studies from
emerging area of robotics has grown industry submitted for inclusion in the
This is the second edition of the Robotics since 2018, shown by the increase roadmap has grown, from 58 in 2018 to
Roadmap for Australia. The first was from 92 participants in roadmap 98 today.
published in mid-2018 by the Australian consultation sessions in 2017 to 1,058
Centre for Robotic Vision, an ARC Centre The roadmap was also a key driver
participants in 2020. Consultation
of Excellence, which concluded at the for the establishment of both the
extended to include participants from
end of 2020. Responsibility for creating Queensland Robotics Cluster and
New Zealand, who have been producing
a second edition of the roadmap has RoboWest (WA). Robotic (and drone)
their own national roadmap. Unlike
been taken on by the new not-for-profit testing grounds are being developed
the first version of the roadmap, only
entity Robotics Australia Group, which is at Neerabup in WA, and Cloncurry in
two roadmap workshops (Resources
the peak body representing the robotics Queensland, smart mobility precincts
and Healthcare) were able to be held
industry in Australia. are being established in Joondalup (WA)
in person before COVID-19 restrictions
and Redland (QLD), while Australia’s
Robotics Australia Group, through the were enforced. The next thirteen
expertise in remote operations and
Robotics Australia Network, brings workshops were held virtually and
robotics is recognised by two WA-led
together a community of more than 800 can be watched on Robotics Australia
initiatives: AROSE (Australian Remote
people from industry, government and Group’s website and YouTube channel.
Operations for Space and Earth)
2018 2022
A Robotics Roadmap A Robotics Roadmap
for Australia 2018 for Australia 2022
Responsibility for creating a second edition of the roadmap

has been taken on by the new not-for-profit entity Robotics
Australia Group.
4 Robotics Australia Group

The five key principles of the 2018 roadmap remain the same for 2021
Jobs matter Time matters Safety is Regional service Certainty counts

A robotics industry The right use of robotics imperative delivery As the robotics
will enhance eliminates workplace Robotics Robotics can be the force industry becomes
Australia’s economic routine, improves reduces the multiplier necessary to more established,
competitiveness, efficiency and allows risk of workers ensure better and more investment will follow,
create meaningful workers to dedicate time being placed consistent services are attracted by the critical
jobs and, with the right to interesting and more in hazardous able to be provided to mass of talent and
policy settings, help fulfilling tasks while also situations Australia’s regional and technologies we are
adapt existing jobs boosting productivity remote areas continuing to develop
and SPaaRC (the Australian Space density,5 a measure of the number of This document is structured to give an
Automation, Artificial Intelligence industrial robots per 10,000 employees, overview of what robotics looks like in
and Robotics Control Complex). The by 2020. Australia. Each chapter focuses on the
establishment of Robotics Australia distinctive requirements of different
The rationale is to ensure China has a
Group – also a direct result of the sectors of the Australian economy, and
sovereign supply of the robots it requires
first roadmap – is recognised on the is informed by the robotics companies
for use in its manufacturing industry
international stage, with RAG becoming that service those sectors. Over the next
and it went about achieving its target
a founding member of the International decade a range of new technologies
aggressively, accounting for 38% of
Alliance of Robotics Associations (IARA). will see robots become even more
the world’s industrial robot purchases,
useful tools, having more sensitive
The rationale for writing a second while also buying the German robot
touch (tactile perception), being more
version of the roadmap is to further manufacturing company, Kuka Robotics.
capable of interacting with their physical
leverage and build on the momentum
environments, being able to work more
gained since the first, which was
closely in collaboration with humans,
written when Australia’s Robotics
and also to be more robust, reliable,
industry was highly immature and Australia’s robot
and self-sufficient. Robots will also take
fragmented. It is also in response to the population density is on many different forms, suiting them
record investment we are seeing other
countries make in robotics and more
75, while the world for new and unexplored functions. This
average is 113. We are roadmap is a guide to the future of
broadly AI. The US alone has invested
robotic technologies, providing insight
more than US$250b in recent times to being left behind. into what Australia is already doing in
ensure the competitiveness of the US
this space, and demonstrates how we
tech industry.4
can achieve gains from robots across all
Outside Australia, other countries are While China has not met its target, in sectors of the Australian economy.
developing and executing detailed less than 10 years it has grown from a
The raw ingredients for a successful
strategies around both robotics and robot population density of 15 (in 2010)
robotics industry are all here in Australia.
AI that are having immediate impact. to 187 (in 2019).
The first robotics roadmap showed a
China is a key example – in 2018, China
The world’s number one country in terms highly competent but relatively immature
published a national robotics strategy
of robot population density is Singapore, and fragmented industry, this second
with the ambition to become self-
with 918 robots per 10,000 employees edition shows signs of growth and
sufficient in the production of industrial
(in 2019). Australia’s robot population maturity but with much work still to
robots and to become the world’s
density is 75, while the world average is do. In 2018, the total venture capital
number one in terms of robot population
113.6 We are being left behind. investment (tracked from publicly

available sources) in Australian robotics (CAGR) for field robots, one of Australia’s of robotic technologies will lead to the
and drone companies was just $6.5m areas of niche expertise, is 31%.8 creation of new companies, new jobs
total (not annual). Since that time there and will address a range of issues
Our vision is for Australia to have
has been an additional $130m worth of national importance including our
a sustainable homegrown robotics
of investment in Australia and $28m ageing population, servicing regional
industry. We provide recommendations
investment in New Zealand. In 2018, and remote communities, and dealing
on how to achieve that vision and
we estimated robotics companies were with labour shortages, such as those
harness the new and emerging
worth $12b in revenue to the Australian generated by the COVID-19 pandemic.
technologies being developed here in
economy, in 2021 we estimate they
Australia today.
produce annual revenue of $18b. We
continue to graduate more Mechatronics
graduates each year from Australian
universities, with graduates almost
Australia needs to
doubling to 668 between 2016 and
2019.7 It is undeniable the sector is back itself to be not
growing along with Australia’s capability just a consumer but
in the space. a creator of robotics
Australia needs to back itself to be not and robotics-related
just a consumer but a creator of robotics
technologies.
and robotics-related technologies. Such
ambition will see us realise the full
benefits of these emerging technologies
and ensure we have sovereign capability Robotics is an interdisciplinary field that
across all of our important supply includes, mechanical and electrical
chains. It will also open up new export engineering, computer science, design Dr Sue Keay
markets in this high growth sector, where and, increasingly, the social sciences, Chair, Robotics Australia Group
average Compound Annual Growth Rate creative arts and law. The development
Image courtesy of Robusty.

1.2 Policy recommendations
OBJECTIVE
Establish Australia as a global leader (as

measured by export value) in the supply of
trustworthy robotics and artificial intelligence
(AI) products and services by 2030.
ACTIONS
Develop and release a 10-year Australian Artificial Intelligence and

Robotics Strategy by early 2022.
Add ‘Artificial Intelligence and Robotics’ to the Australian Research

Council Science and Research Priorities.
Update the Australian and New Zealand Standard Industry

Classification scheme to enable the measurement and tracking of
Australia’s technology sector – with specific categories for robotics
and robotics-related technologies (notably AI). Release dedicated
statistics on Australia’s technology sector by June 2023 at the latest

Priority
Substantially increase the number of Australian-based high growth robotics and AI companies
to improve sovereign capability and drive Australia’s technology export market.
Actions
► Identify additional policy mechanisms to support Australia’s startup ecosystem, with a focus on robotics
and AI.
► Review state/territory and national government procurement protocols and procedures to further support
Australian robotics and AI startups.
Priority
Improve the investment and funding environment for robotics and AI in Australia.
Actions
► Reduce barriers to foreign direct investment, with a view to see robotics investment increase to $500m per
annum by 2024.
► Incentivise Australian superannuation funds to invest in high capital expenditure ventures related to robotics
and robotics-related technologies, such as hardware.
► Provide improved access for Australian technology startups to international mentors.
Priority
Increase research and development and improve commercialisation of locally developed
intellectual property in robotics and robotics-related technologies.
Actions
► Reduce barriers to global robotics companies establishing research and development hubs in Australia
(compared to existing sales offices).
► Establish and fund robotics-related industry knowledge priorities to ensure existing and emerging industries
research and development programs are structured and delivered to support robotics research and
commercialisation.

Priority
Accelerate and amplify the development and adoption of Australian made robotics and AI
solutions.
Actions
► Introduce tax incentives for companies who adopt and deploy locally developed robotics and AI.
► Refocus Australia’s digital transformation to target the development and adoption of Australian developed
robotics and robotics-related technologies.
► Establish a national government body to expedite the approval and adoption of new technology applications
for commercial use across key industries (such as healthcare). The body would be further tasked with
collaborating with other state and national government agencies, industry and unions to expedite and
incentivise the path toward commercialisation for Australian technologies.
► Introduce an AI and robotics-first use strategy for federal and state/territory governments to lead by example
and accelerate government transformation. Such a requirement will further accelerate and support
domestic capability and expand the domestic market.
► Support the creation of robotics clusters and “living labs”/technology precincts to showcase Australian
solutions and enable testing and development with Australian industry and government.
Priority
Significantly increase Australia’s technology workforce and expand community literacy in
robotics and AI.
Actions
► Provide dedicated funding and policy support to improve digital and technology literacy for the general public,
with a focus on robotics and AI.
► Provide funding and resources to review and update national curriculums across all education levels to
provide greater focus on digital and technology skills.
► Identify and introduce strategies to attract and retain skilled migration specialising in robotics and AI.
► Develop a national training and incentive program to encourage workforce transition to the Australian
technology sector.
► Develop a national retraining and upskilling program to improve workforce resilience across all sectors by
leveraging tools such as micro-credentials.
► Launch a national competition to develop leading robotic solutions for key challenges to spur industry growth.

Priority
Develop and adopt governance systems to ensure robotics and AI solutions improve Australia’s
well-being and protect democratic values.
Actions
► Develop and/or adopt appropriate standards to ensure the safe deployment of robotic technologies which
meet appropriate ethical, legal and regulatory frameworks.
► Review and update regulatory frameworks to address and enable robotics and AI.
► Fund interdisciplinary research to address social and cultural issues and concerns relating to the
development of robotics to establish a social licence for robotics.
► Fund an awareness campaign across industry, government and the wider community on the benefits of
adopting robotics and robotic-related technologies (such as improved service delivery in remote areas,
productivity gains, safety, job creation and supply chain security).
WHAT IS A ROBOT?
mobility interactivity communication autonomy
Robots are autonomous machines that can move within their physical environment and
manipulate objects. Robots have four essential characteristics: sensing, movement,
energy and intelligence. In general we use the word “robotics” to encompass ALL
robotics-relevant fields such as computer and machine vision, sensors and sensing
systems (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) as well as automation
and autonomous systems.
Robots are often described in terms of two classes of robots, industrial or service, depending on their intended
application. Industrial robots are used in industrial automation applications while service robots are not. Service robots
may be for personal/domestic use or for use in professional settings, e.g. concierge robots in hotels. Statistics on the
number of robots produced in the world each year are divided into these two broad categories by the International
Federation of Robotics (IFR). In 2019, 373,000 industrial robots6 (down 12% from 2018) and 23.4 million service robots8
(up by 34% compared to 2018) were manufactured by more than 900 companies worldwide.

1.3 What do we need to develop sovereign
capability in robotics?
Australia is a global leader
in field robotics; however,
we have many barriers to
fully taking advantage of our
capability and experience.
Data and benchmarking

in robotics
Like many parts of Australia’s tech
sector, robotics is not recognised
as an industry in the Australian and
New Zealand Standard Industrial
Classification scheme (ANZSIC), used
by the Australian Bureau of Statistics
to collect industry relevant data for
benchmarking purposes. As robotics
is not recognised as an industry in
its own right, it is difficult to obtain them in terms of the business benefits/ unlike software. Often, the Australian
consistent measurements of the size risks for the target industry. As most market is not large enough to justify the
of the industry (how many companies), robotics technology can be applied development of high capital expenditure
how many people it employs, how much across all industry verticals this is a level (capex) technologies.
revenue it generates and how much of domain-specific knowledge that is
Policy initiatives, such as tax incentives,
it contributes to Australia’s export challenging for most robotics companies.
can help facilitate the transition of
income. Robotics and robotics-related high capex technologies to markets in
technology companies will variously
Incentives to invest in
robotics companies and and outside of Australia. Investment
fall under different divisions such as (of time and resources) should be
manufacturing or other specific sectors
to support adoption
focused on areas that show high
where the technology is applied and may While the investment landscape has potential to expand within the local
be seen as support services, engineering improved in Australia since the first market. Given Australia’s strength in
services, software, consulting or repair roadmap was published in 2018, field and service robotics, incentives for
and maintenance. There is no Australian universal feedback from our national companies to develop and adopt robotic
government department, except broadly consultation sessions suggested that technology in the Construction, Defence,
the Department of Industry, which takes access to capital was still a major Resources, Agriculture, Environment,
responsibility for policy on sovereign hindrance to the ongoing development Space and Services sectors will have
robotic capability, adoption of robotic- of Australian technologies onshore. direct impact on the development
related technologies by existing industry The path to commercialisation is still of sovereign robotics capability. For
or on regulating these technologies. seen as a key weakness in transitioning example, significant gains have been
robotics from the R&D stage to made in mining automation to the
Robotics introduces a different way of
market-ready product. While some benefit of the Australian economy and
working and measuring success both
innovations in Australian robotics have similarly, scalable technologies are
at a country- and firm-level. Mentally
market potential, they often require being developed in the AgTech sector.
and business-wise these concepts can
significant capital to commercialise, However, Australia does not develop
be hard to explain without describing

industrial robots so incentives that remote-access format. To be successful the creation of Australian made robotic
encourage adoption of such robots in such testbeds need to cater to a variety solutions for a variety of sectors. It fills
sectors such as manufacturing do not of robot systems that can be used to a gap that exists currently for robotics
have the same uplift potential as other test the utility of algorithms and to companies to navigate the last step of
sectors of the economy that rely on supply modular interoperable hardware solution commercialisation (TRL7 and
locally-produced robots. (plug-n-play) for remote testing against TRL8) and scaling manufacturing into
physical and virtual benchmarks. They operations (TRL9).
Shared infrastructure also require validation, which exposes
in robotics The factory forms the necessary
the need for frameworks (standard test
connective tissue between innovators,
The creation and maintenance of large- methods and metrics) to assess the
inventors, creators and researchers
scale robotic testbeds, or experimental quantitative performance of different
to investors, manufacturers, parts/
facilities, to support the development robotic technologies.
component suppliers (both national and
of robotic technologies is necessary for aggregated international supply chains),
commercialisation success. To date,
The Robotics Venture
Factory fabrication facilities, and existing test
Australia does not have these facilities. and development environments. It
Testbeds can act as ways to take R&D One potential solution that Robotics supports local robotics companies to
from theory to proto-type and then to Australia Group is promoting to address scale and create global businesses
a minimum viable product that can be some of the challenges outlined above, that access international markets,
tested in the market. While testbeds is the development of a robotics venture by providing resources to strengthen
are resource-intensive, this makes factory. The factory concept is designed service delivery as well as support and
them well-suited to a shared and even to build infrastructure that accelerates advisory services.
Considering the manufacturing “smiling curve”, the Robotics Venture Factory is focused on robotics
production and professional services, but will connect with other robotics test and demonstration
beds and global R&D efforts. It creates a portal entry for the acceleration of the manufacture of
robotics and the acceleration of industry uptake of automation and robotic solutions for those
sectors that benefit from the development of service robots such as field robots.
Value added
Research and Production Marketing and

development aftermarket services

Australian robotics venture factory
Nationally interconnected test grounds
2
10
6
3
4
7
9
11
12
1 Reef Works 7 Parks

2 Mackay 8 Albury-Wodonga
3 Gladstone 9 Oz Minerals SA Underground Test Mine
4 Morten Bay ARM Hub 10 Pilbara
5 Mount Isa 11 Neerabup
6 Emerald 12 Bunbury
The Factory will form the heart of an and the US, but with a focus on field supported environment with calibrated,
innovation hub precinct with all the robotics, where we have a global shared communications infrastructure
necessary materials and equipment leadership position. as well as remote operations capability
for local robotics companies to build, to support monitoring and tele-remote
The Robotics Venture Factory concept
test and validate prototypes and look to solutions. Implementation of the
incorporates plug-and-play, pack and
scale operations. It will be connected concept will increase our sovereign
ship, unpack and deploy services, as
into a national ecosystem of robotics capability in the development of robotic
well as testing and demonstration
test bed grounds – each with their technologies, increase jobs (particularly
capabilities. With a shared dedicated
own unique end user applications. The in regional areas), provide meaningful
workshop space including manufacturing
Factory concept draws on knowledge career pathways for mechatronics
equipment and engineering services, the
from similar initiatives in both Europe graduates and also increase exports.
factory enables rapid prototyping in a

Global robotics benchmarks
As robotics continues to expand to more application
domains, the development and maintenance of
suitable experimental facilities are becoming
bottlenecks in the innovation process. In fact,
there is a significant gap between the theoretical
foundations that are being broadly pursued,
and a focused, application- driven transition
from small-scale experiments to robust and high
impact developments. This gap is both scientific
and practical.
By having researchers from different institutions,

disciplines, and backgrounds come together around
a common testbed, there is potential to accelerate
innovation and to build on past findings in a more
effective manner than what is currently being done.
The development and maintenance of meaningful,
large- scale robotic testbeds is a resource-intensive
undertaking, which is why it is practically well-suited
to a shared an even remote-access format.
— US Robotics Roadmap 2020
Footnotes
1 Department of Home Affairs (2020) Australia’s Cyber Security Strategy 2020.
2 Desjardins, J. (2019) A Visual History of the Largest Companies by Market Cap (1999-Today) Visual Capitalist
Visual Capitalist. Accessed 27/06/2021
https://www.visualcapitalist.com/a-visual-history-of-the-largest-companies-by-market-cap-1999-today/
3 https://www.marketindex.com.au/asx-listed-companies. accessed 27/06/2021
4 Zakrzewski, C. (2021) The Technology 202: The Senate approved a massive investment in U.S. tech competitiveness, The Washington Post. https://
www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2021/06/09/technology-202-senate-approved-massive-investment-us-tech-competitiveness/
5 Tobin, F. (2017) China’s strategic plan for a robotic future is working: 500+ Chinese robot companies, The Robot Report.. https://www.therobotreport.
com/chinas-strategic-plan-for-a-robotic-future-is-working-500-chinese-robot-companies/
6 Müller, Christopher; Kutzbach, Nina: World Robotics 2020 – Industrial Robots, IFR Statistical Department, VDMA Services GmbH, Frankfurt am Main,
Germany, 2020.
7 King, R. (2021) Professional Engineering Graduates by Branch of Engineering, Australian Council of Engineering Deans ACED Report May 2021.
8 Müller, Christopher; Graf, Birgit; Pfeiffer, Kai; Bieller, Susanne; Kutzbach, Nina; Röhricht, Karin: World Robotics 2020 – Service Robots, IFR Statistical
Department, VDMA Services GmbH, Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 2020.

The development of robotic technologies in Australia will lead to
the creation of new companies, new jobs and will address a range
of issues of national importance including our ageing population,
servicing regional and remote communities, and dealing with labour
shortages, such as those generated by the COVID-19 pandemic.
Dr Sue Keay
Chair, Robotics Australia Group
2
Trust and Safety

As autonomy in robotics increases, trust in safety and assurance
processes systems is more important than ever
2.1 Introduction
As robots become widespread, digitally connected, and
implemented in increasingly autonomous settings, existing safety
and assurance processes will be challenged across industries.
To continue to make progress and innovate, ensuring that these
systems have been designed responsibly and robustly will be key
to safeguarding trust.
While not a definitive guide, this chapter explores existing and emerging frameworks,
research, and methods in robotics in Australia promoting trust and safety in robotics and
autonomous systems (RAS) with increasing artificial intelligence (AI), collectively referred to
as ‘RAS-AI’.
While automation and automation safety has been a feature across industries in Australia
for decades, the scope of tasks automated systems can complete has been enabled by
the growth of digital, networked technologies and artificial intelligence. This transition –
from primarily human-operated to increasingly system or machine-operated systems – has
necessitated new ways of thinking. Predicting and mitigating failures must take into account
not only technical failures – such as errors in sensor measurements or system decision
paths – but also human errors, both in robot design, and in interacting with robots.
As robotics become increasingly semi-autonomous

or autonomous, the technical issues for trust and
safety magnify.
This chapter considers existing processes, systems, research methods and policies and
those emerging required to continue to make progress in RAS-AI. To that end we examine
gaps in trust and safety between what currently exists, and what may be required in the
future. As robotics become increasingly semi-autonomous or autonomous, the technical
issues for trust and safety magnify.

Regulating trust and safety Agile and Adaptive Regulation: We
need to approach regulation differently
Existing regulatory domains: Just as if we are to successfully adapt current
new assurance methods are needed regulation to autonomous systems.
for varied technological developments, Regulation will never keep pace with
reform of how regulators operate will technology, therefore regulation and
also be needed. The law requires codes of practice refer to use of the
that risk be minimised by engineering latest standards for guidance to
first, before reliance on administrative achieve safety, so far as is reasonably
controls, i.e. human behaviour. practicable.
Workplace health and safety regulations
in Australia require that risk controls Human values
“so far as is reasonably practicable” Designing democratic AI: we need to
be applied. This directs technologists find a way to represent human values in
to standards for methods of achieving AI – can we embed ethics in code?
safety by design.
Using systems approaches to design
Robotic standards and regulation: We robots: exploring designing for trust
may need more than ISO standards through trans-disciplinary systems
in order to evolve rapidly enough methods incorporating humanities and
to manage assurance of robotic STEM (STEAM)1.
autonomous systems.
AUTONOMOUS AUTOMATED AI-ENABLED: WHAT'S IN A NAME?
As the breadth and application of semi-autonomous and autonomous systems continues to

expand, the definitions of these terms evolve. There is no general consensus on these terms
across disciplines. There are a few reasons for this: one being differing industry needs and
approaches to describing and regulating systems nationally and internationally; the other being
that some of these terms have histories and applications that predate robotics.
In 2018, the US Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Standard J-3016 addressed this complexity directly in defining
a taxonomy and levels of automation for self-driving vehicles. The SAE observed that “autonomous”, a term long used
in robotics to describe systems with the ability and authority to make decisions independently, had broadened to
encompass entire system functionality, becoming synonymous with “automated” (section 7.1). In doing so, the term
“autonomous” came to obscure dependencies systems can, and do, have on communication and cooperation with other
entities, e.g. for network connectivity or data collection, or maintenance. Recognising that outside of robotics, the term
“autonomy” also referred to a capacity for self-governance, the SAE observed that automated driving technologies fell
short of that definition of autonomy, even when operating at level 5 – full driving automation – they still operated based
on algorithms and subject to the commands of users (e.g. to go to a destination). As such, the SAE elected not to use the
term “autonomous” in their taxonomy, preferring to describe five defined levels of automation.
Notwithstanding the complexity of the term, there are continuing efforts to establish a framework for levels of robot
autonomy in human-robot interaction.2 In this chapter, we recognise the popular usage of the term “autonomous” to
describe systems operating independently or semi-independently in conditions of significant uncertainty. Automation
refers to the execution of a pre-defined task within an environment of high certainty.
For brevity, throughout this chapter, the terms ‘autonomous robots’ or robotics, autonomous systems and artificial
intelligence ‘RAS-AI’ will be used interchangeably to refer to both semi and fully autonomous robots. We define system
assurance as providing justified confidence that increasingly autonomous systems will perform reliably and robustly,
which includes safe operations.

2.2 Safety and assurance
There is a long history of safety in the robotics industry. The landscape is continually
changing, as new technologies emerge, societal expectations change, and incidents happen.
In some heavily regulated industries, safety is highly sophisticated, such as industrial robotics
in car manufacturing. In emerging industries, where safety is physical and digital, there is under-
investment in systems safety.
There are several well-developed ISO with fault detection. This approach for cautious collision-avoidance thresholds.
and IEC standards for safety-related machine safety control systems has “Robot Wars” robots are encased in
control systems for machines and been in place for around 25 years. thick Perspex gladiatorial arenas so
machine specific standards including International standards are also in that human spectators are safe from
robots, AGVs and other vehicles – see place for service and personal care shrapnel or collisions. Humans are kept
Appendix A: Standard and/or project robots. Similar standards are in place apart from robots in operation wherever
under the direct responsibility of the and evolving for autonomous and possible to limit the risk of harms from
ISO/TC 299 Secretariat (Standardization self-driving vehicles. Current safety accidental errors – either internally
in the field of robotics, excluding toys standards in certain industries are driven within the robot, human error,
and military applications). For the evolving but need investment to extend or due to unexpected environmental
industrial robot sector (ISO 10218 their application to new environments, constraints. Nevertheless, collaborative
series) these have already been use across industries, and for more than robots are increasingly used across
adopted as Australian Standards under one purpose. industry. The application of this type
the primary machine safety standard of robot allows humans to work beside
Robotic safety is often ensured by
series AS4024. them without physical guarding. The
limiting operations to protected spaces.
term “collaborative robot” has been
The safety control system standards So, for example, drones are tested in
widely debated, since a low speed,
base the control system design on indoor areas with mesh nets to prevent
low force robot can still cause harm
risk variables and lead to architecture either drone or human error, but also
dependant on the end effector.
changes in the control system as the to reduce the workload associated
Therefore, this term is evolving to
risk increases. At the higher levels of with bespoke regulatory compliance.
become “collaborative application”.
risk this requires redundant controls Self-driving vehicles are tested with
Mechatronics Engineers Rhys McKercher and Tim Cassell Remotely Operate UFRloader. Image courtesy of Universal Field Robots.

Best practice safety management Safety Management Systems (SMSs) in an organisation. It reflects the real
focuses on system safety.3 System are the natural expansion of system commitment to safety at all levels in the
safety refers to risk management of safety concepts to an organisational organisation’5. Whilst these processes
an engineered system that enables level. ICAO describes an SMS as, ‘a (system safety and safety management
balancing of safety and operability. systematic approach to managing safety, systems) are proven to drive better
Systems safety applies systems including the necessary organisational safety outcomes, the underlying
engineering and systems management structures, accountabilities, policies and guidelines, standards and practices
to identify and manage hazards in procedures’.4 A particular emphasis of associated with automation and
systems. It enables a systems-level risk SMSs is to imbue an organisation with autonomy do not exist, and is an active
analysis for products or services. a safety culture, which is ‘the way safety area of research.
is perceived, valued and prioritised
Systems Safety Framework
Societal Expectations
Legislation Tort/Common Law
Safety Management Systems
Operational Risk Change Emergency

Safety Culture
Management Management Management
System Safety
Process/Functional Human Factors/

Safety Human Machine
Technical Hazardous material

System Integration (e.g. HAZCHEM)
Compliance

TABLE 1 DEFINING SYSTEM SAFETY
Components of system safety
The part of overall safety that depends on safety functions, the use of hardware and software or
Functional safety firmware, to minimise risk and keep people and assets safe (e.g., obstacle detection, collision
avoidance)
The role of people within broader systems and how the system can influence human performance.
Human factors It is considered in the design of the interface between people and system, including processes,
screen design and workload
How complex systems interact dynamically. A system safety approach deals with the complex
Systems of systems behaviours resulting from their interactions
Consideration of how parallel disciplines such as operational safety management, cybersecurity,

Interactions between resilience, change management, emergency management, and occupational health and safety
disciplines interact with system safety
The exploration of how systems evolve over time and how to maintain safety throughout
Evolution over time this evolution
Systems integration Critical to the overall safety of the system of systems, model-based testing can be applied to
testing alleviate some of the difficulty of “in the field” testing
Other administrative There is a host of other administrative controls that are essential to confirm safety of an
controls automated system
What system and functional safety protect The safety of the system relies on
• Safety of operator and maintainer • Safety in design

• Safety of other vehicle operators • Engineering controls
• Safety of any person in the vicinity of operation • Periodic testing of safety functions
• Asset loss from damage to truck or collision with • Reliability of the system
other vehicles
• Competence
• Environmental spills through damage
• Well-understood failure modes
• Periodic testing of safety functions
• Clear roles and responsibilities
• Products and their development
• Ongoing maintenance and monitoring
• Effective change management

2.3 Emerging issues in assuring
autonomous robots
The assurance of RAS-AI is a complex problem, increased by conditions of uncertainty.6
Autonomous robots differ from most computational resources to compute to follow good software engineering
machines because of the computational the solution, including time and practices. Software creation for safety
components that lead to their memory. State-of-the-art algorithms related control systems of industrial
intelligence and control. They also differ in autonomous systems evaluate the robots is well described in standards
from most existing software systems effects of actions prior to execution such as IEC61508 and the machine
because of their integration with physical via simulation. Such approaches raise specific version IEC62061. In aviation,
machines. RAS-AI relies on observations questions as to how to develop high- the standard used for software design
perceived by sensors to decide how they fidelity simulators, and how to bridge assurance onboard crewed aircraft
should behave and control themselves, the potential discrepancy between is RTCA DO-178C (and associated
which is then translated to actuators, simulators and the real world. Moreover, supplements). Furthermore, software
enabling robots to change behaviour, or the high computational cost of running testing should include whether the
state, and change in response to their a high-fidelity simulator has raised implementation of an algorithm satisfies
physical environments. questions as to whether multi-level the properties of the algorithms, both in
fidelity could be used to provide the terms of correctness and computational
A reliable and robust autonomous robot
necessary quality assurance while complexity. Examples of dangerous
must be able to plan and make strategic
keeping computational cost low. faults due to poor programming
decisions about behaviour and control,
practices are abundant, including the
despite enduring uncertainty plaguing
unintended acceleration issue in Toyota
the physical world. At the very least,
vehicles, causing fatal crashes and a
these systems must be able to handle
the following three types of uncertainty
The high computational recall of multiple Toyota models.8
– non-deterministic effects of actions; cost of running a Hardware components

partial observability due to errors and high-fidelity simulator
limitations in a system’s sensors and New types of hardware, such as soft
has raised questions and compliant robots, pose new
perceptions; and lack of information
about the environment and its dynamics. as to whether multi- difficulties in assurance. Such hardware
level fidelity could be is designed to increase safety. However,
The enduring nature and variety of the dynamics of these robots depend on
uncertainty affects all components of an used to provide the
the interaction between the robot and
autonomous robot, prompting the need necessary quality their environments, which in turn raises
to assure a system at a range of levels. assurance while questions on how to properly assure
keeping computational such machines.
Algorithms
Algorithms are computational methods cost low. Integrated robotic system
that govern how an autonomous robot This assurance should ensure the
processes sensor data and makes system remains reliable in the event
decisions about its behaviour and
Software that one or more of its components
control, so as to operate reliably and are erroneous, including on seemingly
robustly to achieve pre-specified tasks7 It is important to differentiate between minor issues, such as when the battery
Assurance for this component implies algorithms and their software is low. System safety processes, such
the need for approaches that could implementations. Poor implementation as SAE Aviation Recommended Practice
account for uncertainty and provide a of powerful algorithms will result in 4761,9 are being updated to focus on the
useful guarantee of the quality of the poor performance of an autonomous complex interactions between systems,
solution proposed, and the required robot. Therefore, developers need rather than at the subsystem level.

Assurance requirements pose multifaceted issues
1 Novel technical approaches for those assurances are required. The ability for users to
easily update algorithms and software, which alters the performance of a system, implies
that traditional machine assurance performed prior to deployment or sale, will no longer
be viable. Moreover, the high frequency of updates implies that traditional certification that
requires substantial time will no longer be practical.
To alleviate these difficulties, automation of assurance will likely be needed – something like
‘ASsurance-as-a-Service’ (ASaaS), where APIs constantly ping RAS-AI to ensure abidance
with various rules, frameworks, and behavioural expectations. There are exceptions to
this, such as in contested or communications denied environments, or in underground
or undersea mining, and these systems need their own risk assessments and limitations
imposed. Indeed, self-monitors are already operating within some systems.
2 The assurance process will require stakeholders to possess sufficient technological and
computational skills. Therefore, to ensure safe operation of future robotics systems,
Australia needs to educate and prepare its technology developers, certifiers, and general
population for more sophisticated assurance processes.
3 What would be the suitable regulatory environment for autonomous systems? The next
section deals with the existing regulatory environment for various domains and how this is
evolving, or needs to evolve, with the introduction of more autonomous systems.

2.4 Regulation in air, maritime and land
The regulation of RAS-AI in Australia is different depending on whether a system moves on
land, flies in the air, or travels on or under the sea. Each domain has faced different levels of
uptake in RAS-AI, and has different regulatory challenges.
Arguably, the most developed is in the
Air domain, with CASA facing an ever-
increasing variety of flying robots. Land,
with the greatest risks of human harm
and most diverse rule-sets per state,
is perhaps the least advanced when it
comes to allowing RAS-AI on public roads
– noting that the land domain does have
some of the most sophisticated robots
deployed in sectors such as mining
in remote locations on private land,
and agricultural applications such as
autonomous tractors, harvesters etc.
Maritime has its own opportunities and
challenges. There are fewer humans on
the sea than on land, reducing the risk
of RAS-AI, but there are also greater
communication challenges, such as
those faced by submariners.
Maritime domain equipping and survey requirements These stakeholders include TAS,
applied to traditional vessels, and there which has a program underway to
The Australian Maritime Safety are no tailored standards available to explore assurance of autonomous
Authority (AMSA) is the Australian use, operators must seek exemptions systems and identify accreditation
authority responsible for maritime in order to operate. This reliance on pathways. AMSA will leverage its
safety, protection of the marine exemptions may not be feasible beyond experience and that of its stakeholders,
environment from pollution, and the short term, due the administrative to identify the best way to provide
search and rescue. As part of these burden and delays it creates for effective regulation, ensure the safety
responsibilities, AMSA regulates vessels operators and AMSA. of people and vessels, and protect the
operating within Australia’s Exclusive marine environment in Australia.
Economic Zone (EEZ), including vessels AMSA’s challenge is to adapt long
capable of autonomous and remote- standing regulatory and operational Once an improved regulatory approach
controlled operation. arrangements to provide for the safe is implemented, the assurance
operation of uncrewed vessels, in a and accreditation process will be
The laws, Marine Orders, and standards way that will be effective in the short, streamlined, provide a more appropriate
that apply to all commercial vessels were medium and long term. AMSA is match of risk to regulatory overlay,
written for traditional crewed vessels, taking a collaborative approach and is and it will no longer be a barrier to the
but remotely operated and autonomous actively engaging with leaders and key uptake of emerging technology in the
vessels must also comply with them. As stakeholders in the fields of autonomous maritime domain.
the uncrewed vessels generally cannot and remotely operated vessel design,
comply with the design, construction, technology, operation, and regulation.

Air domain a blanket set of standards for all RPA, met is found within the Joint Authorities
ranging from remotely piloted hobbyist for Rulemaking on Uncrewed Systems
The Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA) drones to fully autonomous aircraft flying (JARUS) Specific Operations Risk
is the Australian authority responsible in civil airspace. Assessment (SORA) process, which
for the regulation of civil aviation, CASA has adopted as a risk assessment
including uncrewed aircraft. This lack of graduated approach will
methodology for uncrewed aircraft.11
pose a challenge for CASA, as the
CASA’s classification hierarchy for needs and requirements of an RPA An additional challenge will be safely
Uncrewed Aircraft Systems (UAS) being controlled by a human will and responsibly integrating autonomous
(see below).10 differ dramatically to that of a fully aircraft with crewed aircraft, such as
Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA) are autonomous aircraft. The human-in- regular passenger transport (RPT)
included in the Civil Aviation Safety the-loop component will influence services. At this stage, RPA usually
Regulation Part 101 (Uncrewed Aircraft a number of elements, including operate in low-level segregated airspace.
and Rockets), and are the subject of communication interface, visual However, with the anticipated expansion
CASA guidance material. While there capabilities, potential safety risks, of the industry it can be foreseen that
is a regulatory provision specifying intent, etc. As autonomous aviation RPA and crewed aircraft will eventually
that a person cannot release an technology continues to progress, a need to operate within the same
autonomous aircraft without approval more robust regulatory framework will airspace, considering the full breadth
from CASA (regulation 101.097 of need to be developed in parallel. of possible applications of autonomous
CASR 1998) there is no specified aircraft, e.g. medical services, delivery
A benefit of the current regulatory
content for Autonomous Aircraft services, passenger transport, etc.
framework is that it is extremely
Systems (AAS). Current practice sees A common communication interface
risk based: one of the overarching
the requirements for RPA applied to between RPA, crewed aircraft and
requirements to operate outside of
all UAS, without reference to level of air traffic controllers will be required
the standard operating conditions is
autonomy or correspondingly graduated for safe and seamless integration of
to ensure that there is no adverse risk
requirements. Therefore, it can be autonomous aircraft in the existing civil
to aviation safety. Guidance to ensure
implied that the existing guidance is aviation system.
that the regulatory requirements are
CASA’s classification hierarchy for Uncrewed Aircraft Systems (UAS)12
AIRCRAFT
State Civil
Manned aircraft Unmanned aircraft
Unmanned Aircraft
Balloons Rockets
Systems
Remotely Piloted Autonomous Aircraft

Aircraft Systems Systems
(including model aircraft)

Land domain of practice to be used by the industry.13 come from a mining sector perspective,
This guide is now used all over the it can be applied across the board to
Private land: mining world – it has even been quoted by mine a wide variety of robotic capabilities.
The mining industry is highly regulated, operators in the Oil Sands of Canada as There is a consideration from a product
due to the significant safety risk. As being “the Bible for safe operations of lifecycle perspective, and how this
the robotics industry grows, and more autonomous equipment”. interacts with the specific operating
robotic applications are developed or environment – the application lifecycle.
Functional safety, as originally defined
applied, the concept of safety by design
in IEC61508, is a key component Public land
is critical to the success and growth
of systems safety and has been
of industry. There are many lessons, While the licensing and operation of
actively adopted by the leading
experiences, and collaborations across motor vehicles is regulated at a state
mining companies that have deployed
industry sectors in the field of robotics and territory level, there is Federal
autonomous systems (Autonomous
and autonomous capability. oversight, particularly at a broader policy
Haulage Systems and Autonomous
and reform level. The National Transport
Australia’s deployment of autonomous Drilling). The Global Mining Guidelines
Commission (NTC) and Austroads are
production drills and Autonomous Group recently published a guideline
instrumental in the development of
Haulage Systems (AHS) in key locations for applying functional safety to
Australia’s policy in relation to RAS-AI
like the Pilbara over the last 25 years autonomous systems in mining,
for land transport. However, they have
is world-leading in large scale adoption which originated from the work on
advisory capacity only and cannot make
and use of autonomous vehicles. the Implementation Guideline for
regulation or enforce compliance.
Autonomous Systems (version 1, version
The relationship between the mining Some of the key organisations involved
2 is currently in development).14
companies and the regulator in Western in the policy and reform for autonomous
Australia is strong and there was a This guideline outlines layers of
vehicles are set out in the table on the
proactive effort by the mining companies an overall autonomous operating
following page.
to engage early on establishing a code environment, and although this has

Automated vechicle decision making and priority setting15
Transport and Infrastructure Council

Makes decisions on national reforms to improve the efficiency and productivity of Australia's
infrastructure and transport systems. Sets national reforms priorities. Current priorities include
removing barriers to innovation and capitalising on new and emerging technologies.
Transport and Infrastructure Senior Officials' Committee

Advises and assists the Transport and Infrastructure Council on all non-infrastructure priorities.
Australian Government Automated Vehicle Roles and Responsibilities
Department of National Transport State and territory Austroads

Infrastructure, Transport, Commission transport and road
Cities and Regional agencies
Development
Office of Future Transport Develop and propose Responsibilities include: Conducts road and transport
Technology national law reform to • In-service vehicle research to inform policy
enable the commercial regulation development and guidance
Co-ordination across deployment of automated on the design, construction
portfolios. vehicles. • Vehicle registration and management of the
Land transport technology • Road rules and driver road network and its
Current automated vehicle licensing associated infrastructure.
policy framework and reforms:
action plan. • Road management Current automated vehicle
• In-service safety for
automated vehicles • Approval/regulation of projects:
automated vehicle trials • Infrastructure changes
• Government access to
Vehicle Safety Standards vehicle generated data to support automated
Branch vehicles on rural and
• Motor accident metropolitan highways
Importation and first supply injury insurance and and freeways
of automated vehicles. automated vehicles
• Pavement marking for
Review of Australia machine vision
Design Rules. • Integrating advanced
International standards driver assistance systems
harmonisation. in driver education

In addition to the above stakeholders, and 4 highlight the shifting responsibility • Reforms are nationally consistent and
the Australian Road Research Board for control and/oversight of the internationally aligned.16
(ARRB), an Australian/New Zealand Automated Driving System (ADS) and is
The ARRB predicts that the likely future
government research and advisory where problems (legal and otherwise)
land transport and mobility environment
organisation, is heavily involved in this for failure to warn, or failure to heed
will be an ecosystem of operations
field. In 2016, ARRB established the warnings, situate.
under the current prescriptive regulatory
Australian New Zealand Driverless
The most significant challenges and operational requirements, together
Vehicles Initiative (ADVI) which has
identified by the NTC are based on with a variety of automated and
over 180 members from industry,
unknowns around vehicle automation, autonomous operations in private, public
governments, academia, and
including: and commercial transport permissioned
international organisations.
• The timing of deployment under a safety assurance system.
The NTC, working with the various
• Applications that will be deployed Readiness for uptake of RAS-AI in
stakeholders, is leading an Automated
• The mix of technologies that Australia requires changes in technology
Vehicle Program, with the goal of
automated vehicles will use as well as infrastructure (signals,
providing end-to-end regulation to
signs and lines, pavements, lighting,
support the safe commercial deployment • How automated vehicles will change
connectivity, data security, etc), drivers
and operation of automated vehicles at vehicle ownership and business
and other road users (education,
all levels of automation in Australia. models.
licensing, including the “autonomous
The current taxonomy for levels of In order to address these challenges, the driving entity”), and regulation and
automation is based on the Society of NTC aims to ensure that: operational frameworks (drivers’
Automotive Engineers (SAE) International • Reforms are outcomes based, with licences, parking policy, overtaking,
Standard J3016 (see table below). safety as the key outcome, allowing gap setting and traffic movement
industry to determine how best to protocols, accident investigation,
The SAE Standard sets out the differing
achieve those outcomes national traffic information dataset,
levels of control required from either a
data custodians, etc).
human driver or an automated driving • Reforms are neutral as to the
system, or combinations of both, at each technologies, applications and
specific level of automation. Levels 3 business-models that industry develop
Levels of vehicle automation17
Level 0 Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5
VEHICLE'S ROLE
Nothing Accelerates and Accelerates and Everything, only Everything, only Everything
breaks OR steers breaks AND steers under certain under certain
e.g. cruise control e.g. automated conditions e.g. conditions e.g.
reverse parking specific locations, specific locations,
speed, weather, speed, weather,
time of day time of day
HUMAN DRIVER'S ROLE

Everything Everything Remains in Must be capable Nothing when Nothing
but with some control, monitors of regaining vehicle is driving,
assistance and reacts control on request but everything at
to the driving when vehicle is other times
environment driving

2.5 Robotics standards and regulation
Frameworks to systematically and efficiently accredit RAS-AI do not yet exist, as evidenced
through domains briefly explored in the previous section and emerging for new domains.
Existing standards and assurance mechanisms may not be suitable for autonomous systems
as they may either require human operators to be in constant control, or for robots to be kept
physically separated from human operators (e.g. industrial robots).
As we have seen, technology is regulated
differently depending on the sector.
Currently, there are many standards and
regulations emerging to govern robotics
and software systems. ISO standards,
for example, give assurance to industries
and the community that they can trust
products that have met those standards.
There are a number of ISO standards
applicable to robotics – see Appendix A.
The ISO group responsible for global

robotics standards is ISO/TC 299.18 At
this stage, these standards cover safety
requirements for industrial robots and
A number of initiatives and models have and requests status updates with
robot systems. They are relevant to
been proposed, or are being explored, regards to what it is doing and why
robot manufacturers, integrators and
to illustrate notions of trust and safety in it is doing it. ASaaS could contribute
users. The standards provide good
autonomous systems. Some industries to challenges identified in previous
guidance for industrial robots, along
with some guidance for personal care
robots and medical robots. What these
standards do not cover are the more
diverse robotic industries and robotic
The standards provide good guidance for
software and learning systems. Software
development for functional safety of industrial robots, along with some guidance
industrial control systems is covered in for personal care robots and medical robots
IEC61508, IEC62061 and ISO 13849-1.
Specific assurance frameworks for

different technology types are made
more complex by the regulatory have trust marks that indicate that sections where a rapidly changing
frameworks and legal definitions various security and safety requirements robot operates independently in an
inherited from domains where they have been met. Trust marks have been uncertain environment. An effective and
are deployed. proposed as measures to encourage robust communications network might
more responsible technology design allow for faster intervention if a robot
The challenge for the Australian robotics
practice, e.g. in relation to sensitive did behave outside the parameters of
industry is to identify, adopt and
data sharing.19 authorised operations.
promote trust and safety frameworks
that align to a manageable assurance As mentioned earlier, ASsurance-as- It may be that more than discrete new
framework, are accepted by society, and a-Service (ASaaS) is a “helicopter kinds of interventions, a complete
are pragmatic for robotics industries to parent” approach to trust, where an API re-evaluation of existing regulatory
incorporate and abide by. constantly pings a robot in operation approaches, might be needed.

2.6 New ways of thinking about regulation
In order for the robotics industry to thrive, a regulatory response that adapts, protects,
engenders community trust, while accounting for rapidly evolving industrial environments,
is essential. This is an area where investment can lead to improved outcomes for the whole
robotics sector, and position Australia as a world leader.
The current regulation of autonomous and inspection based, often reacting society’s appetite for risk and ethical
and remotely operated vehicles requires to problems that have occurred, expectations. To this end, Australia
in-depth regulatory engagement, more modern approaches are moving has adopted ethical AI principles that
meaning it can take much longer than towards being risk based, responsive, facilitate dialogue and design of robots
usual for a manufacturer or operator and anticipatory, proactively taking — see Appendix B: Australia’s AI Ethics
to get approvals from the relevant opportunities to support positive Principles
authorities. As noted above, existing innovation. Where a regulator needs
The concept of anticipatory regulation is
laws and regulation of land and aerial to rely on exemptions, because the
inclusive and collaborative, future-facing,
vehicles, and maritime vessels rely on regulatory framework cannot keep pace
proactive, iterative, outcomes-based and
a human operator to be responsible for with technology, it is an indicator that
experimental – see below.
the platform, and for the platform to change is needed.
meet specifications intended to provide Central to the concept of anticipatory
The future of adaptive regulation will
for human, platform, and environmental regulation is a focus on “co-design”,
mean changing the existing processes of
safety. Robotic platforms must therefore where the regulator and industry work
regulation and the factors that might be
seek exemptions from some or all of together to co-design standards and
considered as relevant to the regulatory
current requirements to operate. regulations that are fit for purpose and
process. Technologies are no longer
achieve the required outcomes. This
based on highly deterministic systems.
approach focuses on the system and
Regulators will need to consider
Modern approaches
are moving towards
Anticipatory regulation20
being risk based,
responsive, and
anticipatory.
Inclusive and
collaborative
The exemption process can be long

when the operator does not understand Experimental Future-facing
the regulatory framework, does not
have prior operational data to illustrate
safe operations, and the regulator
Anticipatory
does not understand the platform or regulation
the technology that will enable safe
operation. This is exacerbated when Outcomes- Proactive
an operator identifies the use of an AI- based
based system to mitigate an operational
risk but does not explain how it works or Iterative
provide evidence of its efficacy.
While traditional regulatory approaches

could be characterised as prescriptive

when it provides robust evidence of its as diverse as systems engineering,
safety and trustworthiness. To design artificial intelligence and management
A system is safe when
robotic systems with Trust, Safety, and science in the mid 20th century – could
people can rely on it Assurance in mind there is still basic be extended or revised to account
not to harm them and research needed to design such values for complex learning systems today.
others, or damage into automated systems more generally. While cybernetics has itself undergone
several transformations, its central
things they care about. But which values? How can morally
preoccupation with feedback loops
justified robotic systems be designed,
– both within technical systems, and
given how much moral disagreement
between systems and their physical,
how to influence it. It is consistent with there is in society?
human and bureaucratic environments
the concept of regulatory stewardship,
whereby regulation is seen as an asset
Designing automated – provide an interconnected, nuanced
managed proactively and collaboratively systems holistically for way of exploring complex concepts like
to help things happen effectively. If trust and safety “trust” and “safety”.
Australian safety regulators could Complex learning systems today Establishing and communicating that
incorporate such approaches, and work carry a range of hardware and a system is “safe” invokes a range of
towards becoming adaptive regulators, it software safety issues to consider, as interventions and practices, touched on
may dramatically improve their ability to acknowledged in ‘Emerging Issues across this chapter – laws, regulations
keep pace with technological change. in Assuring Autonomous Robots’. and standards; audit, verification
Considering direct harms that could and validation processes; forms of
Designing democratically arise from complex learning systems, independent monitoring and review;
legitimate AI systems as well as indirect harms or unexpected workplace training and process; and
Trust, safety and assurance are all consequences, necessitates new, broader safety culture. Cybernetics, and
values that depend on other values as creative ways of thinking about the range of disciplines 3Ai staff come
well as reliable critical infrastructure.21 sustaining safety and trust. from – including systems engineering,
People can trust a system when they nuclear physics, computer science,
The 3Ai, an innovation institute based medical anthropology, journalism
believe that it will act in conformity
at the Australian National University and data science – have enabled 3Ai
with shared values as well as being
and founded by Distinguished Professor to explore the connections between
technically robust. A system is safe when
Genevieve Bell, is exploring ways in these practices. 3Ai combines science,
people can rely on it not to harm them
which cybernetics – the transdisciplinary analytics, history and art to explore
and others or damage things that they
framework that influenced disciplines complex systems.
care about. A system provides assurance
2.7 Conclusion
Robotics in Australia has a long history of conforming with safety standards and risk managed
practises.
This chapter articulates the current state of trust and safety in robotics including society’s expectations, safety management systems
and system safety, as well as emerging issues and methods for ensuring safety in increasingly autonomous robotics.
The future of trust and safety will combine standards with iterative, adaptive and responsive regulatory and assurance methods for
diverse applications of RAS-AI. Robotics will need novel technical and social approaches to achieve assurance, particularly for game-
changing innovations. The complexity of RAS-AI calls for transdisciplinary collaboration across technical, scientific and humanities
disciplines, as well as outreach to stakeholders of human-RAS-AI interaction.

Case studies
Evolution of the Australasian New Car

Assessment Program (ANCAP)
Evolution of the Australasian
New Car Assessment
Program (ANCAP).................. 32
Using cybernetics to
explore trust & safety of AI
on the Great Barrier Reef........ 33
Autonomous Vessel
Forum 2019......................... 33
The Humanising Machine
Intelligence project, ANU......... 34 When autonomous robots become
consumer products, reliability and
Agile AI regulation................. 35 robustness must be conveyed in an
accessible manner to consumers. An
example of such information is the
ANCAP rating for passenger vehicles.
Aside from helping consumers, such
a rating increases the safety standard
of the entire industry: From 2002 to
2014, the percentage of vehicle types
sold in Australia with a 5-star ANCAP
rating has grown from 0% to 75%, as car
manufacturers attempt to ensure the
competitiveness of their vehicles.
It seems natural to bring such safety ratings to
autonomous robots, however, this is not easy. Existing
rating mechanisms were designed for slowly changing
systems. In contrast, autonomous robots depend on
algorithms and software that learn and adapt their
output regularly. Work has started on developing a
more suitable rating mechanism for autonomous
robots, such as the Euro NCAP Driver Assistance
Systems and a project of the ANU in collaboration with
York University in the UK, under the Assuring Autonomy
International Programme.
Many other issues and potential solutions are
being explored, compiled, and developed as a Body
of Knowledge for the Assurance of Robotics and
Autonomous Systems, including questions on who
should perform the test and how often? A balance
between convenience and reliability is necessary, which
includes considering what kind of training should be
provided to the evaluator and what level of expertise
would be suitable? Higher requirements mean fewer
qualified evaluators, increasing the difficulty for regular
re-testing.
AEB (car-to-pedestrian) Toyota Hilux. Image courtesy of ANCAP.

Using cybernetics to explore trust & safety of AI on the Great Barrier Reef
The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park is one of the world’s

largest marine protected areas, and the proper management
and protection of this world heritage site, across an area the
size of Italy in conditions that are often challenging, requires
AIMS to continue to improve its monitoring and data collection
practices. AIMS is exploring using above water and underwater
cyber-physical systems to monitor the reef environment
without increasing human involvement.
3Ai combined interviews with AIMS scientists and technicians
with origin stories, organisational discourse analysis
and critical systems heuristics to explore the design and
deployment of automated systems. 3Ai and AIMS have been
exploring a range of effects, including relationships between
trust in data collected by automated systems, as compared
With the Australian Institute of Marine
with data traditionally collected by humans.
Science (AIMS), 3Ai explored the design and
implementation of automated underwater 3Ai observed that a human diver's lived experience, the ability
to draw on common sense to identify mistakes, engendered
systems monitoring the health of the Great a degree of trust in diver collected data that resulted in an
Barrier Reef. 3Ai explored the influences inherently higher level of confidence and trust in comparison to
behind this transition to more autonomous the automated equivalent.
technology in addition to the impact on the
SeaSim at AIMS uses models of ocean conditions to automatically simulate
practices and expectations of AIMS as an conditions in tanks, in order to observe coral behaviour.
organisation. Credit: Roslyn Budd, image courtesy of AIMS.
Autonomous Vessel Forum 2019
The Autonomous Vessel Forum 2019 explored Better safety for people and protection of Australia’s marine
the challenges, opportunities and risks in environment; Understanding risks and implementing risk
controls for remotely operated and autonomous vessel
regulating autonomous and remotely operated technology; Building assurance in the behaviours and
vessels. Hosted by the Australian Maritime functions of a system; Enabling testing, trials and safe failure;
Safety Authority, in partnership with TAS, the Flexibility and objective-based solutions; Seafarers are
Autonomous Vessel Forum 2019 saw 135 essential to the success of automation and remote operation;
domestic and international experts from Regulating the need to detect, respond and recover from a
cyber-attack.
industry, academia, navy, and government,
come together to share their knowledge and Ocius Bluebottle on Lake Burley Griffin at the Autonomous Vessel Forum
2019. Image courtesy of Ocius.
learnings in automation and digitalisation.
The Autonomous Vessel Forum 2019 marked a positive
step towards regulator and industry collaboration to ensure
thorough testing, trials and safe use of the systems,
infrastructure and technology gaining traction in Australia’s
maritime industry. The forum also reinforced the vital roles
that professional seafarers will continue to have in Australia’s
maritime industry.
The key forum themes were: Collaboration and partnership;
Environmentally-friendly solutions and commercial efficiency;

The Humanising Machine Intelligence project, ANU
The Humanising Machine Intelligence (HMI) project at ANU aims to provide actionable,
theoretically well-grounded answers to the moral questions faced by designers of AI and robotic
systems. Its guiding principle is that we should select the values designed into AI systems by
invoking society’s existing methods for resolving other evaluative conflicts — namely democratic
deliberation and debate. Its core research task is to unite the multi-disciplinary expertise needed
to both identify the salient values, and implement them in highly complex AI and robotic systems.
HMI draws on expertise in computer science, philosophy, political science, law and sociology. Its research has focused on four key
themes—governance of and by AI systems; the role of AI in personalising online services and the implications for privacy, autonomy
and other values; the challenge of modelling moral considerations in a manner that can be implemented within planning and
machine learning systems; and a novel approach to human computer interaction, drawing on sociology and philosophy as well as
traditionally associated fields.
In each research area, the project combines empirical, theoretical, and technical approaches, drawing at each stage on guidance
from the others. The project starts with empirical disciplines explicating the opportunities and risks associated with particular
applications of data and AI. Theoretical disciplines then provide the moral diagnosis of that empirical data, and articulate both what
we should be aiming at, and how to resolve fundamental theoretical questions that must be answered for technical implementation
to be possible. Technical disciplines then build on this to create democratically legitimate data and AI systems.
The Humanising Machine Intelligence project focusses on four key research themes: Automating governance, personalisation, algorithmic ethics and human-AI
interaction.22
RESEARCH

Agile AI regulation
Trusted Autonomous Systems and QUT Law are developing digital tools for faster innovation
cycles for AI enabled products by speeding up the development, certification and assurance
of robots and autonomous systems in highly regulated industries. Currently, certification and
assurance processes can take years in several industrial sectors such as aviation, maritime
and more. Coupled with low sales volumes in such industries, this can significantly stifle
growth and innovation. Therefore, a need exists for a set of software tools which accelerate
and simplify entire certification processes – via leveraging digital platforms which are tailored
to the requirements of regulating AI enabled products. These types of software tools have
revolutionised many other industries and so the timing is right to disrupt the regulation industry
via digital transformation. By enabling more innovation, such tools can catalyse the next wave of
autonomous systems to solve large scale global challenges.
The emergence of AI systems suggests two challenges for the future of robotic safety. The first is the immediate context around
regulating the application of novel AI technologies that drive robotic and autonomous systems. This, on the surface, is about
identification of desirable outcomes and ends, and the deployment of an appropriate mix of regulatory strategies directed to those
outcomes and ends. However, the emergence of AI is more significant. AI enabled robotic systems have the potential to be an
important regulatory strategy in their own right. This second challenge has been the focus in recent computational law literature
examining how AI enabled systems can be developed as regulatory instruments.
QUT Law sees this project as highly innovative as it is located exactly at the nexus between the regulation of AI and AI as regulation.
This extends to a variety of fields. First it connects to recent work on smart and agile regulation; through examining how to build
automated digital systems that allow confidence and trust between regulators and regulatees; in this project – specifically between
the AUX innovators and transport safety regulators. Second, it engages with the core project of computational law on the theory
and practice of translating established legal forms into digital platforms through the process of digitalising Australian maritime
safety regulations. Third, it will explore how sandbox design and concepts familiar in the “fintech” space, could be used to enhance
confidence and trust between AI transport innovators and Australian regulators.
The Agile AI tool will connect the regulated and the regulator for faster assurance of AI.

Contributors
This chapter was based on a virtual workshop held on 2 June 2020 with contributions from the individuals listed below:
SKate Devitt (TAS) Andrew Scott (Queensland Robotics) Sue Keay (Robotics Australia Group)
Rachel Horne (TAS) Seth Lazar (ANU) Kieran Tranter (QUT)
Zena Assaad (ANU) Maia Gould (ANU) Evan Shellshear (Biarri)
Ellen Broad (ANU) Chelle Adamson (ANU) Dan Hunter (QUT)
Hana Kurniawati (ANU) Charles Karl (ARRB) Mark Brady (University of Adelaide)
Beth Cardier (TAS) Frank Schrever (Machine Safety by Tom Putland (TAS).
Design)
Chapter can be viewed on arxiv https://arxiv.org/abs/2104.06512 and referenced as Devitt, S., Horne, R., Assaad, Z., Broad, E., Kurniawati, H., Cardier, B.,
Scott, A., Lazar, S., Gould, M., Adamson, C., Karl, C., Schrever, F., Keay, S., Tranter, K., Shellshear, E., Hunter, D., Brady, M., & Putland, T. (2021). Trust and Safety.
ArXiv, abs/2104.06512.

Footnotes
1 Bernstein, J. H. (2015). Transdisciplinarity: A review of its origins, development, and current issues
2 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5656240/ .
3 According to NASA, “System Safety is the application of engineering and management principles, criteria and techniques to optimize safety within the
constraints of operational effectiveness, time, and cost throughout all phases of the system life cycle”: https://sma.nasa.gov/sma-disciplines/system-
safety.
4 Annex 19 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, 2nd Edition, ICAO 2016
5 https://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Safety_Culture.
6 It is arguable that autonomy only exists under conditions of uncertainty – otherwise it is automation: See generally, Hussein A Abbas, Darryn J Reid and
Jason Scholz (Eds) Studies in Decision and Control 117 (Springer Open, 2018).
7 See EASA/Daedalaen paper on Learning Assurance, which details issues associated with certain machine learning algorithms and a learning assurance
process https://www.easa.europa.eu/document-library/general-publications/concepts-design-assurance-neural-networks-codann.
8 Toyota Unintended Acceleration and the Big Bowl of “Spaghetti” Code. https://www.safetyresearch.net/Library/BarrSlides_FINAL_SCRUBBED.pdf, 7
November 2013.
9 https://www.sae.org/standards/content/arp4761/
10 Technically a rocket is not an aircraft under the definition of ‘aircraft’ in the Civil Aviation Act 1988 (unless it is a rocket-powered aircraft)
11 https://www.casa.gov.au/publications-and-resources/media-hub/speeches-and-presentations/rpas-australian-skies-conference.
12 CASA Advisory Circular AC101-01 v3.0 “Remotely piloted aircraft systems – licensing and operations” published December 2019. https://www.casa.gov.
au/sites/default/files/101c01.pdf.
13 Code of Practice: Safe mobile autonomous mining in Western Australia. http://www.dmp.wa.gov.au/Documents/Safety/MSH_COP_
SafeMobileAutonomousMiningWA.pdf
14 https://gmggroup.org/guidelines/.
15 NTC Automated Vehicle Program, National Transport Commission, October 2019. https://www.ntc.gov.au/sites/default/files/assets/files/NTC%20
Automated%20Vehicle%20Reform%20Program%20Approach%20%28October%202019%29%20-%20Public%20version.pdf.
16 National Transport Commission, Automated Vehicle Program, (October 2019) 7.
17 National Transport Commission, Automated Vehicle Program, (October 2019) 8.
18 ISO Technical Committee (TC) 299.
19 https://www.alrc.gov.au/publication/for-your-information-australian-privacy-law-and-practice-alrc-report-108/31-cross-border-data-flows/trustmarks/.
20 Anticipatory regulation see Nesta – formerly National Endowment for Science, Technology and the Arts. https://www.nesta.org.uk/feature/innovation-
methods/anticipatory-regulation/
21 See arguments pertaining to networks, data, systems in The Department of Home Affairs Consultation Paper ‘Protecting Critical Infrastructure and
Systems of National Significance’ (Aug 2020) https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/reports-and-publications/submissions-and-discussion-papers/protecting-
critical-infrastructure-systems
22 https://hmi.anu.edu.au/research.

3
Construction
A pre-pandemic study done by the McKinsey Global Institute states
that 44% of work within the construction sector has the potential to
be automated while using human labour solely for essential tasks1
Cathal O’Rourke
Hub Managing Director
Laing O’Rourke Australia
3.1 Foreword
The Australian construction sector, like many others, has
experienced significant disruption from the COVID-19 pandemic.
At Laing O’Rourke, we have been lucky to be able to continue to
operate across many parts of the country through a combination
of remote working, digital collaboration, and strict adherence to
COVID Safety Plans.
As we continue to move into this new way of working, we believe it is essential to use
technology as an enabler for increased productivity, efficiency and keeping our people safe,
while continuing to deliver excellence to our clients. We see the introduction of robotic
technology as a key driver in accelerating our capabilities during this unprecedented time of
investment in the construction infrastructure.
Australia is a world leader in robust, reliable, and capable robotic solutions and Laing
O’Rourke has continued investment in robotic and peripheral technologies to accelerate
our skills in this space. Examples of this include the deployment of fully autonomous
vehicles on site, using artificial intelligence to assist in site diary management and claim
documentation, and the spin out of a startup which delivers an advanced sensing and
perception system for situation awareness.
Our investment in robotic technologies will continue to grow as we move towards our 2025
mission to become the recognised leader for innovation and excellence in the construction
sector. The technology surrounding artificial intelligence, machine learning and rugged
field robotics is advancing at a pace that we can now utilise robotic solutions to create real,
tangible value for our industry.
We are excited about the enormous potential for new technologies to help us overcome
some of the significant challenges facing our sector and our broader community. As we
continue to adjust to living and working in a COVID-19 world, we believe robotic solutions
play a key role in driving greater outcomes for all our people, supply chain, delivery partners
and clients.
Cathal O’Rourke
Hub Managing Director
Laing O’Rourke Australia

Snapshot Construction: What’s changed since 2018?
A study covering 54 countries and 78% of the global labour market states that 44% of work within the
construction sector has the potential to be automated while using human labour only for essential
tasks.1 The global construction market is expected to reach $16.6 trillion by 2025, growing at a CAGR
of 7%.2 Robotics can solve the construction skills shortage if handled well.3
Strengths4, 5
Governments investing in large-scale infrastructure projects Robotics systems already in use
Use of drones and autonomous vehicles for tasks Construction-focused venture capital firms + start ups
Wins
Sector is opening its opportunities to robotics and automation Leadership from within driving change forward
Australian companies are penetrating this sector Significant venture funding and government support
American-founded companies have launched operations in Australia
New opportunities4, 5
Develop more prefabrication facilities locally New technologies in the industry = less reliance on imports
Reduced staffing levels on site is an opportunity to experiment with robotics, automation and remote operations
Opportunities in the realms of sensing and perception for application such as Significant interest in
situational awareness, inspection, asset tracking, and quality assurance embracing new technologies
Opportunities in the realms of data Opportunities in the realms of physical systems for direct work
interpretation and decision making whether it be assembly, remediation, construction, earthworks
Challenges
Sector is highly risk averse Extreme regulatory requirements Subcontractors – increasing contractual risk
Highly fragmented structure Rising prices for material and labour Pressures and associated penalties
Project-based and hence “siloed” operations Large and complex legacy systems Likely severity of failure
Thin profit margins Complexities in delivering change management for personnel
Realistic 5—year goals

3D printing of construction Large scale autonomous Drone-based large physical size
material on site earthworks and time history site awareness
Robotics systems for inspection, quality assurance, building Use of simulations to train
elements, prefabrication, scaffolding, and rebar cage preparation workers either onsite or offsite

3.2 Australia’s construction industry
Construction is worth $360b to the Australian economy (9% of GDP) and employs almost
one million people.6 The sector is heavily fragmented, with more than 369,000 businesses
operating in the industry, which covers heavy industry, civil construction, residential and non-
residential building, structure and completion services and installation trade services.
The largest single entity in the sector,
CIMIC Group Ltd, owns two major
construction companies, Leighton and
Thiess, and has substantial engineering
services across every sector. Despite
this, CIMIC accounts for only a 2.6%
share of overall revenue.6 Most
businesses in the sector are small-
scale non-employer companies made
up of sole proprietors and partners.
The contribution of microbusinesses
(0-4 people) to IVA (industry value
added) in construction has grown
by 13.8% during COVID-19 while the
IVA contribution of small businesses
(5-20 people) has shrunk by 19.3%.7
This contraction in company size, but BuiltView, the newest technology from Laing O’Rourke’s innovation group, uses a dedicated 360° camera and
bespoke platform to create an immersive virtual site access. Image courtesy of Laing O’Rourke.
increase in number, of businesses
involved in construction presents a
considerable opportunity for cross- of subcontracting of trade services as employer of young full-time workers
organisational boundary initiatives well as a shift from onsite construction (aged 15 to 24), which has some
with few large single entities to resist to onsite assembly and installation of benefits in terms of changing company
disruption. prefabricated products such as concrete mindset towards acceptance of digital
slabs and metal building frames.6 innovation.9
While construction remains labour-
intensive, technology is increasingly Construction companies have Despite a strong safety culture,
being integrated in construction increasingly been demanding construction remains a dangerous
processes although core technologies employees with TAFE or apprenticeship industry with 150 worker fatalities in
have not changed significantly over qualifications, rather than relying on 2015 and more than 14,000 claims
time due to hesitancy within the traditional on-the-job training. The of work-related injury.10 This is down
industry and the associated regulatory introduction of new technologies has 54% compared to 2007, however,
bodies. Instead, incremental changes lengthened the working life of many the number of fatalities and serious
have occurred in construction design, skilled tradespeople, as technological injuries is thought to be lingering
management techniques and materials advances have reduced the physical around this number, albeit with year to
used. Building information modelling demands of some occupations. year variation. Construction sites are
(BIM) software is used to control time, Construction is the most gender busy places. Many contractors work
cost and design, while computer-aided segregated industry in Australia, with a side-by-side, in noisy and distracting
design (CAD) and computer-aided low ratio of women to men (1:8), which environments all while heavy vehicles
manufacturing (CAM) are applied to has worsened over the last 20 years come and go. In this environment,
precision manufacturing of buildings (in 1998 13.8% of the construction consultation, cooperation and
and components. There is also a workforce was female compared to coordination are essential to ensure the
continuing trend towards greater use 12.0% in 2018).8 It is also the largest health and safety of everyone on site.

3.3 Impact of COVID-19
Before COVID-19 the construction industry was driven by growth in apartment and non-
residential building, while demand for non-building construction diminished. These trends have
been reversed by the pandemic. COVID-19 negatively impacted the demand for new houses
and apartments, reflected in the 3.4% decrease in the value of building work done in Australia
from 2018-19 to 2019-20.11
However, construction has shown building materials and skilled labour
the most significant increase in GDP have negatively impacted the industry,
(4.4%) since COVID-19 – driven by a which has had to adjust operations to
6% increase in dwelling construction, comply with physical distancing during
3.1% increase in building construction, the pandemic.6 In general, construction
and 1.5% rise in heavy and civil is considered an essential industry and
engineering construction driven by has operated through lockdowns but
investment in infrastructure (roads, often with significantly reduced numbers
bridges, railways etc).12 Supply chain of staff on site.
disruptions for construction equipment,
Construction has
shown the most
significant increase
in GDP (4.4%)
since COVID-19
– driven by a 6%
increase in dwelling
construction, 3.1%
increase in building
construction, and
1.5% rise in heavy
and civil engineering
construction due
to investment in
infrastructure.

3.4 Robotics and the construction
industry today
The global construction industry is considered poor at fostering and adopting innovation as it
is highly fragmented and there is low tolerance for risk. In Australia, innovation is restricted to
some of the large building companies which tend to explore downstream innovations where
they control the supply chain, and hence can directly benefit from the innovation. For example,
Laing O’Rourke owns an offsite precast concrete business.13 Many construction companies
choose not to invest in R&D as it is hard to create standardised solutions that can be applied
across a large number of projects.
While construction is generally applications including: autonomous
considered a laggard compared to earth-moving; materials handling
other industries in adoption of new (robotic cranes and mobile robots); Robotic technologies in
technologies, there was $100m materials shaping; structural joining the construction sector
(assembly); and robotics 3D concrete
printing. Often automation is divided
can reduce injury and
between prefabrication tasks (offsite) fatality rates.
Through the and structural joining (onsite).14 These
introduction of new applications are driven by the need
to reduce costs while simultaneously
technologies, the increasing consistency, predictability, towards outcomes to be measured
working life of many environmental sustainability and safety.9 across difficult environments.
skilled tradespeople The main driver for the application of Robotics and automation also provide
can be increased. robotic technologies in the construction a more repeatable, consistent, precise
sector is to reduce injury and fatality and uniform quality product16 that
rates. Injuries can often be caused involves less waste and can be offset
by an inability to see obstacles, and by renewable energy schemes.17 There
investment in construction technology
robotics can help with the identification is an ongoing skills shortage in the
startups in Australia in 2016-17
of objects to reduce safety incidents. construction industry. Through the
alone.9 These startups serve as an
In recent times, Australia has introduction of new technologies, the
addition to internal efforts from tier one
experienced a decline in productivity working life of many skilled tradespeople
construction firms, tackling issues that
in the construction sector which can can be increased as they can offload
can be addressed without requiring
be reversed through clever application repetitive manual tasks to machines,
high capital costs. Some of these
of robots and automation.15 Due to the and many of their skills can be at least
new technologies include: computer
scale of many construction projects, partially encapsulated within robotic
vision systems for improved worker
even a small improvement to the systems for ongoing use. The adoption
safety; 3D printing of building materials
efficiency of a process can result in of robotics and automation, if it follows
(and buildings); use of drones for site
a substantial cost saving. Australia’s similar trends seen in the resources
inspections, progress monitoring and
strength in field robotics (the application sector, will also increase the take-up of
hazard identification; autonomous heavy
of robotics in large, unstructured construction roles, increase the number
equipment; and robotics and augmented
outdoor domains) can also be applied of women and the younger generation
reality/virtual reality for onsite/offsite
to improving the increasingly poor of future workers in the construction
training of personnel.
productivity in the sector, allowing the sector, and increase participation by
Robotic systems are being used collection and interpretation of complex older workers.17
in construction for a variety of real-time data to enable performance

3.5 The future of robotics in the
construction industry
The use of advanced robotics to enable autonomous construction is expected to be important
in the future to speed up construction in a reliable and safe way. Global trends show increased
demand for construction and demolition robots, with Australia seeing a doubling in unit sales
between 2018 and 2019.14 Construction sites, unlike factories, still face the challenge of being
unstructured, cluttered and congested, making them challenging for robots to operate in.
The advent of new technologies The strong industry need for regulation These fundamentally intertwined tasks
allowing customisation, rapid take-up technology (RegTech) persists and will be encompass considerations from the
of additive manufacturing processes, instrumental to enable robotic and vision perspectives of business, technical, and
networked manufacturing equipment systems that can be deployed to monitor human – social, workers and community.
and increasing data integration, means and enforce worker safety, and identify As such, the formulation of potential
that construction robotics is getting and ameliorate potential hazards. solutions to construction industry
closer to being adopted. Robotics is needs must be cognisant of this and
Construction is predominantly an
also increasingly seen as an enabler for adequately service these perspectives.
operational excellence business where
architectural design, allowing custom, For instance, solutions without clear
every bit of excess must be trimmed
one of a kind, sometimes additive, built- advantages to the core business, task
and every process optimised – the thin
up, complex structures. outcome and operational realities
margins within the sector necessitate
around its execution, have perhaps
that things are done better, faster and
insurmountable barriers to widespread
for less.
adoption into business-as-usual. The
Advances in underpinning Construction, at its core, is a group likelihood of widespread adoption is
of relatively smaller tasks that are also low if workers are perturbed, feel
technologies will continue
designed, planned and sequenced to threatened, or perhaps simply don’t see
to see robotics tackling converge into a physical, built outcome. the benefit or utility of the offering.
increasingly complex
physical and cognitive
tasks.
The trend towards the automation

of heavy machinery, reported in
the Robotics Roadmap for Australia
2018, has continued in the pursuit of
improving the safety and efficiency of
construction operations, which involve
complex tasks in a range of unstructured
environments. Motion control,
navigation, computer vision and other
typical robot technologies are becoming
more ubiquitous in previously crewed
platforms (e.g. cranes). Advances in
underpinning technologies will continue
to see robotics tackling increasingly
complex physical and cognitive tasks.

3.6 Main findings for robotics in the
construction industry
Australia’s population (currently 25 million) is set to increase by 11.8 million people over
the next 30 years, and our buildings and infrastructure will need to expand to cater for this
increased population. Australia’s construction sector faces many future challenges including
an increasing and ageing population, expensive housing, a shortage of social housing, urban
sprawl, increased congestion, changing climate, and security risks.
Robotics will help to overcome these Typical robot technologies such as technology and robotic and vision
challenges by providing a cost-effective motion control, navigation and computer systems that can be deployed to monitor
and safe means to build, manage, vision are increasingly integrated into and enforce worker safety, and identify
maintain and decommission structures, previously crewed platforms, and and ameliorate potential hazards.
especially in remote areas. Advanced advances in technology will see robotics Robotics is increasingly seen as an
robotic technologies play a crucial role tackling increasingly complex physical enabler for architectural design allowing
in reducing injury and fatality rates and and cognitive tasks. There will also be custom, one of a kind, sometimes
improving productivity. a strong industry need for regulation additive, build-up of complex structures.

Case studies
Robotics in architecture and custom

construction
Robotics in architecture
and custom construction......... 46
Who is Laing
O’Rourke’s Technology
& Innovation group?............... 47
ensing and perception
S
technology set to solve
productivity problems in
Construction......................... 48
Construction tool to solve
quality assurance issues......... 49
Manufacturing tool
used to validate offsite
components, creating
big savings in DfMA................ 49
Founded in Brisbane in 1992, UAP is an
Deployment of fibre optic international specialist manufacturer
sensors with applied AI focusing on large scale public
to optimise infrastructure artwork and custom architecture.
maintenance........................ 50 UAP collaborated with the Innovative
Manufacturing Cooperative Research
Mobile robotic Centre (IMCRC) in the Robotic Vision
blocklaying........................... 51 Project, with the core goal of utilising
vision enabled robotic polishing to pre-
Pipeline trenching using polish the cast bronze panels prior to
robotic excavators.................. 52 welded assembly.
A 10m long cast bronze sculpture of smooth flowing
form was an excellent candidate for robotic polishing
as the traditional process of polishing by hand is
labour intensive and comes with a health risk due to
repetitive strain. By using vision technology to map
the sculptural surface on the fly and reconfiguring
a COBOT arm to perform robotic polishing, UAP aim
to achieve considerable time and cost savings on
large scale polishing activities. Leveraging this newly
developed technology will also unlock team members
to work on higher skilled areas. This development
project is ongoing at UAP with the aim of scaling the
system to multiple COBOTS working as a team and
extending vision enabled robotic manufacture to other
capabilities such as plasma cutting and potentially
surface texture creation.
UAP Forman, Greg Delchau and Head of Finishing, Matteo Fantini

working on vision enabled robotic polishing of bronze with a
UR10 COBOT from Universal Robotics. Image courtesy of UAP
photography by Edwina Fox.

Who is Laing O’Rourke’s Technology & Innovation group?
Australia is embarking on an unprecedented period of investment throughout the construction

sector. Governments are investing billions into large-scale complex infrastructure across the
country, and demand is only expected to increase.
While this is a unique opportunity for the sector, this record number of projects in the pipeline will place increasing pressure on
skills, productivity, and quality control, impacting an already encumbered industry.
Laing O’Rourke is committed to transforming the construction industry through leveraging the experience of our people and
purposeful technology to deliver certainty for our clients.
As an industry leader in innovation, we see robotics as playing a critical role in the transformation of our sector and have continued
to invest in new technologies that make our sites safer, our people more productive, and our delivery more efficient.
One of our recent ventures is the Toolbox Spotter, an artificially intelligent computer vision system designed to eliminate accidents
on site through seeing, understanding, and communicating dynamic site operations in real-time.
Due to the overwhelming success of ToolBox Spotter, the product has since rolled out to portfolio company, Presien, with Laing
O’Rourke as minority shareholder. The next iteration of Toolbox Spotter, now known as Blindsight, is currently undergoing field trials
where it is expected to continue to support site safety across heavy industries.
We have also leveraged robotic principles like artificial intelligence and machine learning to help our people stay safe and
productive amidst the restrictions during the COVID-19 pandemic.
BuiltView, an in-house tool, developed in response to pandemic restrictions, provides virtual site access to our people and clients
across our projects, delivering real time data to our teams located at home or in the office across the country. Since restrictions
have eased in most parts of Australia, this tool continues to support a more flexible way of working for our people.
Advances in robotic vision in the Australian construction sector will provide safer, more fulfilling jobs as the industry continues to
deliver essential infrastructure for our communities. Delivering a roadmap for such developments, we believe, is an essential step
forward for the future of Australian infrastructure.
Image courtesy of Laing O'Rourke.

ensing and perception technology set to solve productivity problems in
S
Construction
Requirements for complex infrastructure and buildings are growing. Now more than ever we need
to find new ways to create efficiencies and drive productivity to continue to deliver at the rate
that is necessary. For an industry that has averaged just 1% productivity growth each year over
the last two decades, this proves a significant challenge. Laing O’Rourke is tackling productivity
challenges by leveraging artificial intelligence for virtual site walkthroughs.
BuiltView is the dedicated camera app for construction teams, creating access to site irrespective of location. Within the BuiltView
app, users can capture photos and videos, or handheld, car mounted, or drone mounted 360° cameras. Footage from site activity
is stored on a centralised, sharable platform and, using special tags and markers, videos can be easily interrogated and shared with
stakeholders. BuiltView drives faster project decisions with clear and actionable data. Site teams can automate daily planning of
subcontractor resourcing, plant, and materials to maintain project momentum. Construction managers can track progress against
the schedule by automating calculation of key construction metrics. Quality managers can inspect defects virtually, removing the
need to travel to site, reducing program delays.
Left: BV360 makes site diaries simple, workers can simply walk through site, talking about progress and BuiltView does the rest. Image courtesy of
Laing O’Rourke.
Upper-right: BuiltView, the newest technology from Laing O’Rourke’s innovation group, uses a dedicated 360° camera and bespoke platform to create an
immersive virtual site access. Image courtesy of Laing O’Rourke.
Lower-right: BuiltView drives faster project decisions with clear and actionable data. Image courtesy of Laing O’Rourke.

Construction tool to solve quality assurance issues
Laing O’Rourke is trialling a new digital platform to automate

deviation analysis by comparing site captured point clouds
against the digital engineering model. Through seeing the as-
built construction status and comparing it to the digital design,
BIM Compare can quickly identify objects that are out of
tolerance, allowing the opportunity to rectify before it impacts
the construction program.
Deviation analysis can be conducted consistently throughout
Global spending on rework in the trillion- the project lifecycle, producing almost real-time quality
dollar industry of construction is estimated reporting and ensuring the integrity of the project at every
stage. BIM Compare can identify defects in completed
at $570b of direct costs and $440b indirect elements such as floor flatness, structural, precast and MEP.
costs. The cost of rework is on the rise, with Through rapid quality feedback, project managers can be
half of project cost increases due to rework, certain that any quality defects are identified, keeping projects
mainly caused by quality deviations in on time and within budget.
design and construction. Advances in digital BIM Compare - the newest construction tool that recognises and evaluates
engineering technology provide a solution to out of tolerance works to solve quality assurance issues. Image courtesy of
Laing O’Rourke
this; through analysis of digital twins, quality
defects can be identified before they impact
the construction program.
Manufacturing tool used to validate offsite components, creating big savings in DfMA
Quality assurance is essential to Design for Using BIM Compare, Laing O’Rourke realised significant
Manufacture and Assembly (DfMA) - each cost savings from 40 bridge culverts on a $200m road
bridge project. By detecting defects in a single culvert before
component must be built within specification leaving to site, BIM Compare allowed for the quick rectification
prior to leaving the factory. Unfortunately, this of the precast elements prior to attempting to install 40 of the
is often not the case. Issues are identified same elements.
after field installation, creating extensive
Using BIM Compare in the design of bridge culverts. Image courtesy of
wasted costs in component build, logistics, Laing O’Rourke.
and installation. This poses a significant
challenge for the construction industry. Laing
O’Rourke is responding to this challenge
with BIM Compare, an automated deviation
analysis tool that has been trialled to support
inspection and defect detection before leaving
the warehouse.
BIM compare uses industry-leading algorithms and advanced
LiDAR technology to automatically compare point clouds
with design models to rapidly identify and categorise out-of-
tolerance components. By automating manual processing,
BIM Compare makes quality assurance effortless, ensuring
smarter, faster and more accurate assembly. Through seeing
the as-built component status and comparing it to the digital
design, BIM Compare can immediately identify components
that are out of tolerance, allowing the opportunity to rectify
before it impacts the assembly program.

Deployment of fibre optic sensors with applied AI to optimise infrastructure
maintenance
Traditional methods for structural monitoring have relied on visual inspection, costly gauges that
have limited duration and scheduled maintenance as opposed to as-required basis, resulting
in excess labour and resourcing. Through a partnership between University of Sydney, and
Cambridge University, Laing O’Rourke pioneered an Australian-first deployment of novel fibre
optics technology on a post-tensioned footbridge to assess real-time structural behaviour.
This innovative technology is easier to install, less complex to operate, and more cost effective compared to current alternatives
such as strain gauges. The world leading research to come from Laing O’Rourke’s UK research centre utilises fibre optic monitoring
systems to provide intelligent insights into structural performance throughout the infrastructure lifecycle.
Deployed fibre optics result in a real-time long-term monitoring system that produces essential data on strains as well as static
and dynamic load responses. When paired with AI and machine learning, the data can be used for a variety of applications. In the
immediate term, structural data analysis removes the need for labour intensive visual inspections and extensive structural health
monitoring techniques.
In the near term, extended asset performance and advanced capex planning through prediction and optimisation of operation and
maintenance. In the mid to long term, historical data can be used for optimisation of future design and automate the validation of
novel and complex designs of structures and building components.
Post-tensioned footbridge at University of Sydney’s Engineering & Technology Precinct building. Image courtesy of Laing O'Rourke.

Mobile robotic blocklaying
FBR® is a robotic technology company developing and commercialising digital construction

solutions to address global needs. The first application is Hadrian X®, the world’s first mobile
robotic blocklaying machine and system, capable of safely working outdoors in uncontrolled
environments with speed and accuracy. Hadrian X® builds block structures from a 3D CAD model,
producing far less waste than traditional construction methods while dramatically improving site
safety and is capable of building the walls of a house in situ in as little as a day, with no human
involvement.
Hadrian X® removes all manual labour from a construction site during the structural build process; eliminating the repetitive
work, stress and injury that many bricklayers suffer due to years of hard labour. Due to the use of construction adhesive, there is
no exposure of cement and sand dust while mixing mortar - both contain silica which has been recognised as a serious industry
hazard. Less workers are required on site during the construction period and a faster turnaround results in less trips to site.
The team at FBR® have achieved a breakthrough in technology and mindset, pushing the boundaries in the conventional methods
of the construction industry to provide a safer work environment.
In July 2020, Hadrian X® constructed FBR’s first four-bedroom, two-bathroom home in the suburbs of Western Australia. Image courtesy of FBR.

Pipeline trenching using robotic excavators
Across Australia, thousands of kilometres of trench are excavated annually to allow oil, gas, or
water pipelines to be buried. This excavation task is very repetitive and well-suited for automation.
A collaboration between MPC Kinetic and Built Robotics has seen the deployment of robotic
excavators to dig these trenches, improving the productivity of workgroups and allowing skilled
excavator operators to focus on higher complexity tasks, leaving the mundane and repetitive work
to the robots.
Built Robotics’ robots are equipped with industry-leading safety systems, work without any onsite human supervision and continue
working into the night further enhancing project productivity and bolstering utilisation of expensive capital equipment.
MPC Kinetic was the first to utilise the technology in Australia in 2019, with Built Robotics upgrading a number of the pipeline
construction company’s existing excavator fleet for the purpose of automated trench excavation. A 1-2 day retrofit unlocked
autonomous capability for the company’s machinery and upfront capital expense was mitigated through the use of machines
already working in the field. Built Robotics and MPC Kinetic continue to work together to train local equipment operators and
field technicians in the deployment, operation and maintenance of robotic machinery. The result of the collaboration has
been an enhancement of skills for existing workers on these projects and creating a new class of worker – Robotic Equipment
Operators (REOs).
Built Robotics’ technology allows trenching using robotic excavators. Image courtesy of Built Robotics.

Contributors
This chapter was based on a virtual workshop held on 30 April 2020 with contributions from the individuals listed below:
Andrew Harris (Laing O’Rourke) Sue Keay (Robotics Australia Group) Marion Baillat (42 Interactive)
Georgina North (Laing O’Rourke) Nathan Kirchner (Presien) Sarath Kodagoda (UTS)
Michelle Thomas (Laing O’Rourke) Mary McGeoch (Lendlease) Tirthankar Bandyopadhyay (CSIRO’s
Data61)
Footnotes
1 https://www.archdaily.com/963301/automating-the-construction-site#:~:text=A%20McKinsey%20Global%20Institute%20pre,labour%20solely%20
for%20essential%20tasks. Accessed 18th August 2021
2 https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20210309005459/en/Global-Construction-Market-Expected-to-Reach-16.6-Trillion-by-2025-Growing-at-a-
CAGR-of-7---ResearchAndMarkets.com Accessed 18th August 2021
3 https://www.forbes.com/sites/charlestowersclark/2019/12/19/robotics-can-solve-the-construction-skills-shortage-if-handled-properly-part-
one/?sh=b57573c1d22a Accessed 18th August 2021
4 https://brickmortar.vc/portfolio Accessed 18th August 2021
5 https://www.cemexventures.com/top-50/ Accessed 18th August 2021
6 Kelly, A. (2020) Construction in Australia. IBISWorld AU Industry (ANZSIC) Report E.
7 ABS (2021) Australian Industry 2019-20 financial year https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/industry/industry-overview/australian-industry/2019-20
Accessed 29th July 2021
8 Workplace Gender Equality Agency (2019) Gender Segregation in Australia’s workforce. Factsheet series.
9 StartupAus (2017) Digital Foundations: How technology is transforming Australia’s construction sector.
10 Safe Work Australia (2020) Key WHS statistics Australia 2020. https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-11/Key%20Work%20
Health%20and%20Safety%20Stats%202020.pdf Accessed 29th July 2021.
11 https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/industry/industry-overview/australian-industry/2019-20 Accessed 29th July 2021
12 ABS (2021) Australian National Accounts: National Income, Expenditure and Product March 2021. https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/economy/
national-accounts/australian-national-accounts-national-income-expenditure-and-product/latest-release. Accessed 29th July 2021
13 Shelton, J. (2018) Australia’s construction industry has hit a wall that only innovation will bring down, Northrop. https://northrop.com.au/201811/
australia-s-construction-industry-has-hit-wall-only Accessed 29th July 2021.
15 Synergies Economic consulting (2018) The robotics and automation advantage for Queensland.
16 M. I. Hamakareem, "The Constructor - Civil Engineering Home," 2020.
17 Construction Skills Queensland (2021) Construction Automation, Industry Report, February 2021.

4
Resources
Mineral, oil and energy resources are vital to sustaining Australia’s
ongoing economic prosperity, directly contributing more than 8% of
Australia’s GDP
4.1 Australia’s resources sector
The resources sector is responsible for an estimated 10% of
Australia’s GDP and contributed to almost 35% of Australia’s
GDP growth in 2019.1
Mining directly employs around a quarter of a million people, or 2% of Australia’s workforce,2
and supports more than one million jobs in related industries.
The remoteness and vast distances between resources operating sites has presented
considerable challenges for the industry, which in turn has led Australia’s push into robotics
over the last decade.
In more recent times there has been a focus on the application of digital technologies
including the Internet of Things (IoT), Data Analytics, Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine
Learning, and further deployment of Automation and Autonomy, and Robotics development
along the entire value chain from exploration through to shipping and rehabilitation of
mined land.3
The resource sector is facing increasing challenges around

social licence to operate, particularly its impact on global
climate change.
Mineral, oil and energy resources grew from $205b in 2018 to $310b in 2020-211 and
still dominate Australia’s export income with Asia being the main market.4 These exports
have led to massive investment in regional infrastructure, the development of an extensive
industry support network and providing substantial direct and indirect employment,
particularly in regional areas of Australia. The resource sector is facing increasing
challenges around social licence to operate, particularly its impact on global climate change.
The consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic have already had a negative impact on the
economies of the world, the flow-on effects to the mining industry, to date, have largely been
on the supply chain.1 Commodity prices of minerals remain buoyant although demand for oil
has seen the price for oil and gas drop significantly.
The true impact of COVID-19 on the resources sector and related technology development
is yet to be felt, however world economic growth forecasts continue to be revised up.5 The
restricted movement of goods and people, and the global supply chain model, have to some

Snapshot Resources: What’s changed since 2018?
Strengths
More sophisticated inspection robots in the oil and gas space Growth in the supply chain
Newmont’s Boddington operation and Roy Hill have Higher level capability and greater
started mining operations with autonomous haul trucks demand for inspection robots
Wins
WA state government investment into the Neerabup automation and robotics precinct
WA state government support of Westrac’s testing facility in Collie and the Mackay Resource centre for excellence
New opportunities
COVID-19 has had a limited There are new companies entering the Large push in the resources sector
impact on business in Australia autonomous vehicle market locally. to electrify mobile equipment
Australia has also embraced a more Australia is becoming increasingly important

digitally connected and remote workforce as a location to test and develop new systems
Challenges
Lack of skills Uneven adoption of technology Mine sites are technologically outpacing their communities
Regulation outside of the mining industry has not kept up with the industry Lack of a skills pipeline
Enabling mixed autonomous fleet compatibility Technology is outpacing regulatory reform
Drop off in locally commercialised Fixed or service robots and not been integrated supply
technology is not creating critical mass chain or directly into resources companies themselves
Lack of systems and standards for coordination and Delayed roll out of electric equipment
collaboration of robots and autonomous equipment impacting new autonomous models
Developing appropriate teams of Ownership of data and Limited number of sufficient

knowledgeable government officials OEM permission required startups and investors
Lost opportunities to create cross-sector capabilities Offshore development of technology

and growth of the overall supply chain and a weak local supply chain

Electrification of mobile mining equipment begins in scale leading to more automation
Improved simulation approaches to training for workers, including virtual reality and augmented reality
3D printed parts on site and 3D additive repair to equipment on site.

extent broken down. This has led to a for modern transport and consumer of any continent on Earth.11 Today, wind
significant uptake in working remotely, goods. For example, REE are required and solar account for half of Australia’s
which in turn has fuelled a pivot to for the magnets used in electric motors renewable energy generation.4
digital online tools and remote services. (modern cars), while lithium is required
Resource-based primary companies
This provides further incentives for for use in batteries. Australia is the
are likely to significantly embrace
robotics and automation, yet the current leading global supplier of mining-related
automation and robotics solutions over
COVID-19 disruption in the global supply software and mining-related consulting
the next 15 years, which will have a
chain makes it harder for companies to services. Australia also has considerable
positive effect on the overall productivity
acquire the technology. This provides capacity in general mining services,
of the industry. By 2030 this trend could
local opportunities to develop more mining construction (ECPM Services),
add $74b in value to the Australian
technology and has led to such after-market engineering services and
economy and over 80,000 new jobs
initiatives as the Western Australian contract mining services. Leading
if it develops a local supply chain in
Government’s $20m investment in an original equipment manufacturers
automation and robotics.12 This uptake
Automation and Robotics Precinct in the (OEMs) such as Caterpillar, Komatsu
in robotics generates indirect social
northern Perth suburb of Neerabup.6 and Epiroc see Australia as the ideal
and economic benefits that include
This push for localised services emerged testbed for advanced autonomous
environmental and improved safety
even before COVID-19, with Westrac’s mining equipment.
performance. The export potential that
proving ground in Collie, Western
Australia’s resources export mix is Australia could create with a robust
Australia, being approved in 2019 and
changing, with increasing exports robotics supply chain grown from the
completed in June 2020.7 It is the
of LNG, critical minerals (such as METS sector is likely to add tens of
only Caterpillar proving ground for its
lithium) and renewable energy. During billions of dollars to the economy.3 If
Autonomous trucks outside of the USA.
2019, Australia rivalled Qatar as the Australian METS companies are unable
Australia has abundant supplies of world’s largest exporter of LNG.10 to support miners and energy producers
mineral resources, oil and gas, including Fresh investment in the mining and in their drive to automate large parts of
the world’s largest reserves of lead, processing of lithium and rare earth their operations, these companies will
nickel, uranium and zinc. It is one of the minerals will grow Australia’s role in the continue to import robotic technologies
top exporters of bauxite, alumina, iron supply chain for electric vehicles and and services from overseas. This is
ore, zinc, coal and the world’s largest hightech devices. Meanwhile, Australia’s unlikely to happen organically and will
exporter of liquid natural gas (LNG).8 dominantly coastal population and require a high level of collaboration
Australia is a secure source of critical sunny climate have seen the use of wind between primary resource companies,
minerals9 – Rare Earth Elements (REE) and solar power soar. Australia has the METS companies, research institutions,
and lithium, critical in the supply chain highest solar radiation per square metre universities and the government.
UFR AutoLog. Image courtesy of Universal Field Robots.

4.2 Robotics and the resources sector today
Robotics in the resources sector is still mainly applied in surface mining, including: robotic
digging, robotic dozing, autonomous haulage systems, robotic rock breaking, autonomous
terrain mapping, underwater digging and robotic drilling systems. Most of these systems are
maximised for scale, that is, the size of mining equipment tends to be as large as feasible
to maximise the utility of the operator. In the future, as autonomous systems become more
common, the benefits of scale diminish and we will see more and smaller autonomous
machines operating on mine sites.
• Advances in data analytics applied The last few years have seen an
within and across the mining value increased use of Uncrewed Aerial
chain (e.g. predictive/prescriptive Vehicles (UAVs, also known as drones)
asset health monitoring, numerical on mining and oil and gas sites, where
optimisation, etc.) towards truly they are regularly used for tasks such as
integrated operations including mapping site construction, monitoring
addressing cultural, organisational fumes and pollution, blast monitoring,
and educational challenges general surveillance and monitoring
• Developing more effective human/ of operation. A notable example of the
machine interfaces and systems further development and maturation
for providing remote presence, of drone technology for the resources
augmented reality, and situational sector is that of Emesent, a startup
awareness founded in 2018 to commercialise
the Hovermap technology, capable of
• Advancing mine autonomy,
COVID-19 has led to a larger ‘appetite’ producing high-accuracy, large-scale
equipment/process mechanisation
for automation/semi-automation due maps of mine or industrial sites using a
and automation, including operator-
to physical distancing constraints, and drone. The rapid success and growth of
assist systems, and maintenance
restrictions of access to site, especially Emesent illustrates the potential for this
by contractors/externals. However, those type of technology and the appetite from
restrictions have also led to additional the sector.
challenges for new technology to be
In terms of vehicle Mining companies and OEMs have
developed and tested on site, which
autonomy, following also been testing specific applications
could lead to opportunities for locally
of AI for recognition tasks such as
developed capability. the sustained success segmentation of rock fragmentation.
To achieve operational efficiencies, of autonomous In terms of vehicle autonomy, following
resources companies must haul trucks in the sustained success of autonomous
increasingly rely on integrated sensing, haul trucks in surface mining and
surface mining and
interoperability, automation, robotics autonomous trains, OEMs have
and advanced data analytics, with METS autonomous trains, focussed development efforts on
Ignited3 defining industry priorities as: OEMs have focussed other types of vehicles essential to the
• Advancing sensors and some development extraction process. For example, Rio
connectedness, e.g. for improving Tinto is deploying the world’s first fully
efforts on other types autonomous water trucks, developed in
asset health, productivity,
environmental and safety
of vehicles essential to collaboration with Caterpillar, in one of
performance the extraction process. its iron ore sites in the Pilbara.13
• Advancing data/information/systems
interoperability

resources sector
According to a global survey of mining companies, the underlying technologies predicted
to have the biggest impact over the next 15 years are robotics and automation, artificial
intelligence and analytics and sensing and data.14 The big enablers for robotics since 2018 have
been around the development of offsite testing facilities and a focus on developing stronger
local supply chains.
If this trend continues then it will of the development of sovereign Mining in Australia has largely escaped
support the development of Australia’s capability. the disruptions from COVID-19 at mine
sovereign robotics industry. Other sites. Most changes have impacted city
The development of the Robotics
megatrends, such as the electrification based employees with Working From
Australia Network and robotics clusters,
of mobile mining equipment, is likely to Home (WFH) being established by nearly
including the Queensland Robotics
have a positive impact on speeding up all mining and METS related companies.
Cluster, Sprint Robotics and RoboWest
the adoption of autonomous equipment. While this has brought in some changes,
are signs of a maturing market. The
Recent collaborative efforts around these have largely been limited to off
government will still need to play a role
electrification by two separate groups site activities.
to support the local supply chain and
of prime companies and suppliers, the
increase its effort in keeping pace with
Electric Mine Consortium and Charge On
regulatory reform.
innovation challenge, are good examples
1 Telepresence more accepted when working from home
2 Remote technical assistance from OEM’s as travel is restricted
3 Expansion of remote working with limited travel creating a surge in more remotely operated equipment
4 Remote servicing of equipment and off site maintenance interactive facilities
5 More focus on reducing the human footprint on a remote site
Use of drones are now ubiquitous, however, they still often require multiple operators per unit. There is
6 demand for significantly reducing this requirement and seeing a ratio operator to device of much less
than one (i.e. one person operating/monitoring multiple units at once)

Another opportunity that is highly opportunities for increased safety • All mobile equipment having an
relevant to the resources sector comes (removing humans from dangerous electric and autonomous ready option
with the creation of the Australia Space activities) while also leveraging • Compatible mixed autonomous fleets
Agency (ASA) and the associated developments in robotics technology and robots that collaborate together
ambitions of Australia (and partners) in that see the development of small and automatically – plug and play
space activities. The world-class track many interoperable systems that can
• Robotic exoskeletons for use in heavy
record of Australia in remote operations team and take advantage of ever-
lifting tasks.
and robotics, especially in the resources increasing computer processing power,
sector, has inspired the ASA to centre miniaturisation of sensors, improved Some of the key activities that need to
a number of aspects of its roadmap on battery efficiency, lightweighting, happen to support the use of robotics
the use of robotics for tasks such as increased robustness, and rapid in the resources sector include: the
resource exploration and extraction. This prototyping. development and support of a local
is an important opportunity for robotics supply chain; investment in education
Some areas where robotics will play a
and the resources sector in Australia, and skills; greater collaboration with
key role in the future of the resources
not only to be involved in future space other sectors to work on integration and
sector include:
missions including the Moon to Mars interoperability; regulatory reform to
program, but also to fundamentally • In-Situ Resource Utilisation (ISRU) support technology creation, adoption
revisit many of the processes of including for exploration, extraction and commercialisation; the development
exploration, extraction, transport and mineral processing – in-situ of more testing locations; incentives
and processing as they are currently with nano-bots, also requiring the for larger firms to invest locally into
executed on Earth. The new concepts development of robust heat and R&D; and, while encouraging Australian
that will be required for space resource pressure resistant robots robotics companies to export and be
applications are likely to have a flow-on • 3D printing of mine infrastructure global in ambition, we also need to
effect on the resources sector on Earth, supported by digital twins of promote and attract global robotic
as this has happened in the past for everything, even 3D printing of companies to establish a manufacturing
various sectors of engineering thanks to healthy food for mine workers or R&D (not sales) presence in Australia.
space research and development. • Self-healing assets with maintenance
In general, the future of robotics by self-building and self-repairing
in the resources sector will exploit robots

resources sector
The resources sector remains one of the most important
industries in Australia and one that benefits most from the The COVID-19 pandemic
adoption of robotics and automation. has led to an even larger
The COVID-19 pandemic has led to an remains well placed to lead the world in ‘appetite’ for automation/
even larger ‘appetite’ for automation/ the development of robotics technology semi-automation due
semi-automation due to physical for mining and oil and gas, given to physical distancing
distancing constraints, and restrictions sufficient investment in R&D, skills
of access to site and travel, and this development, and support for technology
constraints, and
appetite is likely to remain significant adoption. The rapid electrification of restrictions of access
for a number of years to come. However, equipment is a substantial opportunity to site and travel.
it has also led to additional challenges to integrate further automation and
for the development, deployment and robotic technology into the new designs.
testing of new technologies. Australia

Case studies
Reducing exposure to safety risks

through intelligent assets
Reducing exposure to
safety risks through
intelligent assets................... 62
Mapping the
inaccessible......................... 63
Blueprint Lab — Changing
the landscape of remote
operations in harsh
environments....................... 63
Magneto — Reducing
confined space entry
inspections through
robotic technology and
better data capture................ 64 Woodside aims to be an industry leader
in health and safety outcomes to protect
people, communities and environments.
Working with robotics Building on remote operating capabilities
technology to improve in subsea, not-normally-crewed
safety, reliability and
efficiency in high-risk
platforms and LNG plant processes,
and remote environments....... 64 Woodside entered a collaboration with
the US National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) in late 2016.
Premron CHS — A NASA has loaned Woodside a Robonaut
continuous haulage 2 system to test ideas from operators,
solution to improve
gateroad development............ 65 engineers and maintenance workers to
make work safer. Woodside is currently
exploring these insights in onshore and
Cathode Manufacturing offshore robotics site trials.
— Glencore Technology,
Townsville Copper Refinery...... 66 Recently, Woodside joined BHP and Deakin University’s
Institute for Intelligent Systems Research and
Innovation on a pre-emptive, remotely-operated robotic
Universal Field Robots intervention to release pressure in a standpipe at a
and IMDEX collaborate Nickel West mine site. The team iterated strategies,
to successfully deliver designed solutions and tested prototypes. Ultimately,
BLAST DOG™........................ 66 a Deakin robot was successfully deployed, severing
the pipe to release the built-up pressure. The robot
was controlled from a safe distance, eliminating
An explosive cartridge/ human exposure to an uncontrolled release of
detonator handling hole pressure, shrapnel or gases. The experience was a
charging robot for live demonstration of how higher-risk activities might
mining and tunneling............. 67 be supported by technology- based solutions. It
also underlined the value that comes from different
industries uniting with each other, and the tertiary
sector, around a common challenge. Collaboration
allows us to arrive at better solutions, faster
Woodside’s ‘Ripley’ robot which was used to test strategies during a

simulated incident response at a Nickel West mine site in Western
Australia, June 2018. Image courtesy of Woodside.

Mapping the inaccessible
Data collection creates significant safety and operational

challenges in underground mines. Deep and high-stress
conditions make mining inherently high-risk environments for
personnel, equipment, and infrastructure. Laser scanners are
used to capture data in underground areas so that mining and
geotechnical engineers can understand the effect of mining-
induced and tectonic stresses on the rock mass, and maintain
safe and efficient operations. However, the data collection
process can be hazardous. Mapping areas using a traditional
cavity monitoring system is time-consuming and increases
safety risks for personnel, who have to control a boom-
mounted sensor in exposed unsupported ground.
Hovermap reduces these risks by keeping personnel at a
Brisbane-based company Emesent, a spin- safe distance and minimising the time taken to map any
off from the CSIRO, specialises in drone hazardous or inaccessible area. Drone-mounted, Hovermap
enables autonomous flight and collision avoidance capability
autonomy, LiDAR mapping, and data analytics. to produce shadowless, high resolution scans of any
Their flagship product, Hovermap, is a underground area. Mining or geotechnical engineers can
smart mobile scanning unit that automates quickly and safely inspect stopes, drives or drifts with minimal
the collection and analysis of data in disruption to production.
challenging, inaccessible environments, such
Hovermap scan of a mine stope, with drone flight path showing surveyors
as underground mines. Uniquely versatile, it were able to operate the system a safe distance from the stope edge. Image
Courtesy of Emesent.
can be drone or vehicle mounted or used for
walking scans.
Blueprint Lab — Changing the landscape of remote operations in harsh environments
Blueprint Lab designs and manufactures Blueprint Lab saw a capability gap in the global market for
advanced, robotic arms for harsh environments. inspection class ROVs, where complex, high-risk tasks were
reserved for larger, less portable vehicles. By addressing
These state-of-the-art, remotely operated robotic this gap, the Australian owned and operated business has
arms allow users to mimic a human arm and established global market traction, providing employment to
undertake dangerous tasks from a safe distance, close to 30 employees and bringing in revenue from exports.
vastly reducing risk to human operators (such as
Blueprint Lab’s Reach Alpha Robotic Arms conducting a simulated complex
Navy divers and EOD Operators) and improving recovery mission by the US Navy. Image courtesy of US NAVY (Naval
overall mission success. Information Warfare Center Pacific DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A. Approved
for public release.).
Blueprint Lab’s products are utilised by the US Navy, as well

as offshore oil and gas and marine research industries. They
are used to conduct tasks including pipe and tank inspection,
object placement and complex retrieval as well as handling
of delicate live organisms. The robust manipulator technology
features high accuracy and interchangeable, task-specific
tooling options while still being lightweight and compact for
portability and ease of operation. A user-friendly imitative
controller is used to manipulate the robotic arms movements
and joint positioning. This minimises training requirements,
allowing operators to more rapidly deploy the field-ready
robotic arms.

Magneto — Reducing confined space entry inspections through robotic technology
and better data capture
Nexxis is currently architecturally designing Magneto’s road

map to incorporate an expanding integration of sensor
technology to allow autonomous operation. While the
development of close proximity 3D SLAM and simulation
technology for inspection planning and autonomous navigation
are also forming part of its future plans.
Magneto will deliver safer workplaces by removing the need
for humans to enter hazardous work environments, such as
confined space entry and working at heights. Currently, the
Magneto platform is performing trials for major companies
within the resources sector also looking to achieve the goal of
reducing confined space entry on their assets.
Other Nexxis robotics apply to various aspects of
infrastructure inspections that require leaner and more
Nexxis have established a collaboration efficient operations to cope with ageing assets. They can
be used to enhance safety while improving productivity and
agreement with CSIRO's Data61 to develop operational efficiency, especially in hazardous environments.
the innovative robotic platform, Magneto. For example, they can have gas sensors to detect leaks, high-
The multi-limbed inspection robot’s focus definition cameras to read gauges, and infrared cameras to
is to solve the issues around dexterity and measure temperature. On rotating equipment, robotics use
manipulation, which will allow the transition microphones to detect abnormal noises and vibration sensors
to detect excess movement.
for working robots to perform inspections with
complex geometries. Magneto 2020. Image courtesy of Nexxis.
Working with robotics technology to improve safety, reliability and efficiency in

high-risk and remote environments
In mid-2017, Woodside took delivery of one of NASA’s

Anthropomorphic Robonauts, which is on loan for a five-
year deployment in Perth, Western Australia. The NASA
Robonaut project will explore how robotic technology can be
used to unlock value from Woodside’s assets. The project
complements Woodside’s own robotics program that includes
machines capable of conducting tele-operated and semi-
autonomous patrols and inspections that were suggested by
their operational staff.
The first site trial of Woodside’s patrol and inspection

machines took place in November 2017 at the Pluto LNG
Woodside is an Australian oil and gas company facility. In addition to performing repetitive or high-risk
tasks, the robots are also acting as mobile sensor platforms
with a global presence, recognised for its
- streaming visual, thermal, ultrasonic, and light detection
world-class capabilities – as an explorer, a and ranging (LIDAR) data into Woodside’s existing cognitive
developer, a producer and a supplier of energy. and analytics programs. The data gathered is processed and
Woodside seeks to enhance its competitiveness sent to operations and maintenance teams to assist them
through innovation and applying technology in identifying equipment faults, errors or where capacity
improvements exist.
that improves safety, reliability and efficient
operations in the high-risk and remote NASA's anthropomorphic Robonaut in use at Woodside. Image courtesy of
environments where they operate. Woodside.

Premron CHS — A continuous haulage solution to improve gateroad development
In 2013 the Australian Coal Industry’s Research Program (ACARP) commissioned Premron to
adapt their patented Enclosed Belt Conveyor System (EBS) from a static application, to a dynamic
autonomous monorail-mounted conveying machine. This system uses multiple pairs of conveyor
belt of drives, instead of the conventional single drive, which allows the belt to track around 90
degree corners. The belt is a Fire-Resistant Anti-Static (FRAS) wedged conveyor belt that forms
into a ‘tear drop’ shape, allowing dust free conveying.
The narrow body allows the 200m long system to be installed against a rib (wall)
and allow other mining vehicles and personnel to access down the side, while
the machine is hauling. It will remove product from the face (behind a Continuous
Miner) and transport the payload directly to the Panel Belt Conveyor, removing the
requirement for the conventional batch haulage system (Shuttle Cars) and providing
the Australian Coal Industry with a Safe and ‘Continuous’ Coal Haulage System
(CHS) with possible improvements of up to 25% being modelled at some mines.
The CHS has several features in its control system that allow it to operate semi-
autonomously. These include such things as ultrasonic sensors to detect the panel
belt and any obstructions under the belt whilst the machine is tramming, belt-rip
sensors, encoders to detect if the belt is slipping, potentially causing a fire and a
proprietary load sharing algorithm, which allows the belt to maintain correct tension
while running around corners and tramming.
Operating Coal
To overcome the challenge of detecting and following the development unit
autonomously, Premron teamed up with the CSIRO in 2019 to integrate their Haulage System
patented Ex Scan LIDAR system. Using the data from the Ex Scan the CHS will
“follow” at a user configurable distance, indicate correct positioning to personnel (CHS) during
installing roof bolts for hanging monorail ahead of the CHS, and give corrections for
the position of the pivoting conveyor loading out into the throat of the CHS, reducing surface trial
operator interaction.
Top: CHS conveying around a 90 degree corner. Image courtesy of Premron Pty Ltd.
Right: Operating CHS during surface trial. Image courtesy of Premron Pty Ltd.

Cathode Manufacturing — Glencore Technology, Townsville Copper Refinery
Years of experience with automation and The Scott system installed at Glencore resulted in a number of
robotic systems made Scott the ideal benefits. Operator exposure to gases, toxic fumes and welder’s
flash reduced while production increased. All of Glencore’s
automation partner to build and install a requirements, including a higher output were met with the
new robotic handling and welding system system marking the start of a new era in production for their
for Glencore Technology. This system would Townsville Copper Refinery.
enable production of their new Cathode plate,
Overview of the materials handling and automated welding system installed
ISAKIDD™, and their traditional range of plates in Townsville. Credit: Glencore Technology.
in bulk quantity.
Described as “an elegant, yet methodical ballet of productivity,
with every move calculated for quality and efficiency” in Mount
Isa Mine’s Resourceful, the system allows parts to go direct
from stillage to a completed plate stacked in the outfeed
without the need for operator involvement.
Glencore is currently manufacturing plate orders with around
16,000 plates, including its first ISAKIDD™ cathode plate
order, produced in the six months following commissioning.
Glencore’s Engineering Superintendent, Noel Kimlin, says
"Automating this process means we make more reliable, high
quality plates while having the ability to synchronise outputs
with production demand."
Universal Field Robots and IMDEX collaborate to successfully deliver BLAST DOG™
Universal Field Robots’ (UFR) E20C is an next generation of leaders in engineering and mechatronics,
Australian manufactured 2-ton robotic providing high value and high satisfaction employment
opportunities.
platform that operates UFR Autonomy and
can be equipped with attachments to perform IMDEX was particularly interested in engaging Universal Field Robots
due to the requirement of developing a mine operational prototype in a
a variety of tasks. UFR collaborated with 6-month period and a commercial prototype within 18 months. Credit:
another Australian company IMDEX Limited to Lestrade Digital.
deliver BLAST DOG™, an autonomous system

that helps optimise blasting based on high-
resolution three-dimensional material models
built from sensor data.
To perform the sensing, the machine drives to blast holes,
uses robotic vision to verify the blast hole location and winches
a wireline sensor down the blast hole to collect data. The
sensor data is used by drill and blast engineers to lower the
cost of blasting, while improving safety and productivity and
reducing risk.
The IMDEX BLAST DOG™ product is significantly contributing to
the digital transformation of mining and will be manufactured
in quantity and exported to mining locations around the
world. UFR is further developing complementary products to
solve various mining problems and has global engagement,
including current testing in Chile and enquiries for sales
in South Africa. UFR business is growing to be a new
manufacturing industry class for Australia and is employing the

An explosive cartridge/detonator handling hole charging robot for mining and t unneling
Designing and building an explosive cartridge/detonator handling robot for Mining and Tunneling

is an ongoing research project that started a thesis for David Broadbent’s Post Graduate Diploma
of Robotics at Monash University. From conception of the initial design using 87C51CPU, the
processing power of embedded microprocessors has ‘exploded’ in capacity.
Also, tactile, position and vision sensors with algorithms to match, have vastly
improved. David’s 1990-2010 multiple attempts at creating a suitable end effector
gripper (hand) proved these dual grippers needed to be of a humanoid form. With the
advent of low cost 3D printing this “hand” is now achievable.
David’s end product solves the challenge of finding trained ‘powder monkey’ personnel
and it reduces the significant hazards in underground mines and tunnel projects where
cartridge explosives are used, in Australia and globally, which occasionally result in
death. This robot: Moves to the work face after the drilling jumbo has finished drilling;
Synchronises data with the drilled hole data from the drill jumbo; Selects and inserts
a detonator into an explosive cartridge; Charges the predrilled blast holes with the
primed cartridge explosive; Repeats until all the drill holes are charged; Ties off all the
detonator cables in a predefined pattern, followed by a safety review; Completes the
final connection of the linked detonator ‘chain’ to the primary firing device; Retracts
automatically to a “safe” location prior to the shot firing.
The robot selects and inserts a detonator into an explosive cartridge. Image courtesy of David Broadbent.
Contributors
This chapter was based on a workshop held in Perth, WA, on 25 February 2020 with contributions from the individuals
listed below:
Paul Lucey (Project 412) Lina Velosa (Nexxis) Andrew Scott (METS Ignited)
Lauren Stafford (Woodside Energy) Thierry Peynot (QUT/Mining 3)
Footnotes
1 Office of the Chief Economist (2021) Resources and Energy Quarterly - June 2021 www.industry.gov.au/REQ
2 ABS (2021) Labour force Australia (detailed) https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/labour/employment-and-unemployment/labour-force-australia-detailed/
latest-release Accessed 17th July 2021.
3 METS Ignited (2020) Mining Equipment technology Services - Sector competitiveness Plan (2020 Update), metsignited.org
4 AusTrade (2021) “Why Australia” Austrade Benchmark Report.
5 International Monetary Fund (2021) World Economic Outlook: Managing Divergent Recoveries. Washington, DC, April.
6 Schmidt, D. (2020) WA commits A$20m for robotics facility, Mining Magazine, August.
7 WesTrac (2020) WesTrac picks Collie for world-leading autonomous training facility, WesTrac media release 23 January 2020.
8 Department of Industry, Innovation and Science (2019) National Resources Statement. Australian Government, Canberra.
9 Office of the Chief Economist (2021) Outlook for selected critical minerals, Australia 2021 www.industry.gov.au/oce
10 Toscano, N. (2020) Australia tops Qatar as world’s biggest LNG exporter, Sydney Morning Herald, January 6.
11 Geoscience Australia (2021) Solar Energy https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/energy/resources/other-renewable-energy-resources/solar-energy
Accessed 17th July 2021.
12 AlphaBeta (2019) Staying ahead of the game.
13 https://www.riotinto.com/en/news/releases/2021/Rio-Tinto-to-deploy-worlds-first-fully-autonomous-water-trucks-at-Gudai-Darri. Accessed 17 July 2021.
14 Stanway, g., Mahoney, P, Evans, X. 2021 State of Play: Strategy - Understanding strategy and innovation in the global mining industry. VCI. stateofplay.org

5
Manufacturing
As an early adopter of robotic technology, the manufacturing
industry is the ideal proving ground for new robotics and
automation systems and concepts, as they can be tested by
experienced people in structured and controlled environments
Global manufacturing in the 21st century has been trending
towards centralising mass production in countries with lower
cost structures – that is, lower labour cost, lower skill operations.
This has led to an exponential uptake of automation to replace
labour and produce larger volumes for global consumption.
However, the weakness in this strategy has been exposed by
the COVID-19 pandemic.
As such, many countries are seeking to re-shore manufacturing capability. Re-shoring will
lead to a global need for technology that supports lower volume production runs and more
flexible operations. This need is consistent with the manufacturing needs in high wage
countries ever since off-shoring became prevalent.
Australia is no different. The Australian manufacturing sector is receiving additional support

from the Commonwealth following the COVID-19 pandemic, supporting re-shoring of local
production and strengthening supply chains for essential goods, including medicines
and medical products, resources and critical minerals, food and beverages, recycling
and clean energy, defence, and space. This support could be targeted to both satisfy
Australia’s internal needs and also address the global challenge to create a significant
technology export opportunity. The vision is for Australia to be recognised as a high-quality
and sustainable manufacturing nation that helps to deliver a strong, modern and resilient
economy for all Australians.

Snapshot Manufacturing: What’s changed since 2018?
Strengths
Manufacturing was the first industry to utilise robotics (primarily for speed, lifting, repetition and precision)
Manufacturing is the ideal testing ground for new systems and concepts in robotics and automation.
offering structured, controlled environments, and experienced people
Manufacturing is the largest user of Identifies unknowns involved

automation and provider of business cases, with utilising automation and new
therefore reducing the risk to other industries technologies such as Industry 4.0
Wins
Renewed focus, interest and investment in manufacturing as a result of the Australian
government’s “Modern Manufacturing Strategy”
New opportunities
Identify strategy to create unifying series Dedicated, well-funded policy will reinforce this
of robotic and automation capabilities initiative by unifying the sovereign efforts in the
and products that propel business underlying enabling technologies such as robotics
Skill-multiplying automation systems, human- Government has invested $1.3b into

machine/cobotic technologies, and simulation their Modern Manufacturing Initiative in
systems to advantage small run production, will which key industries all list robotics and
assist in the growth of manufacturing in Australia automation as a major strategic enabler
Challenges
Many of the challenges faced by Australia’s manufacturers are the By not building industrial robots
same as those faced in 2018: difficulty accessing skilled labour, in Australia, we are benefitting
relatively high energy costs, high freight cost, lack of collaboration, lack overseas suppliers and failing to
of resources to invest in technology adoption, risk aversion & difficulty capitalise on the the creation of
achieving economies of scale compared to international competitors our own robotic technologies
The COVID-19 pandemic has also highlighted the Fragmented objectives cause competition between
fragility of supply chains with shortages of silicon chips, initiatives. We need to work together to achieve
plastics and many other items sourced overseas goals that benefit Australian manufacturing
The adoption of robots by Australian The closure or transfer of local large scale operations
manufacturers benefits overseas suppliers puts emphasis on smaller production operations
Smaller operations require more skill to complete, requiring long term infrastructure investments

Educate local suppliers in “skill- Enhance automation simulation capabilities Development of
multiplying” cobotics, so they can best (humans and machines) allowing for the more capable
allocate human, robotic or shared application of synthetic data to ensure collaborative
operations in completion of tasks successful and sustained process improvement robots (cobots)
Design and prototype a $2,000 “skill-multiplying” robot through modern sustainable technologies

5.1 Australia’s manufacturing sector
Manufacturing in Australia is worth 6.1% of GDP, responsible for 8% export share1 and
supporting ~915,000 jobs,2 with another ~350,000 indirectly employed in R&D, logistics and
sales and service.3 Currently, about 80% of the value of Australian manufacturing comes from
four major sub-sectors: food and beverages (27%), chemicals (19%), machinery and equipment
(18%) and building materials (15%).
Overall, the manufacturing sector
has gone through a major structural
change in the last three decades,
where production related to food and
beverage, metal and machinery, and
equipment has increased significantly.
Manufacturing is dominated by SMEs
(1-199 employees) responsible for 50%
of the total value added to the industry
and 66% of jobs in 2018-19.4
Australia is a world leader in niche

manufacturing for several high-
value industries, including medical
technology and aerospace, but is yet
to fully embrace the fourth industrial
revolution (Industry 4.0). Consistent with
the resources sector. Without the to the Australian economy, however
emergent global needs, Industry 4.0
skills training that occurs within the younger Australians are interested in
promises a new era of manufacturing
manufacturing industry, skill shortages careers that offer a high degree of job
where mass customisation and
would become more intense.7 During the security and the majority believe this
decentralised production are normal.
past decade there has been a structural is not offered by manufacturing.5 The
Australian manufacturers increasingly
shift in employment of qualified sector is characterised by an ageing
need to compete on value rather than
engineers away from manufacturing and workforce (median age 43 years)9
cost, developing innovative products,
into service-based industries as “non- and poor gender diversity with only
components or services within global
core” business is contracted to other 29.5% female employees in 2018
supply chains.5
business entities, mainly engineering (an increase of 4% over the last 20
Manufacturing employs many skilled consultancies.8 years).10 The manufacturing industry
and unskilled workers and employs more also has a high number of work-related
With such a skilled and influential
than 272,000 regional Australians.6 fatalities, injuries and illnesses, with
workforce, Australia should seek to
The skills developed by manufacturing 8.4 serious claims per million hours
create, internally distribute and exploit,
industry employees are the core skills worked in 2018-19, the second
and export and profit from, skill-
that every modern economy depends highest of any industry in Australia.11
multiplying technologies. To further
upon. The manufacturing sector trains To succeed in the future, Australian
enhance this prominent national
many technical and professional people manufacturers have to become places
resource, new and diverse talent
with the skills necessary to install and where young people want to work. By
needs to be attracted and planned
maintain our telecommunications, creating such environments, where
for. Despite its increasingly high-tech
energy, water and transport systems. operational excellence and adoption of
nature, modern manufacturing in
This includes engineers, technicians, skill-multiplying technology flourishes,
Australia has an image problem. A
welders, fitters and turners. Australia will be able to profit from
majority of Australians (65%) see the
Manufacturing is a net supplier of these Advanced Manufacturing well into the
manufacturing sector as important
skills to other industries, especially 21st century.

COVID-19 exposed many weaknesses in critical supply chains for Australia and shone a
spotlight on the importance of sovereign agile manufacturing capability to quickly secure
essential items.
In response the Australian Government is lagging in fundamental operational According to AiGroup’s June 2021
released a Modern Manufacturing excellence in the SMEs that make up Performance of Manufacturing Index,
Strategy12 backed by $1.3b in funding, to the majority of the sector, hindering the sector has experienced nine straight
support the growth of the manufacturing their ability to make best use of months of recovery following the
sector in six key areas considered to be technology.13 Improving the operation disruptions of the COVID-19 pandemic
of comparative advantage and strategic of manufacturing businesses is a core in 2020.15 Recovery was attributed to:
importance to the nation, with roadmaps pillar of the Australian government’s strong demand from the construction
for the next ten years released: modern manufacturing strategy. and agricultural industries; improved
1 Resources Technology and Critical Once that has been achieved then exports; local customers seeking local
Minerals processing (see Resources manufacturer’s can leverage technology suppliers; low interest rates; and end
Chapter) to become more resilient and to be more of financial year sales.15 Despite these
successful participants in global supply positive signals, the overall maturity of
2 Food and Beverage (see Agriculture
chains. The main technologies being Australian supply chains fell from 2018
and Services Chapters)
deployed include analytics and artificial to 2019 despite increased investment
3 Medical Products (see Healthcare intelligence, IoT, advanced robotics in automation. The sector’s output has
Chapter) and digital platforms with companies quadrupled over the past six decades
4 Recycling and Clean Energy (see now able to access new solutions for but labour productivity is decreasing.13
Services Chapter) running scenarios, assessing trade-offs, The sector is also unusually volatile with
5 Defence (see Defence Chapter) improving transparency, accelerating businesses swelling to more than 20%
responses and changing the economics their average size in upcycles and 20%
6 Space (see Space Chapter).
of production. These advances can help below average during downturns, largely
There are concerns that while Australia’s manufacturers become more agile and due to transport costs associated with
manufacturing sector is adopting innovative and ultimately resilient to our geographic isolation and swings in
technology, particularly automation, it crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic.14 terms of trade.3
5.3 Robotics and the manufacturing

sector today
Manufacturing was the first sector to embrace robotics, with prototype industrial robots
introduced to the factory floor of automotive manufacturer General Motors in 1961.
Since then, robots have become applications in ways that were multipurpose manipulator
more sophisticated, but until recently, impossible even ten years ago. However, programmable in three or more
were too expensive for use by SME it is not clear that Australia is benefitting axes, which can be either fixed in
manufacturing plants and were from many of these advances, or that it place or mobile for use in industrial
unsafe to work collaboratively with will be able to harness the benefits of automation applications.” Similarly
humans in unstructured environments. Industry 4.0. our manufacturing sector is heavily
Technological developments mean reliant on importing technologies for
Australia does not manufacture its
that robots are now cheaper, safer, Industry 4.0 rather than producing
own industrial robots, defined by ISO
more flexible, and can be used in them in Australia, making it unlike other
8373:2012 as “an automatically
mass customisation or even bespoke sectors such as healthcare, resources,
controlled, reprogrammable,

agriculture and environment. The lack technologies have been designed human exposure to dirty, dull, and
of sovereign technology creation in for large-scale automation, making dangerous processes. The specific
Australia for our manufacturing sector is it more challenging for adoption by trend towards this worker-enhancing
a critical risk as it is intimately linked to SMEs. Automation in Australia must opportunity is reflected in data showing
the necessary increases in productivity evolve to support small manufacturers that half of the world’s forklifts will be
that will help Australia maintain and with a diverse range of needs and autonomous by 2030, and the growth
grow standards of living. Automation will capital constraints. in service robotics (that is, robots that
combat relatively high national costs work with humans) was 32% in 2019,19
The benefits of adding a robot to a
(living and energy costs combined with compared to -12% in industrial robotics
production system is that it yields
weak productivity growth) against strong (after six years of double-digit growth).16
improved quality, safety, and productivity.
emerging competition in low cost and/ Another considerable opportunity
However, SMEs typically lack the
or technology- or cash-rich countries is the blurring boundary between
resources to have dedicated automation
and regions. manufacturing and other industry
engineers on staff, which is where
sectors, which were once considered
the advent of smart robots that use AI
discrete. For example: construction is
and computer vision can allow robots
moving towards prefabrication while
to be added to Australian factories at
Australia has a need low cost and without requiring highly
embracing design for manufacture.
for robots to act as a Assembly principles are being applied to
skilled programmers on staff. SMEs
the construction of building elements,
skilled human force may not be able to easily quantify
in a plant with a mass-customisation
the impact of adding robotics to their
mindset, and the assembling of these
manufacturing lines. This is where high
elements is taking place onsite. This is
fidelity simulation becomes important,
Not only is Australia reliant on an opportunity for two discrete and non-
enabling virtual prototyping, design, and
importing Industry 4.0 technologies, competitive sectors who have a shared
commissioning of automation to reduce
our manufacturing sector is not taking driving need in the core capabilities that
risk by allowing manufacturers to assess
up these technologies at the same rate robotics offers.
the benefits of robots before investing
as other nations. Numbers of installed
in hardware. COVID-19 has intensified pressure on
industrial robots have declined since
Australian manufacturers to adopt
2014 by 14%, compared to an increase Robotics in large manufacturing
new technologies. With the impact
of 60% worldwide, dropping Australia companies has been widely deployed
of COVID-19 on the world economy,
from a ranking of 18th to 35th (of across a variety of tasks. This includes
disruption to the global supply chain,
37) in the world in robot density in handling operations (46%), welding
logistics and distribution, Australia
the manufacturing industry.16 A key (20%), dispensing (3.3%), assembly –
needs to rethink and encourage
driver of Australia’s demise in world drilling, fastening, fitting, riveting (10%),
sovereign capability on a number of
rankings was the closure of Australia’s processing – gluing, painting, polishing,
fronts. Intelligent robotic systems that
last car manufacturing plant in 2017.17 routing (1.5%), and inspection –
can easily and rapidly adapt to new
The automotive industry is the largest including clean room (8.6%).16 However,
product lines based on demands and
deployer of industrial robots (28%), take-up of robotics by Australian SME
real time needs, may pave our way out
followed by electronics (24%), metal and organisations, which tend to produce
of being isolated and being at the mercy
machinery (12%), plastics and chemical low volumes and customised or complex
of global supply chains. The pandemic
products (5%), food and beverages (3%) products, has been limited due to
has also provided the opportunity for
with a further 20% not attributable to a high barriers of entry of existing robot
companies to rethink their logistics
particular manufacturing sector.16 systems and lack of programming
with suppliers. ‘The Micro-factory’,
staff. The main areas of uptake are
Another contributing factor to Australia’s by Haddington Dynamics, has been
in handling operations (69%) and the
low robot population density is the developed to set-up small scale factories
food industry (20%), with 567 new
continuing reduced role of large using open source 3D-printed robotic
robots installed in Australia and New
enterprises in manufacturing, such arms. In deploying robotics in all parts
Zealand in 2019, giving Australia a robot
that 87% of Australian manufacturing of the process, with cobot capabilities,
population density of 75 robots per
companies that employ people are small the micro-factory allows for just-in-
10,000 employees.16
(1-19 employees), 12% are medium- time (JIT) logistics to be realised and
sized (20-199 employees) and only Australia has a specific need for for tool-changing to be faster and less
1% are large (200-plus) (note 44% of robots to act as a skilled human force costly than the traditional large-scale
active manufacturing businesses are multiplier, augmenting and extending manufacturing practises seen today.
non-employing).18 Traditional robotic world-class capability while reducing

manufacturing sector
There are several technologies that will influence the future of manufacturing in Australia,
including 3D printing for rapid prototyping of new or improved products, the development
of more capable collaborative robots (cobots – a type of service robot) through related
technologies like computer vision, and enhanced simulation capabilities, including by the
application of synthetic data.
The opportunity to apply new robotic skill-set on behalf of the manufacturer. robot population density statistics, which
technology in the manufacturing sector Put simply, enabling a new class of does not include the use of service
is two-fold: to enable seamless, skill- robots to think and see has the potential robots in manufacturing. However, even
multiplying, and safe co-operation to drive a step change in Australia’s if cobots were included in measures
between robots and people; and to allow manufacturing competitiveness and of robot density, Australia does not
rapid adaptability of robots to new tasks productivity. The use of cobots is also manufacture these robots and we
without requiring a deep automation not fully accounted for in Australia’s remain at the mercy of foreign imports.
CHALLENGES OF TECHNOLOGY ADOPTION
BENEFITS TO AUSTRALIAN COMPANIES INCLUDE:

► Rapidly adding a new production line to a factory, without manual programming of process
steps, logistics, layout, and without explicit expertise
► Enabling a future where assistant robots routinely work cooperatively with people in semi-
structured manufacturing environments, communicating using natural language, and
explaining decisions
► Building sensor networks to provide live data as a service to enable holistic quality, logistics,
safety, and robotic function while integrating into manufacturing systems
► Decision-making tools to continuously self-improve operations
► High fidelity simulation allowing virtual prototyping, design and commissioning of automation,
to reduce risk and validate benefits before significant money is invested in hardware
► Having solutions that can be quickly and easily adapted to different tasks and industries.

manufacturing sector
Despite the loss of car manufacturing capability, niche manufacturing in high-value industries
and production related to food and beverage, machinery and equipment, and metal has
increased significantly in Australia.
Australia has a specific need for robotics continually evolve to stay ahead of the across sectors, it can grow a national
to act as a force multiplier, augmenting latest technological developments. capability to support and expand niche
and extending world-class, skilled However, the sector has an ageing manufacturing expertise, and remain
human capability while reducing human workforce with a lack of gender globally competitive. Importantly for
exposure to dirty, dull, and dangerous diversity, while struggling to attract investment impact, Australia can profit
processes. Safety is a key priority for the young people. This can create skills internally and then turn this capability
sector, which is dominated by SMEs who shortages and impact other sectors that into an export opportunity, as the same
need skilled workers to take advantage source workers from the manufacturing needs are now global.
of Industry 4.0. Ongoing training is industry. If Australia invests wisely,
required to allow the workforce to and shares people, data and solutions
Adopting these new technologies is not a technology challenge alone. The Australian robotics supply
chain, supporting imported robots and cobots, must be equipped to integrate and supply these
next-generation solutions to manufacturers. A parallel effort to develop shared libraries and tools
to enable and encourage IP leverage, across industry sectors, will allow capability to be used by
Australian manufacturers and be shared with other Australian companies.
BENEFITS TO AUSTRALIA, AS A WHOLE, INCLUDE:

► Higher-tech manufacturing to improve profit margins and differentiate with low-wage, low-skill
manufacturing countries
► Productivity advancements to enable our society to be self-supporting, competitive, and continue to
improve living standards
► Higher-tech suppliers and workforce to become self-fueling in the creation of new industries stemming
from new technology advancements
► Future attraction and retention of talent, enabling self-sustainment in capturing and exploiting new
technology for national benefit
► Skill ripple effect to benefit wider Australian society
► Export profit, if and when we can harness the full strength of Australian industry and talent.

Case studies
Advanced manufacturing of the

Advanced manufacturing Boeing Airpower Teaming System
of the Boeing Airpower
Teaming System.................... 76
ARM Hub accelerating
innovation potential............... 77
Robots that seamlessly
interact with people............... 77
Virtual manufacturing............. 78
Universal Robots takes
REDARC Electronics from
‘Manual to Automated’........... 79
DCISIV Technologies
manufactures general
purpose articulated robots....... 80 The Boeing Airpower Teaming System
is Boeing’s first uncrewed system
OnRobot — Boosting
productivity for
to be designed, developed and
Australian manufacturers........ 80 manufactured in Australia. Designed
to provide a transformational capability
for global defense customers, it is the
ABB robots enable company’s largest investment in a new
3D printing of uncrewed aircraft program outside the
antimicrobial copper
on metal surfaces.................. 81 United States.
This purpose-built aircraft can be missionised to
Industry 5.0.......................... 82 suit country-specific needs. It provides fighter-like
performance, measures 38 feet long (11.7m) and is
able to fly more than 2,000 nautical miles. Together
with the Royal Australian Air Force, the company is
developing six aircraft prototypes, called the Loyal
Wingman, which will inform the global Airpower
Teaming System product.
In October 2020, Boeing Australia signed a partnership
with the Queensland Government to develop an
advanced manufacturing capability in the state,
including introducing technologies such as advanced
robotics as well as creating global export opportunities
for Australia’s supply chain. Queensland will become
the primary final assembly location for future Airpower
Teaming System aircraft by the middle of the decade,
pending production orders. The aircraft completed its
first flight in February 2021, with flight testing ongoing.
Top: First engine test of the Loyal Wingman. Image courtesy of

Boeing.
Bottom: The Boeing Australia, Airpower Teaming System – ‘Loyal
Wingman’ conducts its first flight at Woomera Range Complex,
South Australia. Image courtesy of the Department of Defence.

ARM Hub accelerating innovation potential
Helping manufacturers since early 2020, ARM Hub has provided ADR with access to the learning factory
the Advanced Robotics for Manufacturing for testing and prototyping their innovations, helping them to
scale up. This Hub helped ADR secure national grant funding
(ARM) Hub has a mission to take ‘Australian in order to leverage more R&D activities, in turn supporting
Made’ to the world. As a not-for-profit their endeavours into new supply chains including defence.
company, the ARM Hub is a trusted service ADR’s automation solution, optimised for aerial search and
bringing together the expert teams needed to rescue missions, will stimulate new global markets for UAS’.
accelerate industry’s adoption of advanced Australian Droid + Robot’s testing space at the ARM Hub Learning Factory.
manufacturing. Through their partnerships, Image courtesy of ARM Hub.
the Hub bridges the gap between industry
and research, effectively lowering the
technical, operational, and economic
barriers experienced by companies seeking
to innovate.
Among the businesses using ARM Hub’s services is Australian
Droid + Robot (ADR), who manufacture remotely operated
vehicles. ADR have deftly entered the space of robotics and
established themselves as problem solvers and innovators,
offering a range of products and services from deploying
remote inspection vehicles to designing and constructing
specialised Uncrewed Aerial Systems (UAS).
Robots that seamlessly interact with people
Most robot manipulators in manufacturing

are confined to cages to keep them away
from people. The newly established Robotics
Precinct at Monash University is leading
the research to enable natural interaction
between humans and robots along with
academic collaborators.
A useful capability for interactive robots is the ability to pass
objects from, and to people. Researchers at QUT and Monash
implemented a system that allowed a robot to pick up many
everyday objects from a human with ease. The approach
integrates deep learning to automatically identify stable and
safe grasp configurations to allow the robot to take the object
without colliding with the human’s hand or fingers.
A second scenario of interest is where humans and robots
work together in close proximity to access objects in a shared
workspace. Robots can support their human co-workers by
taking action to reduce interference and assist the human
worker with their task. Such supportive actions are perceived A human and robot manipulator can work together in the same workspace
more favourably by coworkers and reduce interference in without interfering with each other's task. Image courtesy of Monash
cluttered environments. University.

Virtual manufacturing
Using motion simulators for automotive research and development and prototyping can
significantly improve road safety and reduce the number of fatalities. In addition, simulators are
the safest and most cost-effective tools to test, evaluate, optimise and analyse driver-based and
driver-less vehicle designs, their ride and handling, human perception of comfort/discomfort,
and trust in autonomous vehicles. The same parallels apply to other domains such as trains,
aeroplanes and ships. At present, the low motion fidelity of the existing motion simulators fails to
deliver a realistic driving/flying experience to the user.
The world-first hapticaly-enabled motion platform, namely, the family of Universal Motion Simulators (UMSs), has been developed
to address this challenge. Consisting of a fixed-base UMS, mobile UMS and UMS-Infinity, this family of UMSs has unique high-
fidelity, highly realistic motion generation capabilities. Artificial intelligence-based motion cueing and control algorithms will
realise cross-cutting technologies to de-risk, scale up and add value to Australian manufactured products. The UMS family
will be able to enhance Australian technologies by providing a world-class platform for virtual prototyping and testing. These
advanced robotic systems will also facilitate innovations and enable Australian industries to gain a competitive edge over their
international competitors.
Left: Universal Motion Simulator on a rail for complex manoeuvre and vehicle testings. Image courtesy of Deakin University.
Upper-right: Universal Motion Simulator is configured as an air vehicle performing an acrobatic manoeuvre. Image courtesy of Deakin University.
Upper-left: Universal Motion Simulator is configured as a car simulator for virtual prototyping and testing. Image courtesy of Deakin University.

Universal Robots takes REDARC Electronics from ‘Manual to Automated’
South Australia’s REDARC Electronics invested

$22m into a recent facility expansion project
and prides itself in continuously investing in
R&D and the upskilling of its more than 200
employees. REDARC also has their sights set
on becoming a smart factory by 2025.
REDARC looked to expand its footprint and increase its
competitiveness in the export market. Central to this was the
need to automate manual processes – more specifically the
assembly of their PCB boards. Answering this automation
need was Universal Robots. Two UR5’s and one UR10
collaborative robots (cobots) were selected. The cobots are
used in the assembly, labelling and transport of PCB boards.
One of the UR5’s is fitted with Cognex 2D camera for PCB
recognition and location, whilst the UR10 is fitted with a
3D Pickit Camera which allows for picking of the plastic
components for assembly.
The robotic cell has increased productivity by 52%. Workers
can now focus on value-added tasks and REDARC can rest Automated PCB board
assured that every PCB board is good to go. The cobots ensure
safety, collaboration, quality, improved production efficiency assembly made possible by
and were easily integrated into the production facility.
collaborative robots (cobots)
Top: Collaborative robots (cobots) in action. Image courtesy of Universal
Robots.
Right: Automated PCB board assembly made possible by collaborative
robots (cobots). Image courtesy of Universal Robots.

DCISIV Technologies manufactures OnRobot — Boosting productivity for
general purpose articulated robots Australian manufacturers
OnRobot delivers innovative plug-and-

produce solutions for collaborative
applications which integrate seamlessly with
leading collaborative and light industrial
robot brands. Its tools – electric grippers,
force/torque sensors, vision system,
screwdriver, sander and tool changers –
facilitate quicker and simpler automation
of tasks such as packaging, quality control,
materials handling, machine tending,
palletising, assembly and surface finishing.
The company helped Australian injection moulding
specialist Designed Mouldings implement a collaborative
application to cope with a surge in orders due to COVID-19.
Combining the OnRobot VGC10 electric vacuum gripper with
a Techman Robot cobot, Designed Mouldings automated
DCISIV Technologies, based in the sealing of wads on plastic caps, boosting productivity
and decreasing cycle time significantly. The VGC10 offers
Toowoomba QLD, launched in March unlimited customisation to fit various needs and can easily
2020 to manufacture under license the be redeployed to other tasks. The gripper and the robot work
Dexter HDI — a 7-axis robot designed as a stand-alone system and does not require extra cabling,
by Haddington Dynamics based in Las piping or air, enabling it to be moved easily and stationed
Vegas. Since then, DCISIV Technologies anywhere. More importantly, the collaborative application
works safely with employees.
has been exporting robots to the U.S.
and positioning themselves as local The manufacturer can now complete a 20,000-product run
in 24 hours, three time faster than when done manually.
Assembly Line Automation Experts. Employees no longer need to be stationed at the machine
With the acquisition of Haddington for hours and can focus on higher-value tasks. With a
Dynamics by Ocado in 2021, the constant stream of jobs, Designed Mouldings is expected to
opportunity for DCISIV Technologies is to achieve ROI in six months or less.
supply local and international markets
The OnRobot VGC10 inserting wads into the bottom of individual plastic
with the support and backing of a caps, before dropping the assembled cap into a hole in the table under
which finished goods are stored. Image courtesy of OnRobot.
global company.
The company is excited for the future, with many
product improvements scheduled by Ocado’s central
R&D hub in 2021 and 2022. DCISIV Technologies
complements their manufacturing activities with
mechanical, pneumatic, and electrical expertise.
They are capable of designing, prototyping, building,
and integrating general automated equipment and
machinery – and offer ongoing training and support for
their systems.
As the Dexter HDI is best suited for lightweight pick
and place applications, DCISIV Technologies chooses
to specialise in Assembly Line Automation. Their vision
is to help Australian manufacturing remain competitive
and sustainable in a Global Economy, by providing
reliable and cost-effective automation solutions to both
local and global enterprises.
Ben Leamon (DCISIV – Left) and Josh Pinskier (CSIRO – Right)

after installation of CSIRO’s new DexCell – a stand-alone robotic
platform for research and development. Image courtesy of DCISIV
Technologies.

ABB robots enable 3D printing of antimicrobial copper on metal surfaces
As the world vaccinates against COVID-19, finding ways to safely live with the coronavirus is
paramount, especially as more of us return to workplaces and other public areas. SPEE3D has
developed a high-speed additive manufacturing process that coats existing hardware — such as
door handles, push plates and handrails — with a thin layer of copper, which is proven to ‘contact
kill’ 96% of the SARS-CoV-2 virus within two hours. CSIRO research shows that the COVID-19 virus
can otherwise remain infectious on glass and steel surfaces for at least 28 days.
The cost effective, scalable, portable solution involves placing the hardware to be sprayed such that a six-axis robotic arm can move
around it directing copper powder, injected into an airstream propelled at up to three times the speed of sound by SPEE3D’s ‘rocket
nozzle’. In a patented process called Supersonic 3D Deposition, kinetic energy binds the powders and forms a copper coating
within five minutes.
The ACTIVAT3D Copper project, as it is known, is a global collaboration. Test sites in the US, Japan and Australia have copper-coated
parts using SPEE3D’s technology, enabled by ABB IRB1200 and IRB4600 robots, and installed them within days.
WarpSPEE3D Large Format metal 3D printer. Image courtesy of SPEE3D.

Industry 5.0
Many organisations and factories are implementing Industry 4.0 strategies to improve
productivity and process efficiency through the use of existing interconnected advanced
technologies, edge computing, in a distributed and intelligent manner. Meanwhile, the arrival
of the next wave of industrial revolution, Industry 5.0, is brewing in the background.
One important factor currently being overlooked is humans being able to work harmoniously and collaboratively alongside robots.
Current systems lack capabilities to predict the intentions of their human counterparts, and fail to satisfy their needs and demands
in a truly flexible and agile manner, operating under partial or full autonomy. We are yet to see a change in the definition of robots
where human touch and human problem solving capabilities will be a ‘traits’ role of any robot, where they can notice, understand
and feel, not only the human being but also the goals and expectations of a human operator.
The Directorate-General for Research and Innovation, European Commission is already putting emphasis on Emerging Enabling
Technologies for Industry 5.0 through a white paper. At Deakin University, researchers are exploring the use of AI and Machine
learning to process human physiological signals, such as fNIRIS and EEG, for robots to be able to predict what task should be
executed to achieve a true human cobot collaboration.
Cobot assists engineer in an assembly task. Image courtesy of Deakin University.

Contributors
This chapter was based on a virtual workshop held on 1 July 2020 with contributions from the individuals listed below:
Phil Crothers (Boeing) Dana Kulic (Monash University) Sue Keay (Robotics Australia Group)
Saeid Nahavandi (Deakin) Martin Szarski (Boeing)
Footnotes
1 Reserve Bank of Australia (2021) Snapshot Composition of the Australian Economy 21 July 2021. https://www.rba.gov.au/education/resources/
snapshots/economy-composition-snapshot/ accessed 29th July 2021
2 ABS (2021) Labour force Australia (detailed) https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/labour/employment-and-unemployment/labour-force-australia-detailed/
latest-release Accessed 17th July 2021.
3 Advanced Manufacturing Growth Centre (2020) Sector competitiveness Plan 2020.
4 The Australian Small Business and Family Enterprise Ombudsman (2020) Small Business Counts December 2020.
5 Advanced Manufacturing Growth Centre (2020) Ten ways to succeed in Australian Manufacturing.
6 AMWU (2019) Submission by the Australian Manufacturing Workers Union to the inquiry into Jobs for the Future in Regional Areas.
7 Baffour, B., Povey, J.,. Stevenson, S., Bon, J., Managan, J., Boreham, P., Western, M. Chainey, C. (2016) The Future of Manufacturing Jobs in Queensland.
ISSR Report 061160.
8 Engineers Australia (2020) The Engineering Profession, A Statistical Overview, 14th Edition.
9 https://lmip.gov.au/default.aspx?LMIP/GainInsights/IndustryInformation/Manufacturing Accessed 29th July 2021
10 Workplace Gender Equality Agency (2019) Gender Segregation in Australia’s workforce. Factsheet series.
11 Safe Work Australia (2020) Key Work Health and Safety Statistics Australia 2020.
12 Australian Government (2021) Make It Happen, The Australian Government’s Modern Manufacturing Strategy.
13 Galapathy, I. (2021) COVID-19 has wreaked havoc on Aussie manufacturing. https://www.smartcompany.com.au/industries/manufacturing/covid-
aussie-australian-manufacturing-smes/ Accessed 29th July 2021
14 McKinsey & Company (2020) Risk, resilience, and rebalancing in global value chains, August 6, 2020, Report, McKinsey Global Institute.
15 Australian Industry Group Performance of Manufacturing Index https://www.aigroup.com.au/resourcecentre/economics/performance-indicators/PMI/
Accessed 29th July 2021
16 Müller, Christopher; Kutzbach, Nina: World Robotics 2020 – Industrial Robots, IFR Statistical Department, VDMA Services GmbH, Frankfurt am Main,
Germany, 2020.
17 Williams, J. (2017) Australia mourns the end of its car manufacturing industry, New York Times, Oct. 20, 2017.
18 AiGroup (2019) Australian Manufacturing in 2019: Local and Global Opportunities, The Australian Industry Group.

6
Healthcare and wellness

Robotic technologies that can be applied to clinical healthcare and
quality of life are benefitting patients and staff in the healthcare sector
6.1 Healthcare and wellness
in Australia
Australia has an ageing population and enjoys one of the highest
life expectancies in the world (80.7 years for men and 84.9 years
for women in 2018).1 Yet, almost half of Australians (47% or 11
million people) suffer from a chronic condition,2 making wellness
an important consideration.
Good health is not shared evenly across the Australian population. First Nations Australians
(3.3% of the population), those living in rural and remote locations (28%), those with
a disability (18%), and those located in low socioeconomic areas, do not benefit from
many medical advances to the same extent as other people in the nation. People living
in regions such as the Torres Strait, Northern Territory, and remote areas of Victoria
and South Australia have higher rates of hospitalisations, deaths, injury and also have
poorer access to, and use of, primary health care services, than people living in major
cities.3 Patients outside metropolitan areas have difficulty seeking clinical services and
specialised treatments from clinicians who may not work in areas close to them. In areas
of high socioeconomic disadvantage, more frequent visits to a general practitioner (GP) are
reported with these patients more likely to require complex care – for example, for higher
rates of mental health, and multiple chronic conditions.4

Healthcare and wellness:
Snapshot
What’s changed since 2018?
Strengths
Combinations of AI and data analysis allow for more accurate Healthcare has become more consumer,
and faster diagnosis; specifically targeted treatment plans; outcome and data driven. It is also
remote monitoring; and unique medical device development digitised, AI assisted and value-based
The use of robotics and AI technology is transforming Greater use of telehealth delivery
healthcare with safer, more effective cost-saving technology, models deliver a consumer-driven
treatments, products, clinical services and facilities value-based approach to healthcare
Advent of new bionic devices and treatments Changes in healthcare mean

allowing for remote programming of devices, and a greater variety and quantity
access to the cloud and other digital systems of jobs are available
Wins
Bionic innovations Social and logistics robots working together to underpin health and wellness services
Robotics used for diagnostics, surgery, and Care for our planet through increasing focus
automated jobs in healthcare allowing for focus on on impact, environment, sustainability,
critical interpersonal relationships with consumers waste and recycling of robotic devices
New opportunities
More reimbursement packages for telepractice Increase in focus on sanitation + control of biological threats
Expansion of remote healthcare, wellness Societal changes such as flexible

and education training through telepractice working models and work-from-home
Increase in telepractice acceptance by professionals and consumers
Challenges
Medico-legal, ethical and professional responsibilities arising from access to personal health records + data
Equality of access to devices/treatments Different healthcare service models not yet developed
Defining the critical human elements of Education of professionals to accept automation/robotics for
a particular treatment path which may back-of-house operations at hospitals with professionals freed
be automated through robotics and AI up for tasks requiring human skills, empathy and compassion

Infection control measures to be monitored Artificial/bionic pancreas and other
by robotic vision scanning for risks replacement body parts becoming available
Improved clinical simulation Robotic and AI assisted minimally invasive surgery and remote
approaches to training for health telesurgery. Medical staff understanding how to become competent
and wellness education workers in the operation and performance of automated robotic surgery
Affordable physical assistance for aged care workers. Social Biofabrication on demand at the point
and logistical assistance for the aged and people with physical of use for biofabricated body parts,
or intellectual disabilities including robotic lifters for all patients organs, and soft, sensing bionic arms

totalling 19,505 claims.7 Healthcare and 20% of these services delivered via
social assistance workers are a key risk telehealth in early 2021.10 There are
The COVID-19 group for injury due to the nature of their concerns that, in the future, there will
pandemic has seen daily work. Workers may be exposed to be a significant increase in patients
a range of hazards including highly toxic presenting with mental health issues
rapid expansion and/or
drug and chemical agents, workplace as well as the downstream effects of
adoption of telehealth stress, and violence. They also perform people delaying or avoiding seeking care
services in Australia to physically demanding and repetitive during the pandemic.11 The pandemic
help patients access tasks such as lifting patients, and have has also had a disproportionate impact
one of the highest rates of work-related on healthcare workers, who face nearly
care from the safety of injuries and illnesses. three times the risk of infection than
their home the general community.12 Healthcare
The COVID-19 pandemic has seen
workers are also at greater risk of
rapid expansion and/or adoption of
mental illness, particularly sleep
telehealth services in Australia to help
Health dominates public expenditure disturbances, post-trauma stress
patients access care from the safety of
and employment. We spent 10% of syndromes, depression and anxiety.13
their home, and has also contributed
our GDP ($195.7b) in 2018-19 on Residential aged care around the world
to low rates of infection among staff
health,5 making it a prime candidate has faced significant challenges during
at GPs.8 In response to COVID-19, the
for innovation to both reduce costs and the pandemic. In Australia there have
Australian government fast-tracked the
improve outcomes. The healthcare (and been 262 outbreaks in aged care
implementation of paperless electronic
social assistance) industry is Australia’s facilities with 2,134 patient cases and
prescribing, allowing pharmacists to
largest employer, accounting for 13.9 2,315 staff cases, with the government
dispense medication on receipt of
percent of the working population, responding by increasing funding,
e-prescriptions from May 2020.9 They
or 1.83 million people.6 It also providing training to bolster infection
also expanded access to mental health
accounted for 17% of serious workers’ prevention and control and providing
services in the 2020-21 budget, with
compensation claims in 2018-19, significant surge workforce assistance.14
6.2 Robotics, healthcare and wellness today

Today there are a range of robotic technologies that can be broadly applied to clinical
healthcare or to quality of life, with benefits to both patients and healthcare and social
assistance workers. Additional general purpose robotic technologies for logistics, material
handling, cleaning and monitoring are also increasingly being used in hospitals, aged care
facilities or in people’s homes in Australia.
The growth of new robot products and (feeding, lifting, mobility, toileting, 2019 to US$5.3b, representing 47%
services in healthcare and wellness sees bathing and monitoring) of the total turnover of professional
service robots applied to: • Rehabilitation, including physical (e.g. service robots. Revenue is mainly
• Facilitating medical processes powered exoskeletons) and social driven by expensive robotic surgery
by precisely guiding instruments, (emotional) therapy
systems, like the Da Vinci robot from
diagnostic equipment and tools for • Bionics, including robotic limbs Intuitive Surgical Solutions, which has
diagnosis and therapy
• Improving the training and education performed more than seven million
• Improving safety and overall quality of medical personnel by using procedures worldwide.15 Medical robots
of medical treatment, reducing simulators
patient recovery time and number of typically include: surgical, diagnostic,
• Promoting the use of information in rehabilitation/therapy and telepresence
subsequent treatments
diagnosis and therapy
• Collecting data robots. There are many more robots
• Fetch, carry and cleaning tasks to actively deployed in healthcare than
• Enhancing the cost-effectiveness of assist healthcare workers in hospitals
patient care those defined as “medical” robots,
and aged care facilities.15
• Enabling the delivery of services to including: bionics, logistics, cleaning,
remote areas (telehealth) Medical robotics is one of the most companion/caring/social, and research/
lucrative areas of service robotics education/training robots.
• Assisting the elderly or people with
a disability with necessary activities with an increase in turnover of 28% in

Surgical robots marketing or by individual medical of the PUMA 560 system. This was
practitioners to raise the profile of their an assistive surgical arm to help
Robotic surgery allows doctors to practice. Australia is a net importer of perform neurosurgical biopsy. By
perform complex procedures with these types of robots. 1987, the system had developed to
more precision, flexibility and control be used in laparoscopic surgery and
than is possible with conventional Robotic systems used for surgery may be
transurethral surgery.
techniques, while also being associated passive, semi-active, or active systems.
with fewer complications, less pain Passive systems must be directed by the While other operating systems have
and blood loss, quicker recovery and surgeon to perform a task. Semi-active been developed, it is the Da Vinci
smaller, less noticeable scars for the systems, constrain surgical manipulation surgical platform that has revolutionised
patient.16 In Australia, surgery may be through feedback to restrict what can robotic surgery. Da Vinci was a research
performed at a public hospital (funded be done surgically, while active systems project supported in part by NASA with
by the government) or a private hospital are capable of independently performing some interest from the US military.
(operated by a private organisation tasks without human manipulation It was approved for use in the USA in
but licensed and regulated by the through algorithms and other 2000. In 2003 the companies behind
government). Robotics-Assisted Surgery mechanisms.17 The regulatory, ethical, ZEUS (Computer Motion) and Da Vinci
(RAS) has mainly been applied to and legal barriers imposed on medical (Intuitive Surgical) merged. The Da Vinci
minimally-invasive procedures in urology, robots necessitate careful consideration system provides a four-area surgical
arthroscopy, gynaecology, colorectal, of different levels of autonomy, as well platform with one camera and three
cardiothoracic, orthopaedic and some as the context for use. surgical arms, of which two can be in
general surgery. RAS tends to be active use at any time. The instruments
The use of robotics as assistive
restricted to the private hospital sector attached to the arms are introduced into
technology in surgery was first
in Australia and is often used in hospital the abdomen or chest via laparoscopic
documented in 1985 with the use

ports. The system allows a minimal 24,000 scientific articles written around treatment depending on the volume of
access approach to surgery with the Da Vinci, only one large randomised RAS surgeries and the surgery type.19
three dimensional vision (standard trial of outcomes against standard However, Australia does not have a
laparoscopy is two dimensional). The open surgery has been published.18 consistent approach to determining
instruments can move with seven Although early outcomes, blood loss, the value of new health technologies,
degrees of freedom (movement) around time in hospital, were superior for and a values-based approach should
the “wrist” of the instruments, similar to the robotic approach, outcomes at look beyond costs to also consider
the movement of a human hand rather six months were similar between the equity of access,20 which is arguably
than being rigid as with laparoscopy. In two groups. There are other trials not being achieved in robotic surgery
other words the system is intuitive in which suggest that robotic surgery can in Australia. This could be addressed
many ways, closer to the 3D world of decrease morbidity from surgery, and through greater use of remote surgery
open surgery. may improve cancer outcomes. and telepresence robots. Using 5G
networks the first remote RAS was
There are now over 5,900 Da Vinci Surgical robotics systems hold
conducted in 2019 with the operating
units installed with over 50% being promise for many more evolutionary
surgeons located kilometers away
in the USA. More than 8.5 million Da steps in years to come. Already single
from the patient on the operating table
Vinci procedures have been performed port systems are available to allow
(back-up surgeons were present for the
worldwide with 55,000 surgeons trained operations to be performed through
trial).15 New communication and network
on the system. There are approximately one access point rather than four to six.
technologies provide the necessary
80 Da Vinci units in Australia, mainly Remote surgery has already occurred
bandwidth and have low enough
situated in private hospitals. and may become an option, and indeed
latencies for surgical procedures, which
Advantages of the Da Vinci system could allow greater access to healthcare
include; better precision with seven in rural and remote areas of Australia.
degrees of freedom, an excellent There are over 5,900
One of the newest developments in
close-up 3D view of the operating Da Vinci units installed RAS is super microsurgery, where
field, ability to dissect and suture
world wide. the surgeon’s hand movements are
using small movements in a confined
converted into smaller, more precise
space, and ergonomically better for
movements, and performed on the
the surgeon. Disadvantages include
was considered (and rejected), for patient by a set of 'robot hands'. This
the size of the unit, high costs and
battlefield or space exploration surgery. technique stabilises any tremor in the
training requirements. In Australia the
The use of technology to bring in imaging surgeon's movements, which makes
full costs of a Da Vinci Xi can be over
to the operative field or fluorescent dye the procedure more controlled and thus
$3m with instrument costs at over
to identify anatomy or pathology are easier to perform.15 For instance, in a
$3,000 per case and service costs of
already feasible. Machine learning and surgical technique for some types of
almost $200,000 per annum. Training
AI may allow the system to recognise localised brain surgery, a human expert
can be costly requiring animal lab and
potential errors and guide the surgeons’ determines the area to be addressed,
simulation training, on site proctoring
hand. Eventually, parts of procedures, the process and the path, all unique
and subsequent mentoring.
which are repeated in identical fashion, to the individual and their disorder. A
So, what drives Da Vinci and other could become truly robotic and the fully automated system then performs
robotic usage? The evidence base machine could perform operations under the delicate process of navigating
in soft tissue surgery is poor. The supervision and eventually teach new through veins to perform the task.
probability is that increased precision surgeons how to operate. In the end we Since 2018, micro and nanotechnology
improves outcomes but there are few must evaluate if these surgical systems has enhanced and extended this
level one studies to confirm this. Radical give benefit to patients, surgeons and general method. Recent advances in
Prostatectomy (RALP) has been the most our health system. miniaturisation methodologies have
common procedure performed on this contributed to the application of robots
One barrier to the uptake of robotic
platform as the precision of the system in ear, nose, and throat micro-surgical
surgery in public hospitals is the
is inferred to produce less damage procedures. This robotic surgical area
perceived high cost. A study of the
to nerves and structures that control is growing in importance as major
actual costs of RAS in Australia suggests
potency and continence in men, and providers of equipment issue new
it contributes to between 17%-60% of
potentially better cancer clearance with capability and a new cohort of trained
the overall costs of a patient’s surgical
less collateral damage. Despite over surgeons and nurses enter practice.

Diagnostic robots diarrhea, bleeding, or anemia. A tiny accidents or disabled from arthritis,
camera contained in the capsule heart disease, and other conditions.
Diagnostic robotics is possibly the best captures images of the gastrointestinal Such devices include exoskeletons
candidate for growth in intelligent robotic tract as it travels through the body and – electromechanical structures that
systems. Indeed, many of our current transmits the images to a computer. A patients wear to benefit from “motorised
diagnostic technologies depend on doctor can view the images and then muscles.” These powered suits help
complex technologies and devices. The make a diagnosis.15 patients, who have limited or no muscle
extent of knowledge required, and its control, to walk, lift and generally be
dynamism, greatly exceeds a human’s Soon, these immersive robots will be
mobile. Exoskeletons are promising
capability to process. This may result in equipped with actuators and be able
innovations that are expected to make
rare disorders being missed. Precision is to navigate inside the human body.
a huge impact in the rehabilitation
essential. Often, hazardous or potentially The next step will be the development
and enablement of patients who have
hazardous material is being transported. of cell-sized nanobots, even smaller
suffered strokes or spinal injuries, and
In many cases, information from several than the capsule robots. These could
those who suffer from degenerative
tests must be fused. As we enter a be introduced into the human body in
neuromuscular diseases such as
possible period of serial epidemics greater numbers, fulfilling a variety of
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Challenges
and novel pathogens, the requirement medical procedures or tasks necessary
are seen in the long-term safety of
for contactless diagnoses, fusing for health maintenance, such as
rehabilitation robots, clinical effect,
information across tests and patients cleaning arteries, taking biopsies, or
and cost-benefit of many of these
must be coupled with national reporting, fighting cancer cells.15
interventions on functional recovery.
tracking and alert systems.
Rehabilitation/therapy/ Great potential exists in the creation of
This area is therefore likely to be care robots wearable technologies for rehabilitation.
driven by device-centric technological It is now possible to create a unique,
More than four million people in
innovation rather than function-driven personalised digital twin of a patient
Australia have a disability (18% of
demands. We can expect a number of who has a structural problem, and to
the population)21 and there are more
innovative startups to enter this area, if use robots to create a personalised
than 9,000 lower limb amputations
conditions are suitable. Another area of robotic prosthesis with intuitive control
performed in Australia each year.22
relevance for robotic technologies will as well as touch feedback to the wearer.
These figures are strong drivers for
be precision health, where non-intrusive Soft exoskeletons can analyse the
the development and adoption of
sensing technologies – AI, machine wearer’s posture, gait, or movement
rehabilitation robots for therapeutic
learning and computer/machine vision – when performing a task, giving
and rehabilitative procedures to
will play a significant role. important feedback for physiotherapy
achieve the best – and better – motor
Capsule-based mini robots can or cognitive functional recovery in daily to ensure strenuous movements
revolutionise current diagnostic life, for disabled individuals with various are performed in an ergonomic way.
techniques, drug delivery, and surgical conditions. Robotic-assisted therapy can Exoskeletons can increasingly provide
treatment. Micro-robots are currently significantly improve controlled motions limited force support or be used to
being developed that are inserted into for everyday function and quality of life. correct walking gait.
the body (capsule endoscopy) to help Social robots are starting to be used
Similarly, robotic devices can help
determine the cause of gastrointestinal in the treatment of mental/cognitive/
rehabilitate people injured in car
symptoms, such as abdominal pain,

behavioural disorders where therapies connected home. Telehealth will open transform the lives of people with organ
are aided by constant presence, new, and possibly unexpected, uses problems, brain disease, blindness, limb
human-like qualities or conversational for tele-robotics and robot companions amputation, paralysis or other disorders,
interaction. designed to help people with cognitive but also to become a high-growth,
and physical challenges. science-based industry for Australia.
Telepresence robots
Bionics The bionics industry in Australia has
Most telepresence robots are mobile grown along four major application
platforms equipped with screen, video Bionic implants refer to electronic areas: vision, hearing, orthopedics,
cameras, and user interfaces. They or mechatronic parts that augment and implants that augment cardiac
may allow direct connection with or restore physical functionality to a and neurological functions. The
medical devices, such as electronic differently-abled person. Human bionic bionic eye consists of bioelectronic
stethoscopes, like the Australian interfaces bring the prospect of fuller implants that restore functional
innovation Stethee Pro, otoscopes participation for millions of people vision to people suffering from partial
and ultrasound to transmit data to the with untreatable medical conditions. or total blindness. Auditory bionics
remote clinician. These robots enable The bionic ear (cochlear implant), create an artificial link between the
a healthcare provider to instantly invented in Australia, was the world’s source of sound and the brain – in
connect with a patient and give real- first moon-shot discovery in human this case, with a microelectronic array
time attention, assessment, diagnosis, bionics and opened the gate to a wave implanted either in the cochlea or the
and patient management. In addition, of potential life changing bionic devices, brain stem. Orthopedic bionics are
the risk of infection is eliminated.15 implants and treatments. The interface designed to restore motor functionality
Australians have a strong appetite for between humans and bionic devices (not necessarily sensory functionality)
remote services with more than 10% has recently expanded to cover not only to the physically challenged. Bionic
of Australians regularly accessing the ear, but also many other areas of limbs are replacing prosthetic limbs,
telehealth services in 2021.23 In the the body, vastly increasing the potential and are interfaced with a patient’s
future, these services will also allow for bionic devices to treat previously neuromuscular system for limb control
virtual medicine connected to a patients’ untreatable medical conditions. Human – flexing, bending and grasping – using
wearable devices, as well as to their bionics now has the potential to not only the brain. The damaged peripheral

floors which allow robo-porter trolleys
to move autonomously delivering to the
non-patient facing side of the facility.
The Sunshine Coast University Hospital,
opened in 2017, was designed to
include extensive underground tunnels
so that automated ground vehicles
can be used to transport food, linen
and waste underground to service the
165,000 square metre facility.
Pharmacies have also embraced robot

technology. Robots are largely used for
dispensing and tend to replace menial
tasks. There is some evidence that,
if used appropriately for managing
and dispensing medications, they
may reduce medication errors. Such
a system was introduced in the Perth
Children’s hospital incorporating a
fully closed loop automated drug
management system, administering
medication direct to the patient.24
Companion/caring/social
robots
Companion robots support the
infirm, the aged or disabled to stay
nerves are bypassed and a new to evaluate the growing influence of at home longer rather than become
electronic pathway connects the robotics on current models of care. But institutionalised. Monitoring patients
mechatronic limb with the brain. Bionics to judge from similar sectors the benefits or residents and taking measurements
also covers the class of robots known are significant. to assess their status is also a function
as “exoskeletons”, also covered under of care robots. Such robots also fill
Another relatively hidden area is the
“rehabilitation robots”. a critical care gap, which sees an
management of documents, records,
and payments. Most of the progress insufficient number of people working
Logistics robots
here is with processes that are fully in the sector to take on these functions.
In terms of the overall medical sector, digital – that is, without a robotic As interactions between machine and
this is the largest, most diverse, element. But much does involve the human become more sophisticated, the
and most complex in terms of steps. physical management of records, range of tasks the robots can perform
Those steps, for example, may start and that is increasingly handled by will increase.
with a manufactured pharmaceutical, robots. The increased digitisation of Social robots are finding increased
medical device, or sundry supplies information allows for introduction of use in care environments. The main
and equipment, all of which tend to be robotic services. This continues to be a function of these robots is to increase
created with strong robotic involvement. known problem with guaranteed savings user interaction, which is why many of
The supply chain that supports this through investment. them simulate a pet or a toy. Impressive
enterprise and delivery to clinicians is
In some hospitals robotic porters are results have been collected from using
large. The use of robotics in warehousing
programmed to deliver laundry or other robots as part of specific therapies
and delivery has grown as just-in-time
goods between departments. Such towards autism, Alzheimer’s disease,
delivery lowers carrying costs. Because
systems are most often deployed in and mood or learning disorders. A
these back room and supply chain
specially designed facilities with wide major product in socially assistive
functions are largely unseen and the
corridors and robot specific lifts between robotics is PARO, an advanced
benefits of robotics are hidden, it is hard

interactive robot developed by the AIST for all phases of research and often sharing information and education,
(Japan's National Institute of Advanced diagnosis. In the past, epidemiological gaining feedback and making decisions.
Industrial Science and Technology). bioinformatics was an independent The use of simulation in health care
This robot, resembling a baby seal, domain. Since 2018, COVID-19 has education has become relevant in
allows the documented benefits of completely changed this equation. order to improve patient safety and
animal therapy to be administered Clinical and epidemiological information quality of care. The adoption of more
to patients in environments such as now directly feeds research models, realistic simulation-based teaching
hospitals and extended care facilities, which in turn inform both research and methodologies, which serves as a
where real animals present treatment treatment. The evolution has been rapid, bridge between the acquisition and
or logistical difficulties. Robot dolls are and in most cases effective. As with application of clinical skills, knowledge,
used to encourage social interaction other significant intelligent systems, and attributes, increasingly includes
and communication in children on the this makes the area ‘robotic ready’ for a robotic simulators for particular medical
autism spectrum.15 number of novel applications. scenarios.
Research/education/ Health professionals will increasingly The human elements for a healthcare
training robots become clinical data analysts with digital and wellness practice remain critical
literacy and basic training in AI and and are complemented – rather than
Funding for medical research often data science to support clinical skills. replaced – by digital and robotic
overlaps clinical operations, but the Data visualisation and clinical decision- tools. These human elements include
functions are quite different. Robotics making support tools will be more developing rapport and empathy
and other automated systems are available – helping health professionals with the client, necessary physical
widely used in research because they to better diagnose, develop treatment examinations, and assisting clients to
remove human influence, deal with plans and prescribe the appropriate change their behaviour through forms
hazardous material, or require massive drugs, exercises or lifestyle – as well of communication not replicable with
numbers of identical operations. In as a choice of automated digital tools/ a robot.
this role, they support operations apps that can assist professionals in
but not analyses. Separately, a vital communication, treatment planning,
sector provides bioinformatic support

In response to the pandemic, existing robots have been adapted and new robots have
emerged to assist medical staff in routine testing for COVID-19, caring for patients, and to
assist with physical distancing and removing healthcare workers from harm’s way – for
example, by facilitating telehealth consultations, and through the use of UV disinfection robots
for cleaning hospital rooms and common areas.
Robots applied in pathology laboratories staff.15 Telepresence robots increasingly otoscopes, and ultrasound for
can automate testing, allowing for enable doctors to examine patients from transmitting data to the remote
faster processing of samples, increased a distance, acquiring basic information doctor.15 As long as direct bedside
volumes, and the rapid return of such as temperature, blood pressure, care providers are available, remote-
answers to people.25 Lifeline Robotics etc.25 InTouch Vita, developed a mobile controlled, robotic tele-medicine
developed a prototype system that can robotic platform that hosts a panoramic technology is increasingly being used,
take throat swabs for virus testing, visualisation system, intuitive interfaces, which will have clear benefits after the
reducing the number of personnel and allows direct connection of medical pandemic for those living in rural and
required for the testing process and devices such as electronic stethoscopes, remote parts of Australia.
hence the risk of infection for medical

6.4 The future of robotics in healthcare
and wellness
Future developments will enhance the results of robotic technology applied in healthcare.
Haptic feedback will tell practitioners what they feel as well as what they see. AI will
help the machine correct a surgeon’s defects and may eventually train the machine to
perform operations.
Melding imaging technology with human vision will improve
accuracy of surgery, while 3D printing and imaging will improve
planning of procedures. Eventually, heads up and virtual
technology will help us deliver care in an environment which
allows an entire surgical team, not just the surgeon, to be part
of the operation.
Application of robots in healthcare settings is likely to increase

as the technologies mature and become more capable, reliable,
trustworthy and cost effective. However socio-technical barriers
to implementation remain, associated with the disruptive
nature of these technologies. These include: no clear pull from
healthcare workers and patients and societal distrust of robots;
the appearance of robots, either too “robotic” or too human-like;
required changes to existing roles and workflows; and lack of
existing ethical and legal frameworks.26
If we had a crystal ball to consider what the future of robotics

applied to healthcare and wellness might look like, it would
involve:
• Liberating the elderly to live at home longer with assistance
from a range of capable mobile, lifting and social robots
• Community robot hubs located in parks and libraries
to engage with people, provide community support to
encourage health consciousness, and promote basic living
skills
• Direct real-time 3D mapping and printing of human materials
at the point of surgery to replace damaged or diseased
material
• Continuing development of bionics for both prosthetics
and implants
• Full range of healthcare diagnostics able to be conducted
remotely with the assistance of telepresence robots and
digital health tools
• All back-of-house functions in hospitals and care facilities,
such as cleaning, waste removal, laundry, meal preparation
and delivery etc., conducted by robots, freeing up staff to
spend time with patients
• Ingestible micro-robots that will detect, diagnose and treat
medical conditions
• Social robots used to help understand meaning and
intent, to make healthcare more accessible to people
who may have English as a second language or who have
communication challenges

• Robots as disability aids, e.g. robotic guide dogs
• Increased use of exoskeletons in both rehabilitation, and to
support frontline healthcare workers
• Medicines and medical services delivered and dispensed
in people’s own homes, or directly to emergency services
to enable care to be provided at accident sites without the
need to transport patients.
The realisation of this future requires fusion between the

medical and engineering professions, to ensure robots are
infused with critical domain knowledge. This may involve
bootstrapping of medical knowledge for physical perception,
e.g. understanding what medical professionals learn at
university that make them safe and competent professionals,
that can be transferred to medical robotics and AI. There
are also some fundamental advances required in physical
perception of shape, movement, material properties and
mechanical structure to realise the future of robotics
in healthcare. This is the critical grounding required for
semantic and causal comprehension for robotic technologies,
especially those that must physically interact with people.
Effective physical interaction will require the development of
humanoid robotic hands that have the sensitivity, dexterity
and robustness to perform the tangible tasks of patient care.
This will best be achieved by functional emulation of human
musculoskeletal and dermal anatomy. Such hands will need to
be integrated into the tactile/proprioceptive side of the physical
perception system.
6.5 Main findings for robotics in healthcare

and wellness
Advances in robotics (including AI) can assist with the provision of medical, pharmaceutical
and imaging services to rural, remote and disadvantaged communities and can aid in the
detection, diagnosis, treatment, and management of diseases.
Australia is well placed to take advantage of telepresence demanding and repetitive tasks, high levels of workplace
robots to provide specialist services to these communities. stress, and violence. The sector has one of the highest rates
of work-related injuries and illnesses, predominantly due to
Such remote services may also help with the anticipated rise
regular people handling. Robotics can help to address these
of mental health issues for all Australians post the COVID-19
workplace issues by reducing manual handling and repetition,
pandemic. Australia is a wealthy nation where health dominates
and reducing stress through the deployment of social robots.
public expenditure, yet challenges to adoption of new disruptive
This will minimise some of the physical demands placed on
technologies could stifle innovation. Although healthcare and
our healthcare professionals and enable them to undertake
social assistance are Australia’s largest employers, working
alternate value-adding activities.
in the sector can be hazardous. It may involve physically

Case studies
ROBERT® — Pushing the limits of

ROBERT® — Pushing true recovery
the limits of true recovery........... 96
Socially-assistive
robots in therapy
and education.......................... 97
RoboUV.................................. 97
Low profile, flexible
exoskeleton for ‘assist
as needed’ walking................... 98
Pepper robot trials
at the Townsville
University Hospital.................... 98
New Children Hospital
Perth — Automated Guided
Vehicle System (AGVS)............... 99 ROBERT® is a rehabilitation robot
offering passive and active mobilisation
for the lower extremities, able to treat
Universal robots’ patients up to 160kg. Exercises can be
automation to provide tailored to the individual patient's needs
more patient access
to therapy in Australia............... 99 and the operator ‘shows’ the exercise
once to the robot, which can then be
repeated precisely and as many times as
Soft robotic glove to requested.
deliver ‘intuitive grasp’............ 100
Exercises can be done in various positions, supine,
prone or lateral position. Resistance levels can be
adjusted according to the functional ability of the
patient. These benefits relieve staff from heavy and
repetitive lifting tasks whilst being able to obtain a
greater number of repetitions in the same amount
of time.
Australian studies from, among others, Prof. Dr. Louise
Ada have proven that stroke patients and others with
incomplete spinal cord injuries experience faster
recovery when receiving early intensive care with high
amounts of repetitions. The ability to self-train at their
own pace with ROBERT® enhances motivation and
improves patient outcomes. Training data from the
session enables process tracking and physical contact
with the patient can be reduced to a minimum. The
goal is to improve work environments, reduce work-
related injuries and hence reduce sick leave, enabling
practitioners to stay on the job market for longer while
giving patients the training they need on a daily basis.
ROBERT®: combining the physiotherapist's expertise with innovative

technology, planning treatment is easy and fast. Image courtesy of
Stable Orthopaedics.

Socially-assistive robots in therapy and education
For many people living with autism spectrum skills. These studies show that social robots have the potential
disorder and/or an intellectual disability, to enrich the learning experiences of students. Importantly,
some of the benefits observed in participants when they
developing academic skills as well as interacted with robots were also transferring to their
communication and social interaction skills interactions with other people.
can be a significant challenge. Often, these
individuals need additional support to improve Kaspar Robot (University of Hertfordshire), interacting with a student. Image
courtesy of Australian e-Health Research Centre.
their competence in these areas.
CSIRO’s Australian e-Health Research Centre, led by Dr
David Silvera-Tawil in collaboration with the University of New
South Wales, Autism Spectrum Australia and the Murray
Bridge High School in South Australia, has developed novel
interventions, a software platform and artificial intelligence
(AI) algorithms to facilitate the integration of social robots
into therapy and education for young people with intellectual
disability and autism.
A number of robots were trialled: NAO and PARO were
evaluated in a longitudinal (24-month) study in a public
secondary school to support students across a range of
disciplines, from science and exercise to social skills and
emotion regulation; and the humanoid robot Kaspar was
trialled in a clinical setting, where a therapist facilitated the
robot’s interaction one-on-one with children, specifically
focussing on developing children’s social and communication
RoboUV
The RoboUV is an autonomous mobile robot

solution designed specifically to kill and
disinfect virus. It is used for disinfecting rooms
and high-touch points surfaces automatically
in hospitals, clinics, hotels, offices, retail, and
shopping centres. The RoboUV’s UVC light
breaks down the DBA and RNA chains of the
cells of micro-organisms beyond recovery. This
disables the function of the cell and eventually
kills it.
It autonomously navigates to all the high touch points in a
facility and then safely disinfects them using UV light. The
RobotUV calculates the proper disinfection exposure and then
scans the immediate area for any humans while the process
is occurring. Autonomous disinfection helps ensure that the
process is tracked and recorded and will send an alert if any
step in the process fails.
Lamson RoboUV. Image courtesy of Lamson.

Low profile, flexible exoskeleton for Pepper robot trials at the Townsville
‘assist as needed’ walking University Hospital
University of Queensland-based Dr
Alejandro Melendez-Calderon is leading
the development of a low profile, flexible,
economical and lightweight wearable
device for ‘assist-as-needed’ walking.
The goal of his international research
team is to deliver a wearable robot that is
functionally valuable, safe and intuitive;
automatically adjusting its level of
assistance according to the user’s residual
neuromuscular activity at any given time.
Stroke and musculoskeletal disorders are among
Australia’s leading causes of physical disability, and
related health-care delivery has traditionally absorbed
significant government expenditure. Walking aids and
passive orthoses are commonly prescribed solutions In late 2018, nurses Anne Elvin and Chris
for people with partial mobility loss. Ankle-foot-orthoses McIntosh of the Townsville University
(AFOs) are typically used for stroke, cerebral palsy, spinal Hospital collaborated with the Social
cord injury, and for nervous or vascular issues of the foot Robotics Team (led by project manager
(e.g. consequent to diabetes).
Belinda Ward) of the ARC Centre of
One major drawback of AFOs is that they are passive Excellence for Robotic Vision at the
devices that alter the biomechanics of walking and Queensland University of Technology.
inhibit active neuromuscular contributions from the
user. In contrast, a wearable robot (i.e. exoskeletons or
Together they developed demonstration
powered orthoses) that are unobtrusive, assist with daily applications for the Pepper robot of
living activities and work for long periods of time, can SoftBank Robotics. The robot applications
revolutionise the management of mobility impairments. were the foundation for research
Dr Alejandro Melendez-Calderon and his team (Bionics conducted by nursing researchers from the
Queensland Challenge 2020 finalists) are working on a
lightweight robotic ankle exoskeleton for patients with foot
Townsville University Hospital and James
drop, a solution that will be personalised to user-specific Cook University. The Pepper Study Team
parameters. included Dr Wendy Smyth, Anne Elvin,
Chris McIntosh, Professor Cate Nagle and
Dr Alejandro Melendez-Calderon. Image courtesy of Bionics
Queensland. Professor Melanie Birks.
The projects were the first Australian hospital trials to
investigate the acceptability and usability of a humanoid
social robot in health information delivery in an acute
care setting and to explore potential for social robots
to influence health literacy. The researchers examined
the robot’s appeal while collecting information about
people’s knowledge and attitudes towards social robots,
influenza and vaccination. In two separate studies, human
reactions to the robot were observed and the robot
collected survey data in the Emergency Short Stay Unit
and the main lobby of the hospital.
During the trials the robot proved very popular amongst
staff, patients and visitors. These trials highlighted the
real-world potential for this emerging technology to be
made available in a variety of clinical settings and as a
valuable tool to assist Australian healthcare providers in
information delivery and patient education.
Like this family, Pepper interactions were enjoyed by a broad range of

people of all ages. Image courtesy of Townsville Hospital.

New Children Hospital Perth — Automated Guided Vehicle System (AGVS)
Following a successful deployment of an AGV handing over trolley to automated waste tipper with a weighing scale
for accounting purpose. Image courtesy of Lamson.
Automated Guided Vehicle System (AGVS)
in another hospital, WA Health decided to
implement a sophisticated transport robot
solution for the new Children Hospital. The
New Perth Children Hospital was built to
replace the old Princess Margaret Hospital
for Children and was officially opened in May
2018. WA Health engaged consultants from
Germany to design a world-first closed cycle
waste solution in a hospital. Lamson was
engaged to provide a turnkey system for the
transport of meals, linen and waste.
The unique design feature is a no-touch solution for
waste. After placing the waste bin for disposal, the AGVS
automatically returns an empty and disinfected bin. This
process reduces bio-hazard risk to staff and improves logistics
in the hospital. The system includes a fleet of AGVs, conveyor
buffers, robotic arms, automated waste tippers, industrial
trolley washer and an automated vision and weighing system.
The system is designed to transport up to 500 trolleys a day
and to empty and disinfect waste bins.
Universal robots’ automation to provide more patient access to therapy in Australia
Rowan Smith is the CEO of Tech Gym, a Tech Gym has received their clinical trial after two years of
University of Technology Sydney (UTS) startup. R&D and their prototype is now ready to be trialled at South
West Sydney Hospital.
In 2017, Rowan’s grandma suffered a stroke
and had to undergo extensive rehabilitation. It CEO of Tech Gym, Rowan Smith works with a collaborative robot to
automate rehabilitation. Image courtesy of UTS - TechGym.
was during this time that he recognised a need
to provide easier access to physical therapy
through technology. Putting his bachelor’s
degree in Mechanical and Mechatronics to
good use, Rowan developed Tech Gym which
makes use of Universal Robots collaborative
robot (cobot) technology and intelligent
programming to provide therapy to patients by
mimicking human movements.
In the product development phase, Tech Gym worked closely
with a team of physio, clinical and occupational therapists.
Astoundingly, the B1 prototype did all the rehabilitation work.
Soon thereafter they added sensors. In this way cobots can be
set up in-line with where the patient is in their rehabilitation
journey. For instance, if a patient requires more resistance
in the various movements, this can be achieved. Beyond
the physical capabilities, Tech Gym truly instils confidence
in patients.

Soft robotic glove to deliver ‘intuitive grasp’
UQ Research Fellow in Bio-Medical Engineering, Dr Antonio Padilha Lanari Bo and his team are
seeking to restore hand function via a hybrid wearable that includes a soft robotic glove and
functional electrical stimulation (FES). The loss of hand function in any individual significantly
impacts their quality of life and ability to perform daily activities. Potential contributors to the
loss of hand function are conditions such as arthritis, polio, Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI), cerebral
palsy, stroke and Spinal Cord Injury (SCI).
For more than 50% of people with SCI, paralysis of upper limbs gives rise to tetraplegia. Physiotherapy and occupational therapies
are used to improve hand function, but benefits can be limited. Bionic innovations are an emerging option e.g. robotic orthoses
or exoskeletons mounted on upper limbs that use actuators to produce body motion. However, the need to customise solutions to
users has impeded commercialisation so far.
Dr Bo’s team has found that wearable sensors coupled with advanced machine learning can deliver a reliable and flexible control
interface. They have compared the use of inertial and electromyography sensors to control a robotic hand in clinical tests, delivering
an intuitive and predictable control interface. Clinical investigations also evaluate separately different aspect of both robotics and
FES-based control of hand grasping. Pending further development and clinical testing, a soft robotics glove integrating electrodes,
sensors, and AI-enabled algorithms could give intuitive hand movement to millions of people living with tetraplegia.
Dr Bochkezanian in early clinical testing of the technology at Central Queensland University (CQU). Dr Vanesa Bochkezanian, CQU.

Contributors
This chapter was based on a workshop held on 10 March 2020 in Brisbane, QLD with contributions from the individuals listed
below:
Sue Keay (Robotics Australia Group) Dimity Dornan (Bionics Queensland) Robyn Stokes (Bionics Queensland)
David Gillatt (Macquarie University Leonie Mulheran (Rauland) Denny Oetomo (Univ. Melbourne)
Hospital) Ted Goranson (TAS) Olivier Salvado (CSIRO’s Data61)
David Silvera-Tawil (CSIRO’s e-Health) Ajay Pandey (QUT) Paul Carboon (MicroBio)
Footnotes
1 Accessed 22 August 2021 https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/life-expectancy-death/deaths-in-australia/contents/life-expectancy
2 ABS 2018 Chronic Conditions https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/health/health-conditions-and-risks/chronic-conditions/latest-release
3 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 2020. Australia’s health 2020 data insights. Australia’s health series no. 17. Cat. no. AUS 231. Canberra:
AIHW.
4 The Royal Australian College of General Practitioners. General Practice: Health of the Nation 2019. East Melbourne, Vic: RACGP, 2019.
5 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 2020. Health expenditure Australia 2018-19. Health and welfare expenditure series no.66. Cat. no. HWE 80.
Canberra: AIHW.
6 ABS (2021) 6291.0.55.001 Labour Force, Australia, Details June 2021.
7 Safe Work Australia (2020) Australian Workers Compensation Statistics 2018-19.
9 Richardson, A. (2021) Pharmacies in Australia, IBISWorld AU Industry (ANZSIC) Report G4271a.
10 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 2021. Mental health services in Australia. Web Report 20 Jul 2021.
12 Quigley, A. L., Stone, H., Nguyen, P. Y., Chughtai, A. A., & MacIntyre, C. R. (2021). Estimating the burden of COVID-19 on the Australian healthcare
workers and health system during the first six months of the pandemic. International journal of nursing studies, 114, 103811.
13 Cabarkapa, S., King, J., Ng, C. (2020) The psychiatric impact of COVID-19 on healthcare workers, Australian Journal of General Practice, Vol. 49, Issue
12, December 2020.
14 Australian Government Department of Health (2021) COVID-19 outbreaks in Australian residential care facilities - 20 August 2021.
16 Mayo Clinic: Robotic Surgery https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/robotic-surgery/about/pac-20394974 accessed 22 August 2021.
17 Chen AF, Kazarian GS, Jessop GW, Makhdom A (2018), Robotic Technology in Orthopaedic Surgery, The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery Vol 100A –
Number 22 – November 21, 2018 1984-1992.
18 Sarlos D, Kots L, Stevanovic N, von Felten S, Schär G. (2012) Robotic compared with conventional laparoscopic hysterectomy: a randomized controlled
trial. Obstet Gynecol. Sep;120(3):604-11. doi: 10.1097/AOG.0b013e318265b61a.
19 McBride, K., Steffens, D., Stanislaus, C. et al. Detailed cost of robotic-assisted surgery in the Australian public health sector: from implementation to a
multi-specialty caseload. BMC Health Serv Res 21, 108 (2021).
20 Flynn, A., Verhoeven, A. (2020) Measuring value in new health technology assessments: a focus on robotic surgery in public hospitals. Deeble institute
issues brief #37.
21 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 2020. People with disability in Australia 2020: in brief. Web report.
22 Limbs 4 Life (2020) Annual Review. https://www.limbs4life.org.au/uploads/files/Limbs-4-Life-Annual-Review-2020.pdf
23 Deloitte 2021. Technology, Media and Telecommunications predictions 2021. Australian edition.
24 https://www.lamson.com.au/ Accessed 28th August 2021.
25 A Roadmap for US Robotics: From internet to Robotics 2020 Edition.
26 Cresswell, K., Cunningham-Burley, S., & Sheikh, A. (2018). Health Care Robotics: Qualitative Exploration of Key Challenges and Future Directions.
Journal of medical Internet research, 20(7), e10410. https://doi.org/10.2196/10410

7
Services
Robotics capabilities have improved by necessity during the
pandemic. Demand for robotics has increased as people have been
forced to work from home
The term ‘services’ applies to all activity in the economy not
directed at the production of ‘goods’, and ranges from online
retail to medical services and tourism operations. It covers
a diverse range in the nature of its outputs and methods of
production, and is increasingly important for our future wellbeing.
Knowledge intensity is an important characteristic that differentiates services from other
sectors of the economy, and reflects the degree of independence and freedom of planning
and organising tasks that need to be performed on the job.
Different services have a varying level of impact on the Australian economy. The next
sections look at how robotic technologies have already infiltrated Australia’s services sector
and what might be expected in the future. Note the distinction between the services sector
of the economy and the term ‘service robots’, which describes a relatively new class of non-
industrial robots that perform useful tasks for humans or equipment. Service robots have a
key role to play in addressing societal challenges such as demographic change, health and
well-being, transport and security.
What industries are service industries?
Distribution services
wholesale and retail trade, transport and storage, IT and communications
Social (non-market) services

health and community services, education, emergency services (police, ambulance,
firefighters and state emergency services), government administration and defence
Business services
property and business services, finance and insurance
Personal services
tourism, accommodation, hospitality, cafes and restaurants, cleaning, security,
personal and other services, entertainment, cultural and recreational services
Utilities
electricity, gas and water
Construction
building and demolition (see the Construction Chapter)

Snapshot Services: What’s changed since 2018?
Strengths
Services now accounts for 80% of Australia’s GDP (compared to 70% in 2017)
Demand for robotics has increased as people have pivoted to ‘work-from-home’
Robotics capabilities have improved by necessity during the pandemic
Wins
Large-scale automation projects are Australian accents are recognised and correctly
moving beyond Resources and into the interpreted due to rapid improvements in Natural
Services sector (e.g. supermarket chains) Language Processing
Investment in robotics has increased
New opportunities
Increased appetite for robotics to support critical supply chain operations
SMEs can participate in robotic deployments thanks to 3D printing and open source design
Increased talent supply into robotics, mechatronics graduate numbers are increasing
Challenges
The Services sector exports are down by 14% due to the pandemic Growth in the sector
Reduced size of working population (if no changes to immigration policy) Ageing population
Adaptation of more highly skilled workforce Competition from emerging knowledge economies

Autonomous vehicles (for transport of people and goods) Inspection robots (construction, utilities, retail)
Visual verification technologies Social/service robots helping in aged care, healthcare and retail
Telepresence robots, shared autonomy Integration between robotic technologies and built environment
robotics, chatbots and virtual assistants technologies (e.g. elevators, doors, dock levellers)

WHAT IS A SERVICE ROBOT?
Robots are often broadly termed either ‘industrial’ or 'service’ robots, with the former
typically in industrial settings and the latter in service settings. The first robots deployed in
manufacturing in 1961 were industrial robots. They are highly specialised, automatically
controlled machines that can be reprogrammed, and can be classified according to the number
of axes – three, four, five, six, or more. Service robots are a recent phenomenon, apparent only
since the 2000s, yet their numbers are now outstripping those of industrial robots.1 Service
robots may be distinguished according to the scale at which they are used. Service robots
that help individuals or households are called ‘domestic’, ‘personal’ or sometimes ‘consumer’
robots, while robots that operate on a larger scale, e.g. helping in a warehouse, are called
‘industrial’, ‘commercial’ or ‘professional’ service robots.
7.1 Australia’s services sector

Australia’s services sector is critical to our overall economy. Services employ 88% of
Australian workers and accounts for around 79% of our GDP.2 Services have become an
increasingly important component of Australia’s export revenue, with education-related
and personal travel, professional, ICT, financial and technical services all in the top 15 export
categories.3 If the value of intermediate services is captured, the services sector contributes
over 45% of our value-added export earnings.
As with most mature economies over such as finance, ICT and transport have to access to on-the-job training. 24% of
the last 70 years, Australia has seen a seen significant productivity growth Australian workers are casual, reflecting
shift away from primary production and compared to the goods sector, more a growing trend towards casualisation
manufacturing (which used to employ labour intensive services have seen of the workforce since the early 1980s.2
50% of Australians in the 1950s) and persistently low productivity gains. Although service jobs are clustered
towards service provision. This makes around Australia’s coastline, particularly
While high-skilled workers predominate,
improvements to productivity in the in capital cities, service workers also
the absolute size of the services sector
Services sector very important to the dominate (75%) employment in non-
means that it is also a major employer
Australian economy, and these are best metropolitan regions. Any impact on
of low-skilled workers. Such workers
achieved by digitisation and adoption of services jobs has a widespread impact
earn higher wages in the Services sector
emerging technologies, such as robotics. on the Australian community.
than in other industries, possibly due
While some parts of the Services sector

Australia is experiencing its first recession in nearly 30 years due to COVID-19 and parts of the
Services sector, such as hospitality, accommodation, recreation and retail, have been hit hard.
In the first few months of the pandemic, and do not require movement of (Tourism and International Student
the food and accommodation industry consumer or supplier numbers) and movement of natural
laid off a third of its employees, and the • consumption abroad – where the persons where Australian providers
recreation industry shed nearly 30% of consumer moves to Australia to get travel abroad to deliver services.
its workforce.2 While employment has the service (e.g. tourism or tertiary However, there is a rise in cross-border
since improved, the impact of COVID-19 education) supply, particularly via digital technology
continues to impact on this sector and this is expected to increase as
• commercial presence – where
disproportionately compared to other businesses innovate and adapt their
the supplier sets up operations in
sectors of the Australian economy. service delivery models to digital
another country to supply services
platforms.3 In general, the COVID-19
The closure of Australia’s borders has • movement of natural persons – pandemic has accelerated the use of
also seen a dramatic drop in some where the supplier moves across technology to allow many services to be
services exports. There are four modes borders to deliver services (e.g. an delivered remotely to support working
of supply for the services we export: expert travelling overseas to consult). from home requirements, conform with
• cross-border supply – where services travel restrictions and reduce the risk of
International travel restrictions have
are transferred digitally or by post human-to-human contact.
severely impacted consumption abroad
Value of the different services sectors to the Australian economy4
VALUE ADDED EMPLOYMENT
Distribution Business Personal Social (non-market) Utilities Construction

Transport, postal and Professional, scientific and Accommodation and Education and training* Electricity, gas, water
warehousing technical services* food services Public administration and and waste services*
Information, media and Financial and insurance Arts and recreation safety
telecommunications* services* services* Healthcare and social
Retail trade Rental, hiring and real Other assistance*
Wholesale trade estate services
Administrative and support
services *Services considered “knowledge-intensive"5

7.3 Robotics and the services sector today
There are multiple reasons that the Services sector in Australia will be impacted by robotics.
In general, knowledge-intensive services show more possibilities to scale-up and automate
routine tasks because they exhibit relatively lower routine content, higher capital intensity,
higher R&D intensity and higher allocative efficiency.
For this reason, knowledge intensive be concentrated in the cities where warehouse, fulfilment, and transport
services have higher productivity levels knowledge intensive service activities, infrastructure
than less knowledge intensive ones, with such as ICT, are concentrated, resulting • Australia’s long distances between
the exception of the trade sector. Retail in job losses in the regions (where major centres, mainly serviced by
and wholesale trade has experienced localised services predominate).5 road transport, which puts human
relatively high productivity growth drivers at risk
despite being strongly localised and
• Smaller regional centres are often
generally less knowledge intensive. The
serviced less than major centres.
trade sector has benefited from the use The trade sector has Robotics could make more frequent
of technology to transform supply chains benefited from the servicing of these towns viable, as
and improve managerial and operational
processes to improve productivity.5
use of technology to well as a range of other benefits
supporting online education and
improve and transform
The accelerating rate of technological healthcare delivery.
change, and increasing penetration supply chains.
of mobile devices, combined with Logistics
shifting customer preferences will There are many ways in which robotics
have dramatic implications for the There is a strong correlation between are being applied in the Services
ways in which services are structured, firms that adopt advanced technologies sector today. Logistics is an area
delivered and consumed. Digital such as robotics, and those that where automated ground vehicles
platforms and rating systems offer new have also adopted digitisation and (AGVs) are increasingly playing a role
possibilities to enhance competition cloud services, suggesting some transporting goods in warehouses and
between service providers by reducing interdependency and the potential storage facilities and also for back-of-
information asymmetries and barriers need for staged adoption of different house functions in many large-scale
to entry. Advances in communication technologies.7 The adoption of robotics operations, such as hospitals and
technologies increase service in different parts of the services sector aged care facilities. AGVs are equipped
tradability by enabling a growing range is also interrelated with worldwide with containers to store goods, or as
of traditional and digital services to trends related to the maturity of robotics towing trailers or as automated forklifts,
be delivered at a distance. Artificial technology for different applications. In or may have mobile manipulation
intelligence and advanced robotics are general these include: capabilities (article transfer belts, slides
good at automating the cognitive tasks or arms for loading and unloading, and
• An ageing workforce, unable to
that are typical of service activities such manipulators for handling material).
sustain current practices and also
as driving a car, which may transform Australia led the development of
leading to under-resourcing in some
certain localised lower-skilled industries autonomous stevedoring with the
sectors, such as aged care
into non-localised higher-skilled ones. invention of autonomous straddle
• Expectation of our younger workforce,
This type of automation requires carriers to transport shipping containers
who are less likely to want to do direct
an increase in demand for people around ports. A special class of logistics
manual labour, but view working with
with skills to deal with machines robot (also used in rehabilitation) are
robots as more normalised
(e.g. programming) or that are exoskeletons. Exoskeletons are active
• Increased online purchasing and mechanical devices worn by an operator
complementary to machines (e.g.
consumer choice increases the to reduce load on the spine, hips and/
“soft” interpersonal skills).6 However,
pressure for mass customisation, or shoulder when lifting heavy weights.
the demand for these skills is likely to
adding complexity to current

The main advantages of these systems peroxide, filter air, or emit high frequency to deliver water and energy to homes
is workplace safety (eliminating lifting ultraviolet light (UV-C) have been in and workplaces, and to remove waste.
injuries), reduced need for manual demand while existing robot platforms Australia’s electricity grid spans more
labour, increased productivity and were also modified to serve disinfection than 5,000 kilometres and is one
increased inventory accuracy. Logistics tasks. There is high potential to combine of the largest interconnected power
robots are experiencing the greatest facilities management services, for systems in the world. Australia has
growth of any service robots with a example, cleaning robots that double as more than 37,000 kilometres of natural
projected compound annual growth rate surveillance robots for security rounds, gas transmission pipelines. Sydney
(CAGR) for 2020-2023 of 42%.1 and also for logistics services. Cleaning alone maintains more than 21,000
robots are increasingly being developed kilometres of water pipes, with 243
Cleaning for more challenging applications, reservoirs and 150 water pumping
Robots used for industrial cleaning such as cleaning of building facades, stations. For wastewater there are more
(as opposed to home robotic vacuum windows and solar panels. They are also than 25,000 kilometres of pipes, 16
cleaners) is a growing corporate service being developed to clean tanks, tubes treatment plants, 14 recycling plants,
area. The adoption of robotics is driven and pipes, which is closely related to and 677 wastewater pumping stations.
by labour costs, which comprise 70% the development of inspection robots, Inspection robots must be mobile and
to 80% of costs, with floor cleaning particularly useful for the Utilities sector.1 may need to operate on the ground,
representing 60% of the cleaning task. in the air or underwater. They need
Cleaning robots eliminate certain types
Inspection to be outfitted with sensors to collect
of cleaning work, which frees employees Inspection tasks are usually manually information as well as communication
to do more skilled tasks. The demand conducted and are extremely hazardous units for teleoperation or sensor
for cleaning robots has exploded due as they may involve working in confined signal transmission, and may link into
to COVID-19 with the need for robots to spaces. In Australia, fifty-nine confined an operations centre. The main goal
perform disinfection tasks both indoors space related deaths were identified of inspection robots is to lower the
and outdoors to protect the human over the period 2000-2012, an average health risks to workers associated
workforce from exposure to coronavirus. rate of 0.05 deaths per 100,000 with radiation, toxic gases and high
Specialised disinfection robots that workers.8 Australia has a vast network temperatures, often combined with
either spray chemicals such as hydrogen of critical infrastructure assets, required confined spaces.1

Rescue and security Social robots the Australian public has with, and the
feelings they experience towards, robots.
Another area of robotics important to Social robots are a class of robots mainly
the Services sector is in the area of restricted to use in the Services sector Other robots
rescue and security. There is some where they can be applied to social
There are many other types of robots
overlap in the robotic platforms used services, education, retail, banking,
applied in the Services sector and new
for rescue and security and those used hospitality, tourism and other customer-
use cases are being explored all the
for inspection, cleaning and defence. facing roles. Social robots are designed
time for example restaurant robots free
Such robots may be used for fire-fighting, to interact with humans and can have
personnel from routine tasks such as
bomb disposal, disaster response a range of applications, from concierge
food preparation, serving and customer-
and relief, and are mainly applied by robots working on hotel front desks, to
service. Melbourne has its own robotic
emergency services. Interestingly, the public health education, where robots
ice cream shop by Niska, and robotic
robots are typically only deployed if are used to reduce the workload on
coffee kiosks are found in San Francisco.
the responding agency owns the robot, healthcare professionals by tackling
Robots can reduce labour costs in the
rather than if they have to borrow one.9 repetitive tasks. The main benefit
delivery of personal services by assisting
of these technologies is their ability
Intelligent security robots are or replacing human workers, and many
to act as a force multiplier in areas
more widely deployed, patrolling are available in the consumer market,
traditionally under-resourced, such as
autonomously, building models of their such as vacuum-cleaning, pool-cleaning,
education. Robots are being trialled and
environment and flagging suspicious lawn-mowing, home security, education,
adopted for behavioural and therapeutic
activities and providing real-time aged care, disability and toy/hobby
interventions that can benefit social
response, either autonomously or via robots. The application of robots to aged
workers, teachers and police.
remote pilots. Surveillance robots are care and disability is mainly around
being trialled in a range of settings The organisation Missing Schools10 manipulation and mobility assistance,
and could be used in challenging assists schools in providing telepresence e.g. autonomous wheelchairs and robots
operations, like prison security or to solutions for students that have ongoing that help with tasks such as feeding.
monitor occupational health and safety issues that mean they can’t attend The use of robots is known to stimulate
in workplaces. The relatively high cost of school. Australians have not yet been users and can improve coordination and
these robots has restricted their use to exposed to social robots designed to physical condition.1
areas that justify the high costs, where manipulate or ‘nudge’ their responses.
COVID-19 has seen an increase in
surveillance by people is tedious, costly The introduction of these technologies
demand for robotics as people reduce
or hazardous.1 may fundamentally shift the relationship
face-to-face interactions and many

goods and services are delivered reduce human-contact for point-of- Where does Australia rank?
directly to people’s homes for safety contact services and essential services,
and security. The pandemic has posed such as food preparation, opens the Data on sales of service robots
a significant threat to people working opportunity for further automation, to different countries is currently
in the Services sector where working in using technologies such as cobots. unavailable. Australia does not rank in
close-proximity is required, particularly Whereas telepresence robots and plant the top ten countries that manufacture
in healthcare, retail and hospitality automation either distance and reduce service robots but is recognised for
services. This has opened up several the presence of people, cobots fill in developing mobile guidance robots,
new opportunities for the application the roles where human-presence is still education robots and field robots that
of robotic technologies. There has required but enables physical distancing can be applied to defence, resources,
been increased interest in the use of to be maintained. construction, and infrastructure
telepresence robots and the need to inspection and maintenance.11
Global Trends in robotics in industries related to the Services sector1, 12

Service sector Relevant service robot category Units sold 2019 CAGR
Distribution Logistics 74,647 +53%

• Transport, postal, warehousing
• Information, media and telecommunications
• Retail trade
• Wholesale trade
Business Logistics 3,837 +25%

• Professional, scientific and technical services
• Financial and insurance services Other cleaning 1,185 +274%
• Rental, hiring and real estate Services
• Administrative and support services
Personal Robots for public environments 20,043 +40%

• Accommodation and food services
• Arts and recreation services Robots for domestic tasks 18,593,928 +27%
• Other
Toy and hobby 4,132,894 +10%
Social (non-market) Education and research 487,743 +8%

• Accommodation and food services
• Arts and recreation services Medical 8,900 +34%
• Other
Elderly and handicap assistance 12,218 +46%
Defense 18,914 +14%
Mobile platforms 495 +41%
Utilities Solar panel cleaning 7,498 +25%

• Electricity, gas, water and waste services
Pipe cleaning 497 +16%
Inspection and Maintenance Robots 14,858 +22%
Construction Construction and demolition 1,198 +17%

services sector
Over the next five years, the continued impacts of the global pandemic will act as a catalyst for
the market pull towards robotics adoption and use. The transformation of numerous service
sectors to automate processes in response to health concerns will further embed the need for
robotics in various applications.
With a market shift from a push Some of the robotic technologies we are • PR robots to guide people and
strategy, whereby robotic manufacturers likely to see in the future in the Services improve customer experience
have focused on selling the benefits sector include: • Ubiquitous use of robot ballistic
of enhanced robotic adoption, to a shields to protect emergency service
• Autonomous on-road vehicles for
pull strategy aligned with new sector workers
logistics and passenger transport
practices – and automation at the core
• Self-serve retail with robot shop • Response robots that are truly
of business practice – we can anticipate
assistants, shelf stackers and autonomous (not remote-controlled)
a growth in not only the adoption of
robotics, but a reduction in the perceived inventory management • Customised exoskeletons and bionics
risks and barriers to adoption the sector • Expanded capabilities on • Affordable companion robots.
has experienced over the past few years. warehousing robots leading to
people-free warehouses

services sector
Service robots have a key role to play in addressing societal challenges, such as demographic
change, health and well-being, transport, and security – or more specifically, safeguarding
human lives, protecting people from injury, and completing dangerous tasks such as lifting
heavy objects.
Like most developed countries,
Australia's population is ageing due to
sustained low fertility and increasing
life expectancy. This has resulted in
proportionally fewer children (under
15 years of age) in the population and
a proportionately greater increase in
those aged 65 and over. This means
that there will be fewer workers available
in the future to take on many roles in
the economy and robotics will become
an imperative.

Case studies
SPYDER — Autonomous facade

SPYDER — Autonomous cleaning and condition reporting
facade cleaning and solution
condition reporting solution..... 112
Auto loader for the
maritime industry.................. 113
Online tank inspection
deployment.......................... 113
Intelligent robots that
crawl inside sewers................ 114
An update on Blindsight
by Presien (formerly
Toolbox Spotter) AI
computer vision for
heavy industries.................... 114
Australian built robots
making it safer for There are long existing pain-points for
first responders..................... 115 managers of building facades in a CBD
and similar assets in suburban and
Telepresence, social remote locations. Present technology
and educational robots........... 115 only allows humans to access these
structures using Building Maintenance
Units (BMUs), cherry pickers or scaffolds.
Devising a Universal
Signage System for The cost and time components are substantial, and
Human Robotic the safety performance using these means leaves a
Interaction (HRISS)................ 116 lot to be desired. YellowFIN Robotic Solutions’ SPYDER
prototype is being developed to provide a one-stop
solution for asset managers to wash, clean, inspect,
Roboticisation of evaluate and report on their industrial assets and
commodity products.............. 116 determine corrective maintenance.
The SPYDER will use cable-robotics to autonomously
manoeuvre itself along the face of the asset using
proprietary software after mapping a building or an
asset’s facade. It will work contact-less along the
facade, washing and drying the facade substrate
whilst on-board payload array can closely inspect the
condition of the asset using multi-spectrum cameras.
The asset condition can be monitored real time and
live-streamed to the client. AI will be used to identify,
collect and sort the data showing generic condition
and problem areas of the asset. The SPYDER will be
designed to work 24/7 and sustain weather such as
precipitation and wind and is a smart combination of
cable robotics, AI and machine learning.
Cleaning and inspection can be achieved autonomously without

sending humans over the side of buildings. Image courtesy of
YellowFIN Robotic Solutions.

Auto loader for the maritime industry
.
Maritime freight or cargo accounts for state cut-off; continuous scanning of physical attributes of
more than 80% of world trade by volume. containers for weak-points and corrosion; and real-time freight
plan status on the terminal and floating asset. The cost saving
Break- bulk freight needs handling with a by this substitution is substantial and the scaling possibilities
crane hooking it on, swinging it over and are exponential. But the real win is in saving human life-and-
hooking it off, with 2-3 qualified crew at each limb by using the Robo-loader.
end. This is one of the leading causes for
Offshore boat and crane. Image courtesy of YellowFIN Robotic Solutions
accidents and fatalities on those sites, and
requires a significant amount of human and
capital resources.
YellowFIN Robotic's ROBO-LOADER is designed to circumvent
the human interface in manual-handling of break-bulk-freight
to make it autonomous and safe. Robo-loader is very different
to container loading straddles, as it deals with single-point
suspended loads. The technology is being developed for the
proprietary hooking arrangement to work in conjunction with
a simple array of transponders which can be used in a marine
terminal or a floating maritime asset or a ship.
Use of AI enables real-time mapping of freight handling area;
optimising space use, auto-locate and positioning of freight;
handsfree auto hooking, turning and un-hooking of freight;
real-time detection of ship dynamic motion to determine sea-
Online tank inspection deployment
Intero successfully deployed its OTIS500

to undertake tank bottom inspection of an
in-service Naphta storage tank (10,000
cbm naphta, 25.4m diameter, fixed roof,
24 inch manway entrance). The primary
objectives were to: demonstrate the ability
to safely deploy an Online Tank Inspection
(OTIS) Robot in a tank with a low flashpoint
product; and perform an online inspection of
the tank bottom in a limited time-frame. This
inspection was Asia’s first online/no man
entry inspection of a low flashpoint (ATEX
zone 0) product tank.
The benefits of this technology include: no downtime; no
need for temporary storage; cost savings of cleaning the tank;
minimized waste disposal costs; ATEX approved robot for safe
zone 0 deployment; reduced environmental risks such as spills
and VOC release; improved safety by eliminating confined
space entry and personnel exposure to hazardous chemicals. Lowering the tool into the tank. Image courtesy of Wouter Keuris Fotografie.

Intelligent robots that crawl inside sewers
Australia has over 110,000 kilometres of manhole and extend its arm to a maximum diameter of 1.5m
sewage pipelines worth more than $100b. for safer remote inspection in confined spaces. The CRAFT
builds a true colour three-dimensional reconstruction of the
Every year, water utilities spend over $100m internal sewer structure in real-time, which can serve as a
on pipe renewals and rehabilitation programs. screening tool to focus on suspicious areas rather than along
The microbial activities that take place on the pipe full inspection. This innovative technology offers key
the surface of the concrete sewer pipes are data for asset managers to make timely decisions to reduce
responsible for much of the corrosion of the the cost of pipe renewals, adverse environmental impact, and
public health issues.
sewer pipes.
UTS researchers with the remote sensing maintenance robot CRAFT. Photo
Current non-traversable sewer pipe inspections rely heavily Toby Burrows. Image courtesy of UTS.
on CCTV cameras, which can provide only visual information,
but fail to measure sub-surface corrosion conditions. To
address this multi-million dollar problem, Sydney Water
collaborated with the iPipes Lab at University of Technology
Sydney to design the CRAFT (Corrosion and Reinforcement bar
Assessment Floating Tool) robot which can be deployed in non-
traversable circular concrete sewer pipes ranging from 900mm
to 1500mm diameters.
The CRAFT uses multi-modal sensor fusion approach for
non-destructively estimating the thickness of the sub-surface
corroded concrete layer and remaining thickness of intact
concrete cover to reinforcement bars. This floatable robotic
system can enter concrete sewers through a 600mm diameter
An update on Blindsight by Presien (formerly Toolbox Spotter) AI computer vision for

heavy industries
There are roughly 200 workplace deaths and For instance, the image here depicts a real scenario in which
100,000 serious workplace injuries per year the operator clearly saw the entire group of people behind
him leave the area, but Blindsight saw a person in the blind
in Australia, costing the nation an estimated spot and the operator was alerted. The operator believed the
$62b every year. Being struck by an object is area was clear and was under pressure to return to work. But
by far the leading cause of serious accidents instead he voiced concern, at which point an unseen person in
(roughly 65%), and the heavy industries the blind spot responded. The operator asserts that Blinsight
disproportionately contribute to these saved a life!
statistics. Data suggests around 84% are Laing O'Rourke developed and extensively tested and honed Blindsight,
attributable to lapses of attention, distraction, game changing technology on the basis of which the venture capital funded
spinoff company Presien was formed. Image courtesy of Presien.
and failure to see the potential hazard.
Blindsight, a technology by Presien, a spin-out from Laing
O’Rourke’s Technology & Innovation Group, is a frontedge hand
tool suitable for on-the-dirt immediate integration into complex
works. It is equipped with a spotter's proactive intelligence
and sees and understands without special tags, markers or
processes. It is an advanced ecosystem of extra sets of never
tiring, always alert, always diligent, intelligent eyes that has its
mind on the team and its focus on the job. Blindsight reduces
fatalities, traumatic injuries and property incidents, enables
otherwise non-possible works, and decreases resource
requirements, workers’ compensation and insurance.

Australian built robots making it safer for first responders
BIA5 is an OEM with a history designing, Development of these platforms is accelerating our growth
manufacturing and supporting uncrewed to Industry 4.0 systems to reduce the cost whilst maintaining
high end performance. BIA5’s willingness to collaborate
ground vehicles, UGV’s serving Australia’ first with customers, academia and industry partners is opening
responders. Robotic platforms such as BIA5’s up opportunities in industries such as mining, agriculture,
original Ozbot and ATR Fire are able to operate construction and even extending to space both here in
in rough terrain and under conditions that can Australia and overseas.
often render other machinery inoperable. BIA5 ATR Fire undergoing live fire testing with Rio Tinto, Perth WA.
Manufactured by BIA5 in Brisbane Australia. Integrated into market by BIA5.
With the use of multiple cameras and ‘human in the loop’
operation, the platforms are able to act as the eyes and ears
of First Responders. Enabling firefighting and law enforcement
personnel to use their training and expertise to combat critical
incidences, whilst limiting the risk to human life. Multilayered
redundancy is one of the additional key features that
enhances BIA5’s robot’s durability to operate in these often
dangerous and harsh environments.
The addition of the Warfighter ATR for military applications,
showcases the platform’s adaptability and stability which
includes class leading stair climbing and integration of a
variety of payloads. This versatility offers the opportunity for
the mobility of weapon systems above its class and carriage
of patients and support medics and logistics payloads
comparable to larger UGVs.
Telepresence, social and educational robots
Exaptec is a robotics company based in Melbourne specialising in telepresence, social and

educational robots. Exaptec’s clients include universities, government departments, schools,
retail businesses, aged care and hospitals. Some examples of deployments include:
• A private school in Melbourne bought a telepresence robot • Social robots are used frequently at conferences to educate
to assist a student that had an immune compromising audiences and explain new technology.
disease and couldn’t attend school. The student could dial
• The QTrobot specialises in assisting children with autism
in from either hospital or home to attend school.
and comes with a syllabus designed by autism specialists
• A disability organisation in Western Australia invested in a and physiotherapists. This robot is also deployed in a Tafe
telepresence robot which enabled one of their housebound in Victoria and has potential for use in homes which care for
clients to attend a conference, virtually, for the first time few people with acquired brain injuries.
years.
Grandparents connecting through temi with family. Image courtesy of
• As part of a settlement, an insurance company bought a Robotemi.
telepresence robot for an accident victim who became a
paraplegic as the result of a motor car accident. The client
owned his own business and used the telepresence robot
to “go to work” while rehabilitating and adjusting to his new
circumstances.
• Telepresence robots are deployed in aged care centres
in Brisbane and hospitals in Adelaide and Brisbane.
Doctors and medical practises are also experimenting
with telepresence to teleconsult with patients and other
medical specialists.

Devising a Universal Signage System for Human Robotic Interaction (HRISS)
As robots continue to move beyond factory convey: instruction, advisory or cautionary messages, and
locations into shared public spaces, we will detailed information.
increasingly find ourselves working alongside Work on this project was undertaken by an interdisciplinary
robotic devices to undertake everyday team of researchers including roboticists, designers,
tasks and services. The growing number of psychologists, and programmers from Sheffield Robotics
UK. This work was initially funded by the EPSRC Centre
interactions between people and robots in in Innovative Manufacturing in Intelligent Automation as
the public domain point to the real need for a a feasibility study for assessing graphical robot aids for
standardised communication signage system interactive co-working in industry. This work is being continued
that will help individuals and communities at the Australian Research Centre for Interactive and Virtual
engage with, understand, and trust ways of Environments, University of South Australia.
working with robots. Left: Co-botic working concept sign. Image courtesy of Ian Gwilt (UNISA) and
Joe Rolph.
A universal Human Robotic Interaction Signage System (HRISS) Right: Prototype instructional signage for collaborative human-robot co-
is being developed to visually help people to comprehend working. Image courtesy of Ian Gwilt, Joe Rolph, Iveta Eimontaite, David
Cameron, Jonathan M. Aitken, Saeid Mokaram, and James Law, Sheffield
how a robot might act or perform, and importantly how they Robotics.
should behave around it. HRISS will use best practice from
established national and international signage systems, and
will reference International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) and Standards Australia (SA) guidelines. HRISS is
modular, allowing for a flexible application to familiar and
emergent robot typologies (delivery bots, drones, robotic arms,
humanoid robots, a range of assistive devices, swarm robotics
etc.) and will communicate specific functionality and actions
to people within the operational zone of the robotic device.
HRISS signs will employ a three-tier communication strategy,
developing comprehensive design guidelines for signs that
Roboticisation of commodity products
For Australia to develop a sustainable robotic industry, we

need to take advantage of the wider markets available through
"roboticisation" of commodity products, which will increase
market share across many sectors and also increase the
demand for talent, providing increase job opportunities for
graduates with robotics-related skills.
COLETEK has been involved in a number of projects that
demonstrate how robotics expertise can be applied to
commodity products: localisation algorithms, typically deployed
by robotics, can be applied to location-aware based devices
For Australia to benefit from our homegrown such as indoor high asset tracking; sensors for detection can
enable a product to avoid children wetting the bed; object
talent, we need to apply robotics skills and classification algorithms, which may be trained from data using
experience to general product development. machine learning, can analyse the wild dog population; and
Adding robotic capability to enhance existing security products might require computer vision algorithms
products reduces the product development such as predestined detection, face recognition and licence
cycle, compared to developing new robotic plate recognition, which have origins in robotics vision.
platforms from scratch, and also expands Electronics, software and mechanical product development - COLETEK is
the range of products that benefit, hence a Multi-Award-Winning high-tech innovative company providing key R&D
services for entrepreneurs, inventors, startups and companies. Image
increasing the demand for robotics capability. courtesy of COLETEK.

Contributors
This chapter was based on several virtual workshops held between April 2020 - November 2020 with contributions from the
individuals listed below:
Nathan Kirchner (Presien) Trevor Fitzgibbons (Kalmar Automation Nicole Hartley (UQ)
Nicci Rossouw (Exaptec) and Projects) Mary M. McGeoch (Lendlease)
Footnotes
2 Productivity Commission (2021) Things you can’t drop on your feet” An overview of Australia’s services sector productivity, PC Productivity Insights,
Canberra, April.
3 DFAT (2021) Trade and Investment at a Glance 2020.
4 ABS Australian System of National Accounts, 2019-20, Cat. no. 5204, table 5; Labour Force, Australia, Cat no. 6291.0.55.001, table 4.
5 Sorbe, S., P. Gal and V. Millot (2018), "Can productivity still grow in service-based economies?: Literature overview and preliminary evidence from OECD
countries", OECD Economics Department Working Papers, No. 1531, OECD Publishing, Paris.
6 Grundke, R. et al. (2018), “Which skills for the digital era?: Returns to skills analysis”, OECD Science, Technology and Industry Working Papers, No.
2018/09, OECD Publishing, Paris.
7 Zolas, N., Kroff, Z., Brynjolfsson, E., McElheran, K., Beede, D.N., Buffington, C., Goldschlag, N., Foster, L. & Dinlersoz, E. (2020) Advancing Technologies
Adoption and Use by U.S. Firms: Evidence From the Annual Business Survey, National Bureau of Economic Research working paper 28920.
8 Selman, J. and Spickett, J. and Jansz, J. and Mullins, B. 2017. Work-related traumatic fatal injuries involving confined spaces in Australia, 2000-2012.
Journal of Health, Safety and Environment. 33 (2).
9 Robotics Business Review (2019) The Essential Interview: Rescue Robots Developer Robin Murphy, January 11.
10 https://www.missingschool.org.au/page/80/telepresence
11 Unpublished capability mapping by Robotics Australia Group.
12 Global robot sales figures copyright Müller, Christopher; Graf, Birgit; Pfeiffer, Kai; Bieller, Susanne; Kutzbach, Nina; Röhricht, Karin: World Robotics 2020
– Service Robots, IFR Statistical Department, VDMA Services GmbH, Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 2020.

8
Transport and mobility

Experts believe that four aspects of the future mobility ecosystem
(incremental change; a world of carsharing; the driverless
revolution; and a new age of accessible autonomy) are likely to
exist simultaneously moving forward
8.1 Australia’s transport sector
The transportation sector is a key component of Australia’s
infrastructure, with almost every person relying on some form
of transportation to go about their daily lives. Its significance is
reflected in its estimated worth ($125.3b) and it employs 8.6% of
all employed persons in 2015-161.
Like other sectors, transportation in Australia is shaped by the large size of the country and
relatively small population. Australia’s road network is over 877,000 kilometres long2, which
means that, when factoring in our population, Australia has one of the world’s largest road
networks per capita. Transport as a sector is increasingly being shaped by technological
advances that are either core to robotics or relevant to the field. Mobile internet, big
data, AI, autonomous vehicles and cloud computing are providing conditions for change3
in the transportation and mobility sectors. Technology is driving the transformation and
reconstruction of the sectors, but significant challenges and a rescaling of expectation with
respect to the timelines of major technology rollouts, like highly autonomous vehicles, are
providing a highly dynamic environment.

8.2 Setting the scene: Visions of a future
transport sector
Social and technological trends are changing the way people and goods get from A to B4.
These changes bring both new challenges and new business models, providers, and
opportunities enabled in significant part by new and emerging technologies.
On the social side, concepts like There are four versions of the future mobility ecosystem which emerge from the
“Liveability” are driving the agenda, intersection of two critical trends: vehicle control (driver vs autonomous) and vehicle
promoting connectivity, fewer emissions, ownership (private vs shared).
and equitable transport access as
cities become larger with corresponding FUTURE MOBILITY ECOSYSTEM
increased pressure on infrastructure
1 Incremental change 3 The driverless revolution
and services like transport3.
2 A world of carsharing 4 A new age of accessible autonomy
How people and goods move around
is also changing, driven by technology
mega-trends5 and shared mobility Experts believe that these four versions are likely to exist simultaneously across
models3. Vehicles themselves are being different metropolitan areas, driven by the specific needs of each area which
powered by new, increasingly efficient determine the pace of which new technology is adopted3. These four versions draw
and cost effective energy sources heavily on two divergent visions for the future: the insider view and the disrupter view,
including lithium ion batteries3. as illustrated by the figure below.
Different perspectives on the future of mobility
Insider view Insider view
The industry will A whole new age is

evolve naturally and dawning featuring
incrementally toward a fully autonomous cars
future mobility system accessible on demand.
that retains its roots in
what exists today. Before long, a tipping
point will occur, after
The key players, major which the momentum
assets, and overall of change will become
structure of the current unstoppable.
ecosystem can remain FUTURE OF New entrants, notably
intact while change
progresses in an orderly, MOBILITY Google, Uber, and
linear fashion. Apple, are catalysts for
transformation.
The incumbent mindset
appears dually focused Unlike the stakeholders
on sustaining the current in today's system, they do
model while testing not have vested stakes to
change in small ways. protect.
Source: Deloitte University Press

The impacts of lower cost per kilometre, improved safety, and dramatically
lower overall environmental impact will require the automotive sector and
its supply chains to rethink “where to play and how to win”
The most conservative end of the and safety with seamless multimodal catching regulators and transit operators
spectrum is thought to be incremental transportation featuring electric and unprepared4.
change, assuming that private autonomous vehicles, the objective of
The impacts of lower cost per kilometre,
ownership remains pervasive and which aligns most closely with version
improved safety, and dramatically lower
uptake of autonomous vehicles is limited 4 on the spectrum: a new age of
overall environmental impact will require
in the near future5. The next version is accessible autonomy5. The beginnings
the automotive sector and its supply
a world of carsharing, where private of this are already gaining traction;
chains to rethink “where to play and how
ownership is forgone in favour of on- ridesharing accessibility through
to win”5. The graphics (featured below
demand car sharing5. Further along the smartphones are in use globally,
and on the following page) illustrate
spectrum is the driverless revolution, and there is incremental adoption
the potential effects of the shift to
in which autonomous-drive technology and trialing of intelligent driving and
today’s mobility ecosystem, as well as
is the norm and private ownership connected-car technology5.
potential societal benefits expected as
prevails5. The most advanced version
These changes come even as many a result of autonomous drive, shared
of the mobility ecosystem is known as
governments grapple with growing mobility and technological advances5.
a new age of accessible autonomy; this
congestion, rising populations, Simultaneous management and
envisions the converging of autonomous
urbanisation, and aging transportation regulation of disruption is required, with
and vehicle sharing trends5.
infrastructure4. Digital innovation is an emphasis on thinking of new ways of
The disrupter view of future mobility enabling the rapid entry of many new doing business5.
promises accessibility, affordability transport operators into the market,
SOCIAL BENEFITS
40 TO
%
90%
decrease in emissions
32k lives savedb
+
100B
hours of productivity
from automobilesa recoveredc
a
Deloitte analysis; annual percentage decrease is calculated prior to any changes in fuel mix and is equivalent to a decrease of 10% to 35% of overall US emissions.
b
2013 figure for US only; global figure is 1.24 million annually (WHO)
c
Deloitte analysis based on miles driven in the US in 2014 (DOT) and average travel speed in miles per hour (Columbia University)

FUTURE MOBILITY ECOSYSTEM FLOW ON EFFECTS
AUTOMOTIVE
Decrease in personally owned vehicle sales and increase in fleet vehicle sales due to shift toward shared mobility
Wider range of vehicle designs could emerge
Value shifts from asset ownership and driving performance to software and passenger experience
Lighter vehicles could enable OEMs to more easily meet CAFE and ZEV requirements
FINANCE
Growth in fleet financing
Shifts away from personal vehicles could lead to a decrease in auto loans and leasing
INSURANCE
Potential opportunities for experience-based insurance products
Shifts from personal liability to catastrophic system-failure insurance could lead to a decrease in insurance sales
ENERGY
Potential opportunities for increase in miles driven
Improved vehicle efficiency could lead to lower energy consumption
Autonomous technology could further enable a transition to alternative fuels
PUBLIC SECTOR
Reduced number of automobiles could decrease current revenues (e.g. licensing fees, fuel taxes, etc.)
New consumption-based, dynamic taxation models could offset tax revenue decline
Potential change in mix and usage of public transportation
MEDICAL & LEGAL

Reduced number of automobiles could decrease current revenues (e.g. licensing fees, fuel taxes, etc.)
MEDIA
Greater time available through autonomous drive and shared mobility increases consumption of multimedia
and information
Increases in advertising and subscription revenues and data monetisation opportunities
TELECOM
Increased demand for connectivity and reliability could result in additional bandwidth requirements
TECHNOLOGY
Emergence of autonomous drive operating system players
Autonomous cars and shared mobility would likely lead to the rise of mobility management providers
RETAIL
Increased mobility of underserved segments (e.g. seniors) could increase retail sales
Expands home delivery options
Changes retail landscape in response to city demographics shift
TRANSPORTATION
Shared fleet vehicles could substitute demand for traditional taxis, limos and rental vehicles
Increased automation creates new business models for long-haul tucking, movement of goods
KEY Value creating effect Value diminishing effect Mixed impact Source: Deloitte University Press

Government and private The ability of government organisations centricity, agility and customer focus as
sector roles to make relevant, timely decisions and crucial elements allowing agencies to
create meaningful impact in the face of embrace disruption while maintaining
The emerging mobility ecosystem disruption is tied to progression through influence over key decisions4.
brings with it complex public policy the curve, and requires change in both
implications, often placing traditional Change towards a new mobility
external policy and internal operations4.
mechanisms for government decision- ecosystem is predicted to occur
Currently, State and Commonwealth
making at odds with the disruptive unevenly around the world, as
agencies typically sit between Stage
landscape that policymakers must look business leaders and governments
2 – Engaged and Stage 3 – Uneven
to shape4. Government is faced with respond to the differing requirements
Transformation on the Future of Mobility
a challenging balancing act; shifting of different populations5. As seen
Maturity Curve.
expectations of citizens, constrained in graphic below, there are a range
infrastructure funding, and increased At these stages, agencies may be of inertial forces in play in the
uncertainty in planning horizons, all of engaged in mobility trials, but lack an realm of mobility, either acting as
which are amplified by emerging mobility overarching vision necessary to guide accelerants or delaying the adoption
trends4. To assist in this process, internal transformation and confidence of new technologies5. This means that
Deloitte’s The Future of Mobility Maturity when faced with impending disruption4. businesses and governments should
Curve for Government (see the graphic Progression through the Future of be prepared to operate across the
below) identifies the various stages. Mobility Maturity Curve relies on data- spectrum of futures, each which have
a distinct set of customers with distinct
customer needs5, 3.
The enabling influence of the private

Change towards a new mobility ecosystem is predicted sector in capturing and monetising data,
to occur unevenly around the world, as business leaders and in the ability to provide vehicle-
and governments respond to the differing requirements operating and traffic network information
systems, is significant, but faces
of different populations
challenges with new market entrants
Mobility stages
STAGE STAGE STAGE STAGE STAGE

ONE TWO THREE FOUR FIVE
Uneven Holistic
Aware Engaged Embedded
transformation transformation
Aware of emerging Mobilising around Actively evolving Pursuing enterprisewide Future mobility roles
mobility trends, but emerging mobility roles and capabilities capability transformation fully embedded,
no clear vision for how trends with an agreed- in parts of the to fulfill new roles and supported by new
the organisation will upon future vision organisation deliver future mobility capabilities accross all
respond or what its and role(s) systems business functions
role should be
Source: Deloitte University Press

and emerging business models5. The making4. The public sector needs In the future mobility system, it is
consensus is that movement towards to diversify its role of regulator and expected that the government will fulfil
a new mobility ecosystem will be operator of mobility services in urban several roles:
systematic, with the slow approach to markets, further incorporating new • Strategist; setting strategic policy
a tipping point driven by companies capabilities to plan and deliver transport direction
inspired by the disrupter view. Finding solutions. This can be achieved by
• Convenor and catalyst; managing
ways of balancing the accelerants and providing platforms that facilitate
or enabling the behaviour of other
forces of delay towards any variant collaboration between public and private
players
of the new mobility ecosystem poses mobility operators4.
a challenge to maximising benefits • Regulator; intervening in the event
Progression along the Future of Mobility of market failure or adverse social
and relies on defined roles and clear
Maturity Curve has the potential to impacts
outcomes.
provide a more integrated, transparent,
• Operator; delivering mobility
Australian government agencies are and efficient transportation system
services.4
embracing data-centricity, agile thinking that enables economic growth and
and customer-focussed views of the equitable access4. Realising these These roles are not new to government,
transport system, all of which are benefits for government, industry and but the rapid pace of change in the
capabilities required in the future of community will require different, tailored transportation industry provides a new
mobility4. However, a fundamental shift approaches suitable to the roles of opportunity to rethink the capabilities
in thinking is required to embed these various agencies4. of these roles, and incorporate fresh
foundational processes into decision- thinking to maximise benefits4.

8.3 Technical challenges in autonomous
vehicles
A recent review of the key technical challenges remaining for autonomous vehicles focused
on several key issues6. In particular, interaction with vulnerable road users (VRUs) is rapidly
becoming one of the key, if not the key, technical challenges, and the subject of increasing
scrutiny given recent fatalities involving autonomous vehicles (ABC/Reuters/AP, 2018).
Vehicles share the road with bicyclists,
pedestrians, motorcyclists and scooter
riders, to name just a few, and ensuring
AVs will interact safely and effectively
with them is incredibly difficult.
Pedestrians and cyclists for example are
not always predictable, yet prediction
is critical if autonomous vehicles are
to continue to operate safely around
them, rather than becoming paralysed
when in the vicinity of them. Interaction
with other vehicles driven by humans
is also challenging, as evidenced
by the increase in rear-endings or
sideswipings between autonomous and
non-autonomous vehicles in areas like
California7. These challenges are equally
relevant in Australia, and perhaps even
more so than in countries like the United
States where car culture is generally Detecting and predicting the intent of VRUs, such as cyclists and pedestrians, is a critical
challenge for AVs (Source: Perceptive Automata).
more dominant.
8.4 Conclusions
The reality of changing mobility is already evident in mega cities around the world (Hannon,
2016). Reinforcing mobility trends will encourage further shifts in the mobility landscape,
allowing the movement of people and goods to be more efficient, more affordable, and
more frequent.
Regulatory cues can be taken from previous consumer-friendly technological developments that also promote public goals such as
clean air and reduced congestion3. Strong partnerships that blend public-private mobility solutions will most likely provide the most
positive outcomes3. “Getting mobility right” will be a significant competitive advantage for cities, and will improve the quality of life for
all Australians3.

Case studies
Predicting the future of autonomous

Predicting the future of mobility
autonomous mobility.............. 126
Proportion of 2025 new car and SUV
Infrastructure and SALES with automation features
autonomous vehicles.............. 127
Autonomous shuttles............. 128
Proportion of 2025 new car and SUV

FLEET with automation features
AEB + multiple Active Safety Systems No AEB (1) AEB only

+ rural Highly Automated Driving + motorway Highly Automated Driving
While predictions for the uptake and

roll out of highly autonomous vehicles
were optimistic in the middle of the
decade, recent years have seen a
drastic softening of the predictions and
timelines for when this might occur.
Reflecting this trend, an Austroads
report “Future Vehicles 2030” presented
a range of predictions for the expected
roll outs and composition of various
automated vehicle technologies8.
Notable in the 2020 timeline is the fact that the
majority of vehicles do not have automated emergency
braking (AEB), and almost none have high levels of
automation. This distribution only changes slightly in
the 2030 timeframe. The story is the same albeit not
as drastic in terms of connected vehicles (the C in CAV),
with increasing levels of connectivity expected to occur
over this timeframe.

Infrastructure and autonomous vehicles
In 2019, a collaborative project between iMOVE, Queensland Department of Transport and Main
Roads (TMR) and QUT was completed which investigated the current capabilities of autonomous
vehicle technology on Australian road infrastructure9. The objectives of the project were manifold,
and included questions like; how capable is existing computer vision and artificial intelligence
(AI) technology, with respect to recognising and obeying Australian road signage and markings? A
follow-up question was then: how can infrastructure be improved to address the limitations of the
existing technology, to enable the safe deployment of autonomous vehicles?
To answer these questions, the research team utilised a data collection vehicle, called ZOE1, equipped with cameras, LiDAR (Light
Detection and Ranging) and GPS (Global Positioning System) sensors. Data was collected from numerous driving routes throughout
south-east Queensland, in a variety of weather, lighting (day, night) and traffic conditions, with a total driven length of 1200km. A
variety of open-source computer vision and AI software systems were evaluated on the collected data, with the choice of software
based on the sub-tasks that are performed by an autonomous vehicle. For example, traffic sign detection and recognition are
critical components in any autonomous vehicle, therefore one section of the project was dedicated to evaluating the performance of
existing state-of-the-art traffic sign detection systems on Australian roads and conditions.
The project resulted in a number of findings, which indicated that further technological and infrastructure work is required before
autonomous vehicles can be safely deployed in Australia. One of the key findings from the project was that existing traffic sign
detection systems operated poorly on Australian roads. Re-training the AI to better understand Australian road signs improved
performance, however, it was discovered that the largest improvement to the sign detection rate occurred by using prior maps of
the road environment. In terms of infrastructure improvements, the project concluded that the creation of high-definition maps of
the road network would provide the greatest improvement to the reliability of autonomous vehicles. This project has demonstrated
that, with a future investment in digital and physical infrastructure for autonomous vehicles, the deployment of automated vehicles
in Australia can be realised.
ZOE1 Research Vehicle. Image courtesy of QUT.

Autonomous shuttles
Autonomous shuttle technology has the

potential to enable mobility for vulnerable
people in our community, particularly in
locations where existing public transportation
infrastructure is lacking. In a first for
Queensland, RACQ deployed a Smart Shuttle
on the streets of Karragarra Island from
November 2019 to May 2020. As explained
by Redland City Mayor Karen Williams “the
bus is the first-ever form of public transport for
the Karragarra Island community which has
some incredibly unique transport challenges
that present a need for innovative solutions
like this”.
The shuttle is the EasyMile EZ10 model which, globally,
has transported over 320,000 passengers without serious
incident. It is classed as a Level 4 autonomous vehicle, which
means that there is no requirement for a driver of the vehicle.
The shuttle seats six people, and has a maximum speed of
20km/hr. Karragarra Island was an ideal testing environment,
as it had no prior public transport service and is a low traffic
and low speed environment. A second trial by RACQ was The campus shuttle trial was a joint effort between
conducted in the Raby Bay area. 1,339 passengers took a free Keolis Downer, VicRoads, La Trobe University, RACV, HMI
ride between November 2020 to June 2021, and the EasyMile Technologies and ARRB, which began in 2017. Like the
vehicle travelled more than 3,000 kilometres. RACQ is now Sydney trial, the Navya vehicle was used. In the autonobus
looking closely at the learnings and feedback from the trials pilot project report, key recommendations were that the
at both Raby Bay and Karragarra Island to better understand shuttle is a safe and valuable service for customers, however,
and develop how driverless transport options could help serve further testing is required at speeds greater than 20km/hr.
communities in the future. Increasing the shuttle speed, without compromising safety,
would increase the commercial value of the system. The
In another example, Transport for NSW deployed an report notes that the shuttle was operating without fault in a
automated shuttle bus in Sydney Olympic Park in 2017. The challenging environment, managing pedestrians, other road
trial, the first of its kind in Australia at the time, enabled the users and dynamic weather conditions over an extended
study of how automated vehicle technology can improve the period. More recently, another autonomous shuttle trial has
mobility of people in the community and what infrastructure begun in Newcastle, Australia this year. Due to COVID-19, the
is required to support this technology. The shuttle, a Level number of passengers is limited to three at a time, however,
4 autonomous vehicle from Navya, can carry up to 15 in a post-pandemic world, it can be expected that autonomous
passengers and travels at approximately 20km/hr. The shuttles will add a valuable contribution to our public
shuttle uses cameras, LiDAR, Radar and a 3-D map of the transportation infrastructure.
road network to navigate safely. The trial is partnered with
HMI Technologies, who is a provider of custom Intelligent RACQ autonomous shuttle trial at Karragarra Island with an EasyMile model
EZ10. Image courtesy of RACQ.
Transport Systems headquartered in New Zealand. HMI
Technologies has also backed autonomous shuttle trial at La
Trobe University in Melbourne. The shuttle was used to carry
students and University staff around the campus.

Contributors
This chapter was based on a virtual workshop held on 24 June 2020 with contributions from the individuals listed below:
Michael Milford (QUT) Stephen Hausler (QUT) Zoe Eather (My Smart Community)
Brett Dale (MTAQ) Paul Lucey (Project 412) Ian Christensen (iMOVE CRC)
Footnotes
1 ABS. (2018). Australian Transport Economic Account: An Experimental Transport Satellite Account. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved from
https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/economy/national-accounts/australian-transport-economic-account-experimental-transport-satellite-account/latest-
release
2 Roads Australia. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.roads.org.au/
3 Hannon, E. M. (2016). An integrated perspective on the future of mobility. McKinsey & Company.
4 Nuttall, K. A. (2018). Harnessing the future of mobility: How governments can enable a better transportation experience for all citizens. Deloitte Insights.
5 Corwin, S. V. (2015). The future of mobility: how transportation technology and social trends are creating a new business ecosystem. Deloitte Insights.
6 Michael Milford, S. A. (2020). Self-driving vehicles: Key technical challenges and progress off the road. IEEE Potentials, 37-45.
7 Stewart, J. (2018). Why People Keep Rear-Ending Self-Driving Cars. Retrieved from Wired.
8 Austroads. (2020). Future Vehicles 2030. Austroads.
9 Michael Milford, S. G. (2020). How automated vehicles will interact with road infrastructure. iMOVE CRC.

9
Defence
The market for defence robots is growing with an expectation that
in 2022 there will be more than 28,000 defence robots deployed
worldwide. These will mainly in the form of demining robots, uncrewed
naval vessels, uncrewed aerial vehicles and uncrewed ground vehicles
9.1 Background
It has been forecast that in 2022 there will be more than 28,000
(known) robots deployed worldwide for defence, mainly in the
form of demining robots, uncrewed naval vessels, uncrewed
aerial vehicles and uncrewed ground vehicles. The market for
Defence robots is steadily growing with a compound annual
growth rate (CAGR) of 15% and a sales value exceeding US$2.6b
in 2022.
In Australia, the defence sector generates $38.6b in revenue and employs 106,000
people, with annual revenue growth expected to be 3.5% over the next five years to 2026
to reach $45.9b. The ADF is involved in combat, deterrence, peacekeeping missions and
humanitarian disaster relief efforts, all of which were activated through multiple global
deployments, the 2019-20 Australian bushfires and in support of state and territory
governments during the COVID-19 pandemic. Increased defence funding has also been
driven by naval expenditure for border protection though Operation Sovereign Borders.
In Australia, the defence sector generates $38.6b in revenue

and employs 106,000 people, with annual revenue growth
expected to be 3.5% to 2026.
The Australian defence sector is an essential part of the Australian economy, engaging
thousands of Australian businesses and generating both direct and indirect employment. A
study by AlphaBeta commissioned by Defence contractor Thales, showed that spending by
that one contractor resulted in the creation of 1,765 direct jobs and more than $522m of
spending in 2019 with 1,362 Australian companies, with more than 60% going to small- and
medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). While Defence’s supply chain is heavily reliant on industry
clusters located in urban centres, the government is encouraging regional participation and
sovereign capability development in the national defence supply chain. Initiatives such as
the Centre for Defence Industry Capability (CDIC) helps regional small businesses connect
with Defence and provide training for businesses on how to enter and work in the defence
market. The Sovereign Industrial Capability Priority (SICP) grant program has awarded more
than $47m to small Australian businesses, while the Defence Innovation Hub has also
invested more than $38m with regional Australian businesses and universities.

Snapshot Defence: What’s changed since 2018?
Strengths
Government recognises need for Establishment of a Defence AI Centre to
sovereign capability in this sector support development of AI in robotic systems
Industry of robotics, autonomous systems and AI Establishment of Defence conceptual

(RASAI) included in Sovereign Industrial Capability foundations and roadmaps for Robotic
priorities announcement by Minister for Defence and Autonomous Systems (RAS)
Funding initiatives through Defence Strategic Update (DSU) and Force Structure Plan (FSP) July 2020
Wins
AIR DOMAIN: First Loyal Wingman aircraft developed. Early 2021 - Flight tests undertaken
LAND DOMAIN: Army fleet of operational roboticised M113s increasing to 20 vehicles
MARITIME DOMAIN: O
cius Bluebottles - AMSA approves autonomous patrol in the Australian Economic
Exclusion Zone (EEZ)
New opportunities
New Defence funding initiatives Equip ADF “red teams” with RAS = acceleration of feedback regarding
announced (DSU/FSP 2020) research, development, tactics and operational concept effectiveness
Development of sovereign Common Control End-of-life crewed platforms repurposed into

for all RAS operating across all domains robotic and autonomous fleets (Ghost Fleet)
Defence to offer funded, ongoing opportunities to accelerate innovations

such as challenge competitions, demonstrations and exercises with RAS
Challenges
The scale of effort, focus and funding Staff with STEM capabilities / interests are under-utilised and lost
of RAS by near-peer competitors from the defence “ecosystem” (ADF, industry, academia, DST)
Lack of empowerment, training and cultural barriers to SMEs lack access to secure shared infrastructure
rapid adoption and continuous innovation in defence for sovereign RAS development
Easing the transfer of development-oriented academics to Australian industry

Significant increase in SME Significant increase in Operational deployment
participation with Defence in the autonomous capabilities of RAS to transition from
development and fielding of many of robotic systems (within permissive environments
smart, small sovereign robots ethical and legal bounds) to denied environments
A flexible STEM career circuit with the Risk reduction in achievement of sovereign,
Five Eyes (FVEY) nations, supporting a interoperable Common Control across all
seamless flow of security-cleared talent vendor robotic solutions, achieving adaptable
through industry, ADF, DST and academia mission solutions for Defence operations

Recent developments in robotics and human commanded teams to increase fostering research and innovation,
autonomous systems will disrupt current efficiency, generate mass and decision developing global supply chains and
methods of warfare. While Australia’s superiority while decreasing risk to export, improving the efficiency of
Defence forces have used robotics personnel. To maintain advantage, every dollar spent, and coping with
for decades, new developments in Defence must also counter adversary opportunities and challenges of
platforms, payloads, controls systems, robotics and autonomous systems technological and digital disruptions.
artificial intelligence and other through perception and control system Such solutions could be applied in
technologies are converging to create attacks, information warfare and Australia, for national and international
more advanced, smaller and more platform destruction. Achieving these supply chains in defence, in other
capable systems that will enhance, goals allows robotics to be the force markets, and even in other sectors.
augment, replace or revolutionise multiplier needed to augment Australia’s Challenges for defence operations in
current capabilities. highly valued human workforce and to wide-area and extreme environments
enable persistent, wide-area operations are mirrored in other sectors of
Such emerging, disruptive technologies
in air, land, sea, subsurface, space and economic significance for Australia, such
can only generate advantage if they
cyber domains. as agriculture, resources, healthcare,
are employed in a way that disrupts
remote services, assets, and the
the future operating environment. The economic challenges for the
environment.
Defence is looking to deploy robotics in industry include building capability,

Despite the COVID-19 pandemic the Australian Government expected to meet its defence
spending target of 2.0% of national GDP in 2020-21, continuing support to the defence
industry. In future, Australia’s defence spending has been decoupled from GDP to prevent
fluctuations in expenditure resulting from ‘black swan’ events such as the pandemic.

9.3 Context 2020
POTENTIAL ROLE AND FUNCTIONS OF RAS IN DEFENCE
• Intelligence, surveillance and • Enterprise level management including

reconnaissance human resources, training, simulation
• Decision support • Logistics, health-care and preventative
maintenance
• Decision making in limited contexts
• Mine and obstacle clearance
• Cognitive load reduction on operators
• Force protection, security monitoring
• Communications
• Counter-measures to adversary use of RAS
• Management of electromagnetic spectrum
Strategic update $195b in defence spending over ten US Department of Defence and are
years, the new strategic plan will boost considering escalating leadership from
The government released the Defence that to $270b over the decade to 2029. the Lieutenant General (three-star) to a
Strategic Update (DSU) and Force Deputy Secretary of Defence oversight,
Structure Plan (FSP) in July 2020 due The DSU highlights three technological
a demonstration of the importance of
to the rate of change in geopolitical factors that are changing the strategic
these technological possibilities.
circumstances since the 2016 Defence environment: accelerating military
White Paper. This calls for a credible modernisation; emerging and disruptive The US and United Kingdom (UK)
deterrent and sovereign capability that technologies (including sophisticated are both developing their own Loyal
can hold adversary forces at risk further sensors, autonomous systems and Wingman air-power teaming equivalents,
from Australia, supported by a resilient high-speed weapons); and expanding Skyborg and Tempest. Future systems
national support base. The DSU and the cyber capabilities. The deepening may also have runway-independence
FSP arising from it signal a significant relationship between artificial and be containerised systems with
investment in high-tech and especially intelligence (as an enabler with its the ability to be emplaced in strategic
robotic and autonomous systems. The own roadmap) and robotics will also locations ready to team with inhabited
2016 defence white paper committed continue to blur distinctions. aircraft. In August 2020, a US Defence
Advanced Research Projects Agency
International perspectives (DARPA) competition pitted a human
Internationally, RAS are gaining pilot against an AI, which won 5:0 in
The 2016 defence significant research investment their simulated AlphaDogfight trials
white paper committed internationally with the promise of new event.
$195b in defence technologies across all defence domains The US and UK have also invested in
including space and unembodied eXtra-Large UUVs systems in the Boeing
spending over ten electronic/cyber, from demonstration Orca with potential for an offensive role
years, the new strategic through to operational deployments in and the UK Manta respectively. US trials
plan will boost that to conflict zones. of the ocean-going Sea Hunter USV,
$270b over the decade Australia’s key ally the United States (US) with platooning and optionally crewed
have created a Joint Artificial Intelligence models continues. Autonomous Mine
to 2029.
Centre (JAIC) to integrate AI across the Counter-Measures (MCM) systems also

Smaller-scale attritable systems are becoming ubiquitous in Intelligence,
Surveillance and Reconnaissance (ISR) roles with the potential for organic fire
support in small sections of dismounted troops only limited due to finances,
culture, policy or imagination.
continue to gain popularity. The newest Hunter-B UAV, has deployed UGVs to focus almost equally on counter-RAS
US service arm, Space Force, is likely to operationally in the Syrian theatre, and of varying sophistication and capacity
utilise significant RAS in roles including is reportedly making design changes to ensure the safety of defence force
autonomous station keeping and robotic and strategic planning for deploying personnel and platforms. The September
maintenance, as it will in Australia’s RAS based on these experiences. 2019 attack on Saudi Arabian oil
emergent space industry. There are speculative but continuous refineries clearly demonstrated the
reports that Russia is now fielding an strategic effect of a small number of
RAS are also gaining traction in defence
Autonomous Nuclear (powered and RAS and need for effective defences.
logistics, training and predictive
warhead) UUV weapon, the Poseidon/ The late 2020 conflict between Armenia-
maintenance functions to assure
Status-6 system. The protection of allied Azerbaijan also demonstrated the
military capability.
intellectual property in RAS will be key to decisive role low-cost drones can play
Smaller-scale attritable systems are maintaining a military advantage. against conventional “modern” forces,
becoming ubiquitous in Intelligence, decimating opposing armoured forces in
There is a proxy-war in Libya, described
Surveillance and Reconnaissance (ISR) the early stages of the conflict.
as ‘drone war’, where an ‘instant air
roles with the potential for organic fire
force’ has been provided to combatants Fuelled by commercial research,
support in small sections of dismounted
through UAVs. Increased reporting advances in size, weight, power and
troops only limited due to finances,
of UAVs lost in conflict zones further cost (SWaP-C) of RAS will continue
culture, policy or imagination. The US
demonstrates their increased use. In to accelerate the accessibility of
DARPA research and competitions
2019, there was a high-profile loss systems for military use. In the future,
including the Subterranean Challenge
of a US RQ-4A Global Hawk over the the potential for RAS to be combined
(Sub-T) and AlphaDogFight continue to
Strait of Hormuz, the lack of a lost with other emerging technologies in
fuel innovation and the growth of RAS
life contributing to a de-escalation. hypersonic (either offensive or defensive
investment, as do UK DSTL equivalent
Importantly, there will be a requirement use of AI), additive manufacturing (in-
competitions for military problem sets.
Key US strategic competitors China and

Russia are investing in AI technologies
at a state-sponsored level, rather than
the industry and research-led approach
in Western nations. China is seeking to
close the military gap with the US. The
parade marking the 70th anniversary
of communist rule in October 2019
included a display of numerous robotic
technologies in advanced demonstrator
or operational form (including the UUV
HSU001 and UAVs GJ-11 and DR-8).
China is developing and deploying
RAS for persistent surveillance and
communications near disputed maritime
zones including the South China Sea.
Russia has demonstrated a Su-57 Defence Science and Technology Group (DTSG) personnel prepare to launch an Autonomous Underwater
Vehicle (AUV) for a training exercise as part of AUV Summerfest at HMAS Creswell, Jervis Bay, ACT. Image
Sukhoi fighter teaming with a Su-35 courtesy of the Department of Defence.

field creation of systems on demand) Robotics and Autonomous Systems have STEM for defence
or neural interfaces provide further been identified as a Sovereign Industrial
potential to accelerate advances in their Capability Priority (SICP), affording The second Australia’s STEM
military application. Defence additional resources, beyond Workforce1 report provides a
other sovereign capability development, comprehensive analysis of Australia’s
Sovereign capability need to support small, medium and large science, technology, engineering and
Australian enterprises (industrial and mathematics (STEM) trained workforce.
The DSU states “A Defence enterprise
academic) working in robotics. It includes a specific section on STEM
that is resilient to shocks and
in Defence. According to the report,
outside interference is critical to the Defence is increasingly looking to “the proportion of people working in
Government’s defence strategy. The fill a spectrum of sovereign robotic the Defence industry who were STEM
ADF must increase its self-reliance... capabilities varying in size, endurance, qualified has not increased substantially
including the development of sovereign range, and payload capacity across over the last decade”. Further it appears
manufacturing capabilities”. This all domains of air, land, sea surface, that the public service holds the majority
positioning is reinforced in the wake underwater, space, electro-magnetic of STEM qualified persons, and at this
of the COVID-19 pandemic. The and cyberspace. Robots for defence stage the STEM capabilities in industry
Government remains committed to must be capable of operating in extreme that support Defence as part of a
developing a strong, sustainable and environmental and contested physical, mature sovereign military-industrial
secure defence industry and supporting electromagnetic and cyber conditions. complex remains unknown.
leading-edge national innovation.
An overview of people with STEM qualifications working in the ANZSIC industry class of Defence is shown in Table 3.5. The vast
majority (97%) of these people worked in the public sector, suggesting they were employed by the Australian Defence Force or the
Australian Government Department of Defence. Using Census data, it was not possible to explore the STEM capabilities of the
broader private sector who support the work of the Defence force.
Benefits of RAS for Defence
Increased safety for Operations in areas denied to or Force multiplication

human operators dangerous for humans (creating mass)
(termed “Anti-Access/Area Denial” or A2/AD)
Increased Persistent Speed of action

manoeuvre options presence and response
through low cost and large numbers
(attritable RAS – expendable)

9.4 Navy robotics
The force structure plan outlines changes related to maritime capability. The Australian Navy
has been working with robotic and autonomous systems for over 30 years, with this area
receiving a high percentage of Navy’s R&D resources due to Australia’s leading academic
capabilities in the field.
To support further enhancement • Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) Strategy 2040), with a particular
of operations throughout the ADF’s capabilities using RAS in air, surface, focus on the need for a Common
strategic operating environment, the subsurface and cyber domains Control System (CCS), supporting
Government will improve its capability • To further safeguard Australia’s AI applications and a rolling
options using robotics and autonomous undersea capability, the Government Autonomous Warrior program to drive
systems in all its major projects, will also invest in an integrated spiral development.
including future submarines, future undersea surveillance system,
frigates, new aviation capabilities and Example
including exploration of optionally
significantly its littoral and undersea crewed and/or uncrewed surface An example of Naval investment in
warfare capabilities. systems and autonomous undersea robotic and autonomous systems
In the immediate future this includes: systems (Force Structure Plan is the recent announcement of the
2020, S4.9) Ocius Bluebottle receiving approval to
• Mine warfare capabilities to secure
• Maritime Uncrewed Systems (MUS) autonomous patrol in the Australian
Australia’s maritime approaches,
are an international priority with the Economic Exclusion Zone (EEZ). These
focused on modern, smart sea mine
FVEY community and NATO, to which trials are part of the journey to enable
systems and enhancements to mine
Australia is recognised as a leader, RAS systems to provide the Royal
countermeasures and hydrographic
following its conduct of still the Australian Navy (RAN) a patrol capability
capabilities (Force Structure Plan
largest operational experimentation to protect sovereign borders. The RAN
2020, S4.12)
in the field (Autonomous Warrior have also established 822X Squadron to
• Navy’s SEA1905 project to address test and evaluate uncrewed (particularly
2018). Navy has developed a
mine countermeasures capability air) systems and their integration into
comprehensive Roadmap and
is also a pathfinder for the future the fleet.
Program Execution Strategy of its
of naval RASAI, and means of
own (Royal Australian Navy RAS-AI
Common Control
Left: The Maritime Autonomy Surface Testbed from the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory (UK), and Bluebottle from OCIUS (right), at Exercise Autonomous
Warrior 2018 held at HMAS Creswell, Jervis Bay. Image courtesy of the Department of Defence.
Right: Australian Mine Warfare Team 16, MCDGRP and DSTG staff operating the Bluefin 9 Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV) from a Mine Countermeasure Support
Boat (MCMSB) during a Project Sea 1778 equipment application course at Pittwater, NSW. Image courtesy of the Department of Defence.

9.5 Army robotics
Army is continuing its exploration of robotic systems and inherently sees the value of
robotics, as articulated in its Robotic and Autonomous Systems Strategy, and realising
this through Army’s Robotic and Autonomous Systems Implementation and Coordination
Office (RICO) launched in March 2020 to explore, coordinate and develop concepts for
disruptive technology.
Army seeks to leverage robotics, with variable levels of autonomy, depending on their role in the
following ways:
1 Maximising soldier performance through reducing their physical and cognitive loads – Army will seek to
reduce the physical and cognitive burden on the soldier through the use of robotic load carriage, smart
materials, automated situational awareness tools, and improving power management
2
Improving decision-making at all levels – Automated decision-making tools have the ability to create
greater clarity and can sense and respond faster than humans. This speed, coupled with reliability and
accuracy, creating periods of ‘decision advantage’, will enable commanders at all levels to make faster,
better decisions underpinned by comprehensive analysis
3 Generating mass and scalable effects through human-machine teaming – Robotic systems can
significantly increase combat effect and mass without the need to grow the human workforce. Robotic
systems can improve firepower, force protection, and manoeuvre and enable sustained missions. This is
anticipated to be through greater human-machine teaming and heterogenous swarming capabilities
4 Protecting the force – This will be achieved by using robotic technology to conduct highly dangerous
activities and is the traditional role of robotics, removing the human from the immediate danger and
hence increasing force protection
5 Efficiency – Robotic systems will allow Army to streamline sustainment, medical and maintenance
efforts. Coupled with autonomy, Army will be able to reduce what it moves around the battlefield and
be more directed with its logistic effect both in terms of cured logistic effect but also with direct logistic
delivery autonomously.

Example
As part of the investment in developing
robotic, optionally crewed and
autonomous systems, the Australian
Army held a ‘battlefield concept
simulation’ in late 2019, showcasing
two M113 Armoured Personnel Carriers
roboticised by BAE Systems Australia
alongside numerous other robotic
systems including various sized UAS
and quadruped systems. These types
of demonstrations and exercises also
advance Human-Machine Teaming,
familiarity and design and functionality
improvements.
Automated decision-
making tools have the
ability to create greater
clarity and can sense
and respond faster
than humans. enabling
commanders to make
faster and better
decisions.
The promise of these technologies

has led to the Australian Government
investing an additional $7.7m into
increasing the fleet of roboticised
M113s to 20 among a suite of $1.2m of
roboticised investments as, according to
Minister for Defence Industry, Melissa
Price, these “…systems are central to
meeting Australia’s future operational
challenges, including humanitarian
assistance and disaster relief, and
combat operations”.
The recent Force Structure outlined

Top: A Ghost Robotics legged robot stands ready with Australian Army soldiers during an autonomous systems
that Army will continue to invest in showcase at the Majura Training Area, Canberra. Image courtesy of the Department of Defence.
robotic systems in both the short term Middle: An Australian Army M113AS4 Crew Commander positions his vehicle behind an autonomous M113
AS4 optionally crewed combat vehicle (OCCV) before a mounted assault demonstration at the Majura Training
and in the longer term, with up to $11b Area, Canberra. Image courtesy of the Department of Defence.
highlighted for up to a Brigade’s worth of Bottom: Australian Army soldier Trooper Chris Jack from B Squadron 3rd/4th Cavalry Regiment , School of
Armour, remotely controls an autonomous M113 AS4 optionally crewed combat vehicle (OCCV) at the Majura
future autonomous systems. Training Area, Canberra. Image courtesy of the Department of Defence.

9.6 Air force robotics
The 2020 Defence Strategic Update and Force Structure Plan noted the planned Government
investment aimed at enhancing existing Air Force capabilities, as well as the acquisition of new
systems including remotely piloted and autonomous aerial systems. Remotely piloted and/
or autonomous systems will be developed and acquired for all air power roles, including air
combat, intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance, electronic warfare and maritime patrol and
response. As with the other domains, the Air Force intends to team existing and new aircraft
and ground systems with remotely piloted and autonomous systems to provide increased
lethality, survivability and capacity.
Deputy Director of Artificial Intelligence, Wing Commander Michael Gan on board a C-27J Spartan during an artificial intelligence search and rescue training mission
conducted off the coast of Stradbroke Island, Brisbane. Image courtesy of the Department of Defence.
Examples of remotely piloted aerial surveillance capability, replacing the Hornets and EA-18G Growlers. The Loyal
systems being acquired include the AP-3C Orion aircraft. In addition to these Wingman is the first military aircraft to
MQ-9B Sky Guardian armed Medium remotely piloted systems, Government be designed and built in Australia in
Altitude Long Endurance (MALE) announced in February 2019 that is was more than 50 years and has been rolled
remotely piloted aerial system, as well investing in the Boeing Loyal Wingman out as part of a partnership between the
as the High-Altitude Long Endurance – Advanced Development Program to Royal Australian Air Force and Boeing
(HALE) MQ-4C Triton. The MQ-4C will examine how autonomous uncrewed Australia. As noted earlier, the Loyal
operate alongside Air Force crewed P-8 aircraft can support existing crewed Wingman completed first flight tests in
Poseidon aircraft to provide Australia aircraft, such as Air Force F-35 Lightning early 2021.
with an advanced maritime patrol and II Joint Strike Fighters, F/A-18F Super

In addition to aerial systems, the piloted and autonomous aerial systems persistent ISR and communications,
Air Force will be exploring robotic operated by the Air Force. specifically to test key control algorithms
applications in the ground environment, and sensing capabilities for a full-scale
The Air Force is also exploring lower-
where the technology has the potential project. It is a proof of concept for low-
cost novel platforms. Autonomous
to conduct a wide range of operational cost constellation to support persistent
systems are being utilised to reduce
and air base tasks. This may include ISR and communications in military
the physical demands on staff,
the use of smaller Uncrewed Aerial operations over land and sea – replacing
making significant cost savings by
Systems and Uncrewed Ground vehicles high-cost, low-persistence space-based
introducing a Supply Assistance Robot
for logistics, maintenance inspections solutions – deployable from anywhere.
– Autonomous Hardware (SARAH) to
and air base surveillance. Air Force Plan The Air Force has also demonstrated
automate movement of aircraft parts.
Jericho has been exploring the utility of with the Navy the potential for a rapidly
Air Force, through Plan Jericho, are
these systems in close collaboration with deployable AI capability to augment
partnered with companies on a project
the Australian Army. Australian industry human operators in at-sea Search
for self-organising, low-cost, high-
is well placed to support these ground and Rescue (SAR) Tasks. This 2019
altitude balloon constellation (pseudo-
systems, as well as for the through- demonstration was able to identify
satellite) for persistent surveillance and
life sustainment and development vessel hulls in the water in order to
communications. This project aims to
and integration of Australian-specific rapidly improve the quality and speed of
deliver an initial prototype stratospheric
capabilities on the larger remotely a SAR task where time can save lives.
self-organising balloon constellation for
Left: Plan Jericho is undertaking a number of advanced sensing activities , including high altitude balloon launches and sub-orbital rocket launches. Air Force's Jasper
hitched a ride on this launch to accompany the high altitude balloon into the stratosphere. Image courtesy of the Department of Defence.
Right: SARAH (Supply Autonomous Robotic - Assistant Hardware) delivers parts from the Logistics Section to Flight Line whilst No. 36 Squadron members go about their
daily routine. Image courtesy of the Department of Defence.

Example
The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) is
partnered with Boeing on the Air Power
Teaming Systems, or Loyal Wingman,
an uncrewed ‘fighter-like’ air platform
to ‘complement and extend’ the role
of crewed aircraft. The first of three
demonstrator models has been built
and flown and will provide a lower-cost
maximisation of the capability of the
crewed advanced aircraft platforms.
Aiming for a 30-foot length and 2,000
nautical-mile range, this is also the
largest investment in uncrewed aircraft
outside the United States and involved
The Boeing Australia, Airpower Teaming System – ‘Loyal Wingman’ conducts its first flight at Woomera Range
Complex, South Australia. Image courtesy of the Department of Defence. numerous sovereign Australia suppliers.
9.7 Science, technology and innovation

The Defence Strategic Update outlines changes related to science, technology and
innovation capability.
Effectively shaping and harnessing the national science and technology enterprise is required to achieve a cohesive and agile
innovation system that can deliver defence priorities. Defence, through the Defence Science and Technology Group, will play a
stronger role in enabling, coordinating and focusing support to Defence from the national science and technology enterprise
including universities, other publicly funded research agencies and industry. This more focussed science and technology effort is
set out in the More, Together: Defence Science and Technology Strategy 2030. Defence Strategic Update 2020, S4.11, 4.12
More, Together re-imagines the way and global. Mission-driven research “Resilient Multi-Mission Space” – and
critical science and technology inputs outcomes will be translated into impact it is likely that AI (e.g. machine learning
will be supplied to Defence. It creates through demonstrations of military utility and data analytics in the information
eight Science, Research and Technology and transition of specific technologies to and cyber domains) will be exploited
(STaR) Shots, initiatives that will be led the national defence industry, including in the STaR Shots on “Battle-Ready
by the Defence Science and Technology primes and SMEs. Platforms” and “Information Warfare”,
Group (DSTG) and that will focus amongst others. The only STaR Shot
As described in an August 2020
on Defence's strategic priorities, as unlikely to rely heavily on RAS or AI,
announcement, RASAI will support
exemplified by specific missions. “Quantum-Assured Position, Navigation
capabilities being delivered by many
and Timing”, will instead provide a
The STaR Shots will achieve scale of the initiatives, including the STaR
critical capability edge that will enable
through collaboration with academia Shots on “Agile Command and
Australian RAS to operate in congested
and other publicly funded research Control”, “Disruptive Weapons Effects”,
and highly contested environments. This
agencies, as well as industry and “Operating in CBRN Environments”,
investment indicates the importance of
international partners, both regional “Remote Undersea Surveillance”, and

RASAI to future Defence capability and
the priority placed on RASAI innovation
by Defence.
DSTG brings multi-domain expertise

in RAS to the STaR Shots, gained
through earlier strategic research.
For example, DST’s Aerospace
Division has demonstrated chemical-
sensing missions with a small fixed-
winged aircraft and Land Division is
experimenting with techniques for
soldier-machine teaming in collaboration
with international researchers. Both
projects will provide background
knowledge for the STaR Shot on
Operating in CBRN Environments.
DSTG’s Weapons and Combat Systems

Division has developed techniques for
the simultaneous delivery of effects in
cluttered (e.g. urban) environments, Upper-left: A small drone carrying a chemical sensor, used to demonstrate airborne chemical detection
likely a future part of the Disruptive Upper-middle: A soldier utilising RAS gesture control for human-machine teaming.Upper-right: The Sun Ray
prototype underwater glider being tested in a pool at Holsworthy Barracks
Weapon Effects STaR Shot; and Bottom: A simulation of four drones simultaneously delivering an effect (e.g. a munition or smoke screen) to an
urban target.
Maritime Division has developed
underwater gliders for long-range,
long-endurance surveillance missions,
research that will benefit the Remote
Undersea Surveillance STaR Shot.
DSTG also has a broad and deep

network of domestic and international
collaborators, having technology
partnership agreements with every
Australian university, under which
various RASAI projects are conducted,
and engagements on RASAI with
regional and global partners, including
Singapore, Japan, and the other Five
Eyes nations (the US, UK, Canada, and
New Zealand).
In addition, Defence infrastructure

will be brought to bear on STaR
Shot projects to enable field trials
and demonstrations. The facilities
include the Indoor Flight Arena at
DSTG–Edinburgh, DSTG–Fishermans
Bend’s Flight Laboratory, and the RAAF
Woomera Test Range, which can be
used for large-scale flight tests and
contains ground facilities located at
Top: A swarm robotics experiment being performed in the Indoor Flight Arena at DST-Edinburgh.
Evetts Field. Bottom: A view of ground control facilities used for RAS testing at Evetts Field, RAAF Woomera Test Range.

9.8 Defence industry
The Defence Strategic Update and Force Structure Plan outline changes related to
industry capability.
Defence requires strong partnerships with Australian industry. This partnership continues to grow, with this Government
maximising defence industry opportunity to further build a sovereign industrial base on which the ADF can rely. Force Structure
Plan 2020, S9.3
A new focus on independent sovereign industrial capability has emerged. Defence Strategic Update 2020, S1.16.
The technology changes with implications for Defence projected over the following six to ten years will also likely include robotics…
Defence Strategic Update 2020, S3.39
RAS capabilities are best considered as Report shows that Trusted Autonomous through shaping existing Commonwealth
comprising physical, electromagnetic Systems are the largest investment investment to generate enduring
and cyber aspects. The physical robotic area with 45%, and Cyber with 10%, of sovereign infrastructure to foster
and cyber global markets are valued at the Next Generation Technology Fund SME growth. Significant capital and
US$103b and US$173b respectively in (NGTF) investment allocation. The same schedule efficiencies can be achieved
2020. The electromagnetic market is report on page 51 shows that 77% of the through cost reduction of business
dominated by the telecommunications investment has gone to SMEs as part and technical processes by creating a
industry with global value in excess of of the Defence Innovation Hub (DIH). ‘scaffolding’ for re-use and leveraging
US$1.5 trillion in 2020. The Defence This shows that whilst RAS investment of existing investments.
need for strengthening Australian RAS focus is achieved, it is spread broadly
Example opportunity exists in defence-
industrial capability and capacity is across many organisations. It is not
controlled shared-development
clear when considered in context of this clear how the successful innovation this
environments. For software capabilities,
global investment. Successful strategy investment will bear can transition to
the best practice is for such
must recognise the comparatively sustainable operation capability in the
environments to be implemented to
small and immature Australian industry absence of suitably scaled sovereign
encompass Development, Security and
capability and investment scale, as well enterprises or consortia.
Operations (known as DevSecOps).
as the inherent complexity of delivering
Whilst significant, the existing Defence control of focussed DevSecOps
RAS capabilities.
Commonwealth investment is environments to support RAS software
Australian Defence supplier insufficient to lead in the global RAS development would ensure a high
demographics show a market consisting market investment. Unlike many of degree of execution efficiency, effective
of approximately 90% small and its peers, Australia lacks adjacent management of technical outcomes
medium enterprises (SMEs), with few industries (e.g. personal electronics, across the growing industrial base,
medium-sized organisations and the telecommunications) to fund the as well as appropriate treatment of
large enterprises being principally maturation of medium and large cyber security risks at a national level.
foreign owned. The present supply sovereign RAS-capable enterprises. The approach is a key enabler to agile
chain immaturity impedes delivery of This limits private co-investment, which technology project delivery, with the
complex RAS capability to Defence. other nations leverage to maximise US Defense Intelligence Information
Given the Australian investment scale the return on their government-led Enterprise (DI2E) being a successful
in relation to potential adversaries, it is investment. The investment scale must exemplar that leverages industry
necessary to achieve a high degree of be addressed to develop Australian best practice with escalating national
focused growth in the sovereign supply sovereign supply chains that are resilient benefit. A similar approach can be
chain. The 2018-19 Defence Industry to shocks and outside interference. used to enable efficiencies in physical
and Innovation Programs Annual The capital shortfall could be treated manufacturing supply chains, through

establishment of an enduring national business models. The application of outcomes not able to be realised by
RAS intellectual property repository to open business models in the national individual enterprises. This is pertinent
facilitate Australian enterprises’ re-use security context does not imply that in the Australian context which has
of past solutions. value generated is open for all to access. a broad SME industrial base and a
The critical observation to make is dearth of industries adjacent to RAS to
The efficiency dividends obtained from
that this approach limits duplication of accelerate sovereign industry growth
enterprise collaboration outweigh
effort, provides substantial efficiencies beyond the current Commonwealth
the commercial risks of doing so,
and enables capital pooling to deliver investment.
as evidenced by successful open
9.9 Think tanks

The Australian Strategic Policy Institute has consistently argued for greater, more-immediate
investment in robotic systems for the ADF.
[designing] systems that keep their precious cargo of humans alive is difficult and expensive. So, taking humans out of the
platform has advantages. You don’t need to design the platform to keep them alive in hazardous environments like the undersea
domain. You don’t need to incorporate space, weight, power or fuel to support them. You can design uncrewed systems for
performance that would kill humans, whether it’s high-G turns, ocean depths or extended endurance. So uncrewed systems can
achieve the same or greater performance (such as speed or range) than bigger crewed platforms. … Because you don’t need to
defend the crew, you don’t need to design the platform to defeat all potential threats. … Much of the cost of military platforms is
due to the need to keep the crew alive, as is much of the complexity of design. Remove the crew, and the cost, risk and schedule
needed to design and build the platforms decreases dramatically. ASPI Cost of Defence, 2019.
In short, autonomous systems are a that present adversaries with decision the air, land and maritime domains. This
way to break out of the vicious spiral of dilemmas, impeding their ability to react is certainly welcome, however, these
increasing platform cost and decreasing and respond effectively. funds are largely programmed in the late
platform numbers created by the 2020s or even the 2030s. For example,
Getting to a more autonomous future
need to protect human crews. Only by the $7.4-11.1b in Future Autonomous
will take time however it occurs, but
escaping this cycle will the ADF have the Vehicles does not commence until 2032.
ASPI’s analysts have argued that
mass necessary to win future conflicts, Until then, R&D activities will have to rely
Defence could be doing more to
particularly one in which Australia on Defence’s much smaller innovation
accelerate the transition. Granted,
and its allies may be confronting a funds which make up less than 0.5% of
Defence is undertaking development
major power. Defence’s overall budget. There is scope
and experimentation on autonomous
for a more ambitious approach (such as
Breaking this cycle would allow systems (outlined above), but it is largely
those outlined in Accelerating Autonomy
implementation of concepts such as of an incremental, gradual nature that is
and From concentrated vulnerability to
mosaic warfare2 as described by the potentially out of step with the pace of
distributed lethality).
US think tank Centre for Strategic change and deterioration in Australia’s
and Budgetary Assessments. These strategic environment outlined in the We should also note that the new
distributed operational concepts rely 2020 Defence Strategic Update. investment plan presented in the Force
on larger numbers of smaller, largely Structure Plan does not deliver any new
The new 2020 Force Structure Plan that
autonomous platforms enabled combat vessels until 2030. Nor does
accompanied the Defence Strategic
by artificial intelligence that give it accelerate the acquisition of more
Update outlines significant new
commanders more and faster options crewed combat aircraft. Therefore, the
investment in autonomous systems in

step change in capability sought by the uncrewed and autonomous platforms. Equally the Williams Foundation (Central
government will need to be delivered by Investment in the current strategies is Blue) highlight the inevitability of RASAI
weapons or autonomous systems that delayed, for example and autonomous to the future of the ADF capability.
augment existing crewed platforms. land investment does not commence
They note however full-autonomy
Greater investment in autonomous until 2033. The failure to move more
remains in the future for all but
systems can, then, be seen as a hedging rapidly towards RAS from human crewed
‘straightforward’ tasks and there will
strategy, balancing the risk inherent in systems is a ‘missed opportunity’ to
be transitional semi-autonomous
over-investment in one future pathway, accelerate adoption. There is also a
human-machine teaming and decision
that of exquisitely expensive crewed potential difficulty for industry in scaling
support functions of value as technical
platforms. ASPI has also argued that the up to meet Defence demand and
capabilities mature.
design of future crewed platforms must absorbing the funding now announced
be ‘future proofed’ by ensuring that they as available.
can function as motherships for future
The advent of robotics and autonomous systems (RAS) has seen the convergence of technologies such as artificial intelligence
(AI), swarming, alternative energy, additive manufacturing, and advanced materials. The potential implications for the use of
RAS by the Australian Defence Force (ADF) are substantial as they range across autonomous systems themselves (platforms,
devices, and agents); human-machine teaming; countermeasures; and autonomous behaviour. As the ADF contemplates these
implications, fuelled by our allies adopting RAS, there is both an inevitability of increasing use of RAS and an advantage to be
gained from the dogged pursuit of RAS as they will, increasingly, offer high levels of autonomy, stealth, and persistence; and will
improve the ADF’s overall military capabilities.
9.10 Trusted autonomous systems

The DSU defines an ADF that fully exploits the use of trusted autonomous systems to
enhance future capability in an uncertain geo-political environment. The strategy encourages
agile, innovative and asymmetric thinking to accelerate the development of a sovereign
industry to develop, design, build and field systems before others do. It seeks to understand
the ethical and legal framework under which these systems are conceived and operated to
ensure Australia meets its international obligations. It demands that future systems make
efficient use of the Defence budget whilst maximizing warfighting capability.
The Trusted Autonomous Systems secure sovereign intellectual property. Defence and build sovereign capability”.
(Defence Cooperative Research Importantly, the Centre’s creation as This was further supported by fifteen
Centre - TAS) is a key contributor to an independent company formally recommendations. Defence accepted
this vision. TAS provides Defence recognises its emphasis on the use of the report and is now working with the
with specialist knowledge in the entrepreneurial practices for novel and Centre on implementation. New strategic
development and exploitation of new rapid capital raising, collaborative design industry-led projects continue to be
and novel autonomous systems. It and development paths and innovative developed through direct ADF funding.
promotes collaborative research with contracting methods. Building on successful experience
Defence Science and Technology and gained in its first years of operation, and
A comprehensive external review of the
leading universities, building a resilient on the basis of this report, the Centre is
Centre was conducted by Defence in
national intellectual base from which expected to grow in the next ten years.
October 2019. The panel of experts, led
future technologies can be conceived. As autonomous systems proliferate,
by ex-Chief Scientist of Australia, Prof Ian
It develops trusted partnerships with the number of research, development
Chubb, recommended the centre extend
industry to guide future requirements, and capability transition programs with
its capacity to “deliver enduring value to
monitor manufacturing capability, and Defence will increase.

These projects are guided by broad learning techniques on board an
The TAS vision is for: Defence needs and are industry led, uninhabited system to better understand
with the support of research providers. and react to the threat environment.
Smart, small and many systems, Centre activities include common-good The project has designed and tested
capable of overmatch of large
initiatives to further support the projects cognitive artificial intelligence algorithms
and exquisite crewed platforms
and other robotic systems – and the vision. The current state of to enable sensing under anti-access
enabled by dynamic composition these is summarised as follows: conditions and to navigate and
of modular sensor, weapon and conduct enhanced tactics in denied
human command components Trusted scalable search with environments.
from national, allied and expendable drones
regional coalition partners.
Led by DefendTex with RMIT University, Trusted autonomous ground
the University of Melbourne, and vehicles for electronic warfare
the Department of Defence Science BAE Systems, working with researchers
and Technology (DST) and utilising at the Universities of Melbourne and
To deliver this new kind of asymmetry, the DefendTex Drone-40 platform for Adelaide, will exploit advanced AI
a layered approach is advocated where research on trusted autonomy. The techniques to deliver a next-level trusted
large crewed and optionally crewed or project is set to place the team in autonomous platform capable of robust
uncrewed and pre-deployed platforms a position to compete in the US on and persistent operation in complex,
provide stand-off delivery of “small, the DARPA Subterranean Challenge. contested land environments. A series
many and smart” systems to hold of M113 vehicles have been fitted with
adversaries at risk at long range. This Distributed aUtonomous Spectrum robotics to enable optionally crewed
layered approach is illustrated by the Management (DUST) operation as a pathway on this project.
graphic on the following page. Given Led by Consunet Pty Ltd with RMIT
Defence’s commitments with multi- University, the University of Melbourne, Mine counter measures in a day
national prime industries to deliver the University of Sydney and DST. Thales is partnering with DST, INENI
“potent crewed platforms” such as DUST aims to research, develop and Realtime, Mission Systems, the
JSF, submarines and future frigates; demonstrate near real-time autonomous University of Sydney, Western Sydney
sovereign Australian prime industries spectrum management to deliver orders University, Flinders University and the
might be best placed to develop and of magnitude increase in agility and University of Technology Sydney to
deliver the “autonomous, uncrewed efficiency cost savings for Australian develop new autonomous technologies
and optionally crewed systems”; with Defence and commerce. that will revolutionise mine clearance
the plethora of innovative Australian capability in littoral operations. The
SMEs best placed to develop and deliver Justified autonomous Uncrewed five-year project is designing, developing,
“autonomous smart, small and many” Aerial System (UAS) effects
testing and evaluating various teams
systems. This strategy is enabled by Led by Skyborne Technologies and of micro Autonomous Underwater
human-machine teaming, a sovereign Cyborg Dynamics Engineering with Vehicle (AUV) swarms and Autonomous
common control system and spectrum the University of Queensland (UQ) Surface/Subsurface Vessels (ASVs) to
agility. and DST. The project aims to research deliver autonomous mine clearance
and develop autonomous live capability for zone preparation. The
By 2030, TAS will have built a reputation
reconnaissance effects assessment AUV swarms and ASV vessel teams
for good governance, sound financial
using AI and machine vision for day and will perform Rapid Environmental
management, and strong intellectual
night UAS operations over land. The Assessment, mine-like object detection
and research-based collaboration in the
system aims to advise operators on the and localisation, mine target recognition
field of Trusted Autonomous Systems
legal and ethical aspects of fire support and simulated neutralisation, enabling
delivering game-changing technologies
missions in near-real time. The Athena zone preparation and clearance in a
to Defence – a trusted partner in
AI system recently received a national significantly shorter period of time –
technology.
innovation award. ‘MCM in a day’. This new capability will
Centre achievements Cognitive intelligence, surveillance,
provide a significant operational step-
change to Navy by removing ADF from
TAS projects represent potential tipping reconnaissance
harm’s way and accelerating the speed
points for Defence to achieve the Led by Boeing Australia this project
of mission execution.
Centre’s vision. examines the embedding of machine

Activity 1 – Ethics and law of (UN) Group of Governmental Experts support of autonomous systems and
Trusted Autonomous Systems (GGE) on Lethal Autonomous Systems establish an independent world- class
Led the University of Queensland (LAWS) to ensure the development of assurance service to global industry
(UQ), TAS with DST. This aims to RAS accord with ethical principles and based in Queensland. The 2020
develop ethical and legal assurance the laws of armed conflict (LOAC). announcement by the Queensland
for projects and benefit participants, Government of developing the Cloncurry
Activity 2 – Assurance of autonomy UAS Flight Test Range by QinetiQ aligns
through advice and policy development,
Led by TAS and funded by the with this Activity.
supported by case analysis, education
Queensland Government. This aims to
and enculturation. This includes TAS
create a trusted environment for test,
representation as non-government
risk analysis and regulatory certification
participants in the United Nations
ASYMMETRIC ADVANTAGE: “THE SMART, SMALL AND MANY”
Enabled by Enabled by Enabled by

Human Machine Teaming Common Control System Spectrum Agility
Potent manned platforms: Large, complex and few
Autonomous, unmanned & optionally-manned: Smart, small and many
Autonomous attritable, flexible cost-efficient mass: Smart, small and many
ASYMMETRIC MANOEUVRE
Example images are for illustrative purposes only. Concepts derived by Trusted Autonomous Systems.

A Defence Science and Technology Gavia Autonomous Underwater Vehicle is placed back into its cradle after conducting Mine Counter-Measure
integration trials during Fleet Certification Period 2020. Image courtesy of the Department of Defence.
Case studies
GaardTech — High-fidelity robotic

GaardTech — High-fidelity training
robotic training..................... 150
Sovereign industry
capability for uncrewed
maritime systems
support — BlueZone Group....... 151
The Athena
AI project............................. 152
Persistent ocean
presence for uncrewed
surveillance and Since 2017, GaardTech have been
monitoring — Ocius providing high-fidelity, full scale 2D static
Technology Ltd...................... 152 and 3D robotic armoured vehicles to
Defence. These enable a wide range of
Autonomous robotic training scenarios, to enhance decision-
targets — from university making in a realistic combat setting –
startup to global from basic gunnery and marksmanship,
market leader....................... 153 through to high-level tactics against
a moving, thinking threat force. In
Spectrum 2019, GaardTech received an Advance
autonomy............................ 154 Queensland (Ignite Ideas) grant which
supported international marketing and
Cognitive Intelligence, an initial trial with the UK Army.
Surveillance,
Reconnaissance (CISR)........... 155 GaardTech has continued development into 2020,
where they are currently incorporating Machine Vision
into their systems which will trigger robotic action and
combative responses.
Using the GaardTech 3D T-80 Tank replica, the team were able to
train a deep neural network on a private data set with an object
detection model. The emerging model is able to identify a Tank
from drone footage at high elevations and limited exposure due
to camouflage, concealment and shadow. Images courtesy of
GaardTech.

Sovereign industry capability for uncrewed maritime systems support —
BlueZone Group
Innovation in robotics is not just confined to design and production of robots. In a local success
story, BlueZone Group has supported uncrewed maritime systems operated by the Royal
Australian Navy since 2000. BlueZone has grown to provide a capability to maintain, modify and
modernise many robotic systems operated by Defence, and has also developed systems for water
infrastructure applications and other customers.
As more robotic systems are fielded it is clear that the capability to support the systems in the field, perform workshop overhauls
and integrate new sensors and systems will be a key advantage to successful operation. For Defence this provides the “technology
edge” that is needed to equip our forces and provide reliable systems in the field. In industry this aligns with Industry 4.0, as robotic
innovation will require technical staff with advanced skills and a lifelong commitment to learning as new robotic systems transform
many aspects of operations.
Australia’s claims over maritime areas are some of the largest in the world, and robotic systems provide the capability to measure,
monitor and safeguard these regions. BlueZone Group provides an example of how support for these systems can result in a
successful business with bright prospects for the future.
BlueZone Technician maintains the Double Eagle Mine Disposal System . Image courtesy of BlueZone Group Pty Ltd.

The Athena AI project
TAS partners Cyborg Dynamics and Skyborne Technologies have developed Athena AI with the
ability to identify protected objects, people and symbols (e.g. red cross or red crescent), on
hospitals or ambulances, in near real time for military operations using computer vision at very
high probabilities.
This system will afford military commanders and decision-makers a decision support tool that can scan an environment and identify
if there is a change that would require protection of a given piece of infrastructure such as a hospital in a warzone. The system
can also process large amounts of information to establish a ‘no-strike’ list including for example United Nations (UN) and medical
or refugee areas in a given location. This system will be ground-breaking in reducing the potential harm to non-combatants and
aligning targeting with the Laws of Armed Conflict (LoAC).
AI detection of tents, red crosses and vehicles used for informing locations of 'no strike' areas performed by Athena AI. Image courtesy of TAS.
Persistent ocean presence for uncrewed surveillance and monitoring — Ocius

Technology Ltd
OCIUS “Bluebottle” uncrewed surface vessels are perpetual, eco-friendly, ocean-going vessels
which are one hundred percent Australian designed and manufactured. Propelled by wind, wave
and solar power, and with generous (300kg) payload, continuous live tracking and advanced
control centre, the Bluebottle is a multi-utility marine surface robot crucial for the management of
remote and vast coastlines.
Bluebottles have been designed to withstand remote and
harsh environments, and are currently being put to the test
in seas to the north of Australia under a $5.5m defence
innovation hub grant. Their implementation will transform
Australia’s offshore sovereign capabilities in surveillance and
monitoring, with applications in customs, fisheries, defence,
energy, science and environmental protection.
Bluebottle USV with its solarsail stowed , using propeller and wave power for
propulsion directly into the wind. Image courtesy of Ocius Technology Ltd.

Autonomous robotic targets — from university startup to global market leader
Marathon Targets makes autonomous robotic targets for military and law enforcement
marksmanship training. The system addresses a problem common to all military and police
forces: the first time they engage a realistic moving target is in a firefight - not the right place for
on-the-job training.
Marathon’s targets are designed to mimic human appearance, motion, and behaviour. A 3D plastic mannequin acts as the target
and detects hits from live rounds. The custom-designed robotic platform achieves human-comparable acceleration, top speed, and
endurance. The targets are capable of building a map, localising within the map, planning paths, and avoiding static and dynamic
obstacles. The robotic base is ballistically armoured to protect the electronics and actuators from bullet hits.
A custom-designed, distributed behaviour engine enables human-type behaviours. For example, when one target is hit, it sends a
message to others which react by running for cover, regrouping, and staging a counter-attack.
Marathon was started in 2007 by three researchers from the Australian Centre for Field Robotics (ACFR) at the University of Sydney. The
company provides a unique training capability and has supplied target systems to special forces, conventional armed forces, and law
enforcement units in Australia, North America, Middle East, and Europe.
Law enforcement officers train with realistic moving targets. Image courtesy of Marathon Robotics.

Spectrum autonomy
Distributed aUtonomous Spectrum managemenT (DUST) is a Consunet led TAS project to improve
the effectiveness and efficiency in which the Electromagnetic (radiofrequency) spectrum can be
autonomously accessed, licensed and utilised.
To enable the Research and Development (R&D) of fundamental technologies to achieve the DUST vision, Consunet has developed
a very large-scale radio-frequency simulator called Ark. This simulator enables project R&D by providing data suitable for Machine
Learning, Artificial Intelligence and Data Science research and an accessible test environment. Many data sets have been created
for a variety of scenarios, including a recently demonstrated bushfire scenario.
The DUST project will develop models of electromagnetic spectrum (e.g. radio and mobile) channel usage within a geographic location using historical data
(shown in purple), to make predictions (shown in blue) for when these channels will not be in use. This way spectrum can be utilised more efficiently by other
users (shown in gold). Image courtesy of TAS.

Cognitive Intelligence, Surveillance, Reconnaissance (CISR)
This TAS project noted above has now

concluded (August 2020). Funded by
RAAF Plan Jericho it culminated in a live
demonstration of multiple jet platforms
in cooperative and coordinated flight with
dynamic multi-agent “cognitive machine”
teams for cooperative detection in an
environment where GPS and comms is
degraded. This pathfinder project has
demonstrated a proof of concept in
cooperative platforms achieving identification
and assessment of ground-based objects.
Boeing Australia demonstrated the unmanned AI tech to the Trusted
Autonomous Systems Defence Collaborative Research Centre and
Australian Army representatives during the flight test event. Image courtesy
of Boeing Australia.
Contributors
Thanks to the contributors:
COL Robin Smith OBE (Army) Dr Marcus Hellyer (ASPI) Prof Jason Scholz (TAS)
CMDR Paul Hornsby (RAN) VADM (ret) Tim Barrett (RAN) SQNLDR Robert Vine (RAAF)
WGCDR Michael Gan (RAAF) Mr Kuba Kabacinski (Consunet) Mr Paul Jones (TAS)
Dr Jennifer Palmer (DSTG) Dr Simon Ng (TAS)
Footnotes
1 https://www.chiefscientist.gov.au/news-and-media/2020-australias-stem-workforce-report
2 https://csbaonline.org/research/publications/mosaic-warfare-exploiting-artificial-intelligence-and-autonomous-systems-to-implement-decision-centric-
operations

10
Agriculture
Growing crops, raising animals, harvesting timber, fish and other
animals from a farm, ranch or their habitats
10.1 Agriculture, aquaculture,
fisheries and forestry in
Australia
Australia’s high quality products and strong food security make it
a premium global food supplier, particularly within southeast Asia1
and the northern hemisphere due to counter-season production.
Our varied climate has led to the development of a wide range
of agricultural technologies, such as sensors and field robots, to
help farmers make the most of an often harsh environment.
Support for digital technologies is increasing with a growing number of AgTech startups,2
and Australia relies on technology to increase agricultural profitability and efficiency. This
makes Australia well-positioned to take advantage of the anticipated increase in future
demand for food for the world’s growing population, with 60% more food production required
by 2050 to feed 9.7 billion people.3
In Australia, approximately 50% of the land mass is devoted

to agriculture but $4.8b is lost due to weeds, including the
cost of control measures through weed management.
The Australian agriculture, forestry, aquaculture and fisheries industry employs ~344,000
people4 or 2.7% of Australia’s working population,5 uses 58%6 of our land area, and
contributed $6.7b in gross value added to the Australian economy as of 2018. The vast
distances covered by agricultural production present numerous challenges in service
delivery, freight distribution and telecommunications. While Australia exports more than
50% of the food it produces, there is tremendous waste along the food value chain, with
estimates that as much as half of all production is wasted before it reaches the consumer.
In Australia, approximately 50% of the land mass is devoted to agriculture but $4.8b is lost
due to weeds, including the cost of control measures through weed management.7 The
ancient fragile nature of Australian soils makes many areas infertile, requiring high use of
chemical fertilisers and creating high susceptibility to erosion and nutrient runoff. Degraded
soil and land is estimated to cost Australia more than $5b per year.8 An often overlooked

Snapshot Agriculture: What’s changed since 2018?
Strengths
Australia’s heavy equipment manufacturing sector lends itself to production of robotic farming equipment
Rural Development Corporations (RDCs) support technology creation and adoption
Strong growth in export revenue despite challenges
Wins
AgTech continues to see increased venture capital investment, More demand for organic and other products
with several agricultural robotics companies raising funds due to increasing health consciousness
Drones have allowed increased application of digital twinning to guide efficient operational processes
New opportunities
Increased move to cloud-based Higher focus on domestic supply chains and sovereign capability
solutions, assisted by improved in automation system development – a result of serious
connectivity in rural areas disruption to both international and domestic supply chains
COVID-19 has seen greater demand for Greater demand for solutions incorporating
farm automation given restricted availability carbon neutral components and
of internationally-sourced labour environmental benefits
Challenges
Internet connectivity as a backbone for cloud processing is still unreliable
Lack of standards for interoperability – hardware, software, enterprise systems
Limited legal frameworks for application of autonomous systems

New standards for data sharing of agricultural datasets, and new standards for local and international privacy
Availability of autonomous tractors and semi-autonomous farmhands for all businesses
Creation of demonstration sites showing robotics systems on a working farm Real-time spraying in horticulture

benefit of robotic technologies is the
potential to apply them flexibly to
reduce environmental impact such as
soil damage.
Remote and regional areas of Australia

– where agriculture, aquaculture,
fisheries and forestry activities are
concentrated – are home to 13% of
Australia’s population, cover 85% of the
Australian land mass, and produce 40%
of gross domestic product (GDP). More
than 85,000 agriculture businesses
operate in Australia,9 and while the
number of businesses is decreasing, is 61. Over the past 15 years, the aged over 50 years. 20% of farmers also
the majority remain family-owned and median age of the agricultural workforce reported that high upfront costs of new
operated. The Australian agriculture has increased six years, while the technologies, and difficulties around
industry also supports 1.5 million people average age of unpaid family members integrating new technologies into on-
in related industries which service the working on farms has increased from farm practices, as barriers to adoption.
sector.10 Like most developed countries, 47 to 61.10 The combination of an Automation in agriculture is expected to
Australia has seen migration, particularly ageing workforce, the remoteness of drive reductions in staffing requirements
by young people, from regional areas most agriculture, forestry and fishing for meat, fruit and vegetable packers
to major cities. At the same time, operations, and the vast distances they and bookkeepers.13
Australia’s population is ageing due to may cover, makes innovation and the
In coastal regions of Australia, the
sustained low fertility and increased development of new technologies a
fishing and aquaculture sectors provide
life expectancy. This has resulted in pressing need, which is where robotics
employment opportunities for a diversity
proportionally fewer children (under 15 can play an important role.
of people in seafood production, whether
years of age) in the population, and a
Internet supported technologies that is on the boat, the farm or in the
proportionally larger increase in those
are estimated to make a $15.6b office. Employment is also created for
aged 65 and over.
contribution to Australia’s $100b people in associated businesses which
agriculture industry by 2030,11 transport, process, and sell seafood
consisting of decision support ($8b), products in these regions. Fishing and
monitoring and sensors ($4.3b) and aquaculture sectors contribute to the
Remote and regional robotics and automation ($3.3b). economic stability of these regional
areas of Australia Continuing development of remote communities through providing a
are home to 13% of sensors, robotics and automation has baseline of economic activity throughout
the potential to replace low-skilled the year – where other industries
Australia’s population,
human labour and increase demand for operate seasonally, such as tourism,
cover 85% of the a workforce with a range of technology- or are dependent on commodity prices
Australian land mass, related skills. However, one third of (mining). Aquaculture and fisheries alone
and produce 40% of farms across Australia report that access are worth $3.18b in 2017-18, employing
to reliable internet was impeding their 17,000 people (11,000 people in world-
gross domestic product. uptake of new ICT tools.12 Farmers with catch fisheries and 6,000 people in
mobile and satellite internet connections aquaculture), while employing another
were more likely to report issues with 25,000 people indirectly (AFAI). The
Approximately 37% of workers in the internet access compared to those with gross value of production (GVP) has
agriculture, forestry and fisheries digital or fixed line connections. increased over the last five years in
industry are aged 55 or over, the most Australia through increased sales of high
One third of farmers identified lack of
of any industry in Australia. The median value species and value adding by the
necessary skills to adopt new technology
age for workers in this industry is 49, seafood sector of $5.3b.14
as an impediment, although this was
while the median age of farm owners
more commonly reported in farmers

The COVID-19 pandemic has emphasised that Australia is one of the most food secure
countries in the world. We are net-exporters – exporting 71% of our agricultural production and
importing only 11% of our food, motivated by taste and variety, not necessity.15
Australia’s agricultural industry will the effect of Australia’s exchange rate Australia’s seafood exports target the
drive the development of robotics and on the price received for export-oriented food services sector in Asia, mainly via
automation technologies in the near species and for competing imports. air freight. Physical distancing measures
future due to the significant impact Australia’s reputation as a reliable and and restrictions on air travel during the
of COVID-19 dramatically reducing high-quality supplier of high unit value pandemic negatively impacted global
the supply of labour for essential fisheries products, and its proximity to food services and airline industries. As
agricultural tasks.13 COVID-19 has seen Asia’s fast-growing seafood market, such, since early 2020 many exporters
an increased focus on food security, generally insulates Australia’s trade of seafood have used the Australian
the use of local supply chains, and an in fisheries products from longer-term Government’s International Freight
increase in direct online connections shocks. The pandemic has caused some Assistance Mechanism to help lower the
with consumers – increasing the uptake disruption to Australia’s usual trade, cost of exports. Reliance by the fisheries
of digital technologies and driving particularly for products that are highly and aquaculture sectors on Asian
demand for online platforms that can export-oriented, such as rock lobster and markets for exports is a risk that has
provide such linkages. abalone. Sporadic commodity-focused been highlighted during the pandemic.
trade issues with China have posed The sector’s response to this risk and
Bushfires and COVID-19 combined as
additional challenges for exporters. the extent to which it diversifies its
bad news for Australia’s forestry sector.
export markets will help determine how
Large areas of both natural forests COVID-19 has highlighted some supply
the sector recovers and repositions itself
(8.3 million hectares) and commercial chain issues facing the sector. Much of
following the pandemic.17
plantations (130,000 hectares) were
destroyed. At the same time domestic
and international recessions, resulting
from COVID-19 lock-down measures,
are expected to reduce residential
construction activity and see reduced
demand for timber products.16
COVID-19 has had a significant

impact on Australia’s fisheries and
aquaculture industry. The impact has
been complex and resulted from both
demand-side disruptions to domestic
and international markets and
supply-side disruptions from physical
distancing measures across fishing
and aquaculture activities and issues
in crewing vessels and sourcing inputs
in some sectors. Australia exports
around half of its annual fisheries
and aquaculture production by value,
specialising in high unit value products
for the growing Asian market. As a trade-
exposed industry, the seafood sector is
subject to trends in world markets, and

10.3 Robotics and agriculture, aquaculture,
fisheries and forestry today
Australian agriculture is truly world-leading – in efficiency, technology and environmental
credibility. This helps Australian farmers attract investment from around the world, and secure
new customers for clean, green produce in Asia’s premium food markets. Australia invests
$90.4m in the agtech sector with an additional $600m invested annually through rural R&D
corporations resulting in a $20b lift in the industry’s value. Australia has more than 400 agtech
and foodtech companies, and supports 15 agtech incubators/accelerators.18
Australia was the first country in the and livestock management (such as does not unduly affect aquatic
world to develop autosteer technology milking of cows, herding and barn environments.21
to allow self-driving tractors and other management). There is limited use
We have also recently seen the
farming equipment in 1997.19 We have in forestry and silviculture applied to
application of new computer vision
also led the way in camera spot spray cultivation, management and harvesting,
and sensing technologies to supply
technology used with autonomous robot as this is mainly restricted to automation
chain management – to help monitor
weed control. The application of robots of existing harvesters and extended use
fish catches, identify the species being
to the sector has mainly seen the use of drones.20 While there is limited use of
harvested, allow real-time adjustments
of autonomous ground-based vehicles robots in aquaculture around the world
to protect fish species, and enabling
in agriculture and forestry, experimental so far, strict environmental guidelines in
consumers to gain direct insight into
use of autonomous underwater vehicles Australia may fast-track adoption in the
the time and location at which their
in fisheries and UAVs for inspection, future.
fish is caught.
surveillance and mapping. Most of these
Aquaculture operations – particularly
applications are towards automation Drivers for the adoption of robotic
those that operate in, or discharge into,
and digitalisation of farm and forestry technologies include: the need to
public waters – arerequired to comply
management practices.20 Land-based improve safety; reduce costs; facilitate
with stringent environmental controls,
farming has seen the largest application remote mapping of aquatic habitats
monitored on an ongoing basis by state
of robots and sensors applied to: supporting fisheries and species
agencies. Strict food health standards
precision agriculture (monitoring soil diversity; and development of new stock
also apply to both aquaculture and wild
and crops, collecting data and applying enhancement and management tools –
capture products. These environmental
precise crop protection measures); weed e.g. technologies to support biodiversity
and food safety standards ensure fish
identification and control; automation protection and restocking strategies,
grown in Australian waters are safe
within greenhouses; crop and fruit and to respond to key risks to fisheries
to eat and that seafood production
harvesting; planting and seeding; and aquaculture.22

10.4 The future of robotics in agriculture,
aquaculture, fisheries and forestry
The trend towards increased use of robots in agriculture is growing. The market for livestock
farming robots – milking, barn cleaning, robotic fencing for automated grazing control –
reached US$1.2b in 2019 and is probably at saturation, but there is strong growth (30%)
expected for other agricultural applications such as fruit picking.20
According to the UK-RAS white paper more precise (e.g. satellite positioning) The design of forestry equipment dates
on the future of robotic agriculture,23 and more predictable. The applications back to the 1970s and redesigning
the main opportunity is in precision of mobile internet (e.g. providing real- forest harvesters to be autonomous has
agriculture – intelligence gathering time market prices for fish), advanced the potential to deliver social, safety
and mission planning through the robotics (e.g. automatic fish filleting) and environmental benefits to forestry,
use of heterogeneous “multi-modal” and interconnectedness among systems including reduced soil compaction,
platforms that combine ground-based (IoT), devices and advanced sensors and the ability to spot koalas and other
and aerial vehicles. Large-scale arable (e.g. electronic fish tags), all have the wildlife using remote image sensing .27
and fruit crops require these platforms potential to improve compliance with In Canada, the industry is developing
to behave in both a collaborative and regulations and traceability. These highly automated machines to operate
cooperative manner to perform tasks technologies may change the way in the remote, unpredictable, often
in parallel, giving economies of scale. fisheries economies are organised, with steep terrains where forestry occurs.28
In combination with other technologies, consumers asking for sustainably caught These include a mechanical log loader
supply chain management and tracing to automate the crane function of
will be a reality in the future, thanks automated harvesting (to detect and
to robotics. pick up logs) and rugged automated
The future of robotics in aquaculture will

The future of robotics in ground vehicles. Robotic technologies
Australia in aquaculture are also being deployed to accurately
see the onshore regulation of offshore
and precisely assess forest inventories,
fish farms, eliminating the need to will see the onshore reduce costs, increase the speed of data
send service vehicles and crew out
regulation of offshore acquisition, and correlate ecological
to sea. A combination of autonomous
vessels, drones and remotely operated fish farms. This will knowledge with remote-sensing
technology to predict and quantify
vehicles (ROVs) – which can already eliminate the need to
the fibre characteristics of trees.
carry out tasks such as inspections and send service vehicles These technologies are enabling new
underwater maintenance – can be used
to work together to monitor fish welfare,
and crew out to sea. forest-renewal methods that maintain
and support natural biodiversity,
inspect facilities, ration feed and count
while maximising potential forest-site
lice.24 The use of disruptive technologies
productivity.
such as blockchain, sensors and
fish, from traceable and transparent
automatic identification systems (AIS), Importantly, robotic technologies can
sources, and fishers offering ”on-
demonstrates the potential of disruptive be applied to determine the impacts of
demand” products from selective and
technology to change the processes, climate change on forest diversity, to
safe fisheries.25
profitability and sustainability of the provide new approaches to measuring
sector. Used in conjunction with robotics, The forestry sector has always been environmental risk and uncertainty,
these technologies have the potential considered a physically demanding and and to assess the environmental costs
to change fishing activity by providing potentially dangerous workplace, where and benefits of different land-use
fishers with more information so that workers are exposed to heavy and fast- strategies in terms of their impact on
fishing is safer (e.g. weather forecasting), moving trees, logs, and machinery.26 forest diversity.

10.5 Main findings for robotics in agriculture,
aquaculture, fisheries and forestry
Australia’s agriculture, aquaculture, forestry and fisheries sector will grow in the future due
to global population growth and Australia’s reputation as a trusted food source. However,
agricultural activity currently includes high levels of waste in the value chain, and places
significant demands on large portions of environmentally sensitive land and water on the
Australian continent and continental shelf.
The low population density, ageing precision agriculture. The application markets, together with world recognised
population, remote location, and vast of robotic technologies can optimise seafood quality and standards, means
distances involved in agricultural yield, increase efficiency, and ensure Australian aquaculture is competitively
production, present numerous sustainability in the sector. positioned to take on high value
challenges in service delivery, freight aquaculture products. The Food and
Australia has established a reputation as
distribution and telecommunications. Agriculture Organization of the United
a supplier of safe, high quality seafood
This makes innovation and the Nations (FAO) has predicted that by
which is produced using environmentally
development of new agricultural 2018, farmed fish production will exceed
sustainable practices, and Australian
technologies an area where robotics wild fisheries production for human
aquaculture producers target high
can play an important role in the form of consumption, and that by 2021 more
value domestic and overseas markets.
autonomous vehicles, cloud computing than half of the fish consumed globally
The increasing demand for Australian
(and cloud robotics), UAVs, IoT and will be produced by aquaculture.21
native species and the proximity to Asian

Case studies
SIRO WANDA® — AI based electronic

C
SIRO WANDA® —
C monitoring of fisheries operations
AI based electronic
monitoring of
fisheries operations............... 164
Green Atlas
Cartographer........................ 165
TALLYOP — The
harvester-mounted
vision system........................ 165
Aerial to tractor
weed detection..................... 166
Monitoring and collecting data on

targeted fish catch and unintended
bycatch is necessary to ensure our
fisheries are sustainable. In the past,
humans have monitored fishing activities
on vessels, but this is time consuming,
expensive, and dangerous. Cameras are
increasingly being installed on fishing
vessels to monitor what is being caught,
but the video is still labour-intensive to
manually watch.
WANDA® is a new software that can identify which fish
are being landed on board a vessel based on video
from electronic monitoring. The program uses advanced
mathematical and computing techniques such as
deep learning to automatically detect and identify fish
species. WANDA® is the product of a CSIRO research
collaboration between its Oceans and Atmosphere and
Data61’s Imaging and Computer Vision Group, using
videos captured from commercial fishing vessels to
train the new software.
Additional development of physical electronic tags could
enable industry, wholesalers and retailers to track the
provenance of seafood through the supply chain, from
boat to plate. Commercial fishing companies could
use electronic tags to manage their supply chain for
quality control and for end consumers to access catch
information. This will provide trusted information of fish
origin at the root of the seafood supply chain.
AI based fishing event detection – fisher detection, fish detection

and species identification, and catch counting. Image courtesy of
CSIRO.

Green Atlas Cartographer
Farmers routinely make crop management decisions that determine whether their business will
make a profit or a loss. Decisions are made using low quality data, or no data at all. When data
is used, it typically relies on expensive manual labour and decades of experience and judgement.
The lack of good data results in: increased fertiliser usage; increased water usage; increased
manual labour; inefficient use of chemicals (e.g. thinners, pesticides etc); inefficient supply
chains; inaccurate yield forecasts; and reduced yield potential.
Green Atlas’ Cartographer takes samples of the quantities of interest (buds/flowers/fruitlets/fruit/nuts) from every tree in an
orchard by imaging them all with both cameras and LiDAR (thus capturing the inherent crop variability), in a manner that is cost-
competitive with traditional techniques. This represents an entirely new category of service in this industry sector. To the best of our
knowledge, Green Atlas is the only company worldwide that has successfully taken these new agricultural services to market, and is
operating routinely in multiple crops on multiple continents. Australia benefits through job creation, and increased efficiencies from
the tree to the consumer.
Left: Cartographer at a commercial orchard in Victoria. Image courtesy of Green Atlas Pty Ltd.
Right: Cartographers in an almond orchard (mapping mummified nuts). Image courtesy of Green Atlas Pty Ltd.
TALLYOP — The harvester-mounted vision system
TallyOp is a world first application that provides a competitive

advantage to farmers, allowing them to optimise efficiency and
boost yield performance to simplify and enhance farm management
decisions through data collection. It is now possible to monitor the
density of produce on a heat map, geo-plot ‘field’ boundaries, and
identify high yield areas utilising an accurate and reliable yield
monitoring system. This technology works for corn, macadamia nut,
strawberries, avocado, mango, citrus fruit and sweet potato.
COREMATIC Engineering provides technical support and technology systems to businesses
that want to de-risk innovation and automate their operations keeping full control of their
Intellectual Property. Corematic believes that every aspect of agribusiness and food industries
can benefit from technological advancements - from planting and watering, to crop health and
harvesting, and the company has a vision to bring an advanced R&D approach to the industry.
Heatmap. Image courtesy of COREMATIC Engineering.

Aerial to tractor weed detection
InFarm’s aerial to tractor weed detection platform allows farmers to save up to 97.5% of their
herbicide use. It is both economical for farmers and has major environmental benefits such as
reducing chemical impacts of farming on our soils, waterways and barrier reef. The platform itself
is revolutionary. It captures sub cm resolution aerial imagery on a regional scale, which equates
to 6TB of data per day. The images are then processed in near real time using big data analysis
and artificial intelligence. Results are delivered to farmers overnight, no cloud, no internet.
InFarm’s platform not only transforms the industry, it also democratises access to big data and AI, allowing remote and isolated
farmers around the world to access this technology easily.
Top: Near real time detection of weeds in crop. Image courtesy of InFarm.
Bottom: VTOL drone for broadacre crops. Image courtesy of InFarm.

Contributors
This chapter was based on a virtual workshop held on 21 May 2020 with contributions from the individuals listed below:
Sue Keay (Robotics Australia Group) Jonathan Legault (Corematic) Chris Lehnert (QUT)
Mark Whitty (UNSW) Peyman Moghadam (CSIRO’s Data61) Peter Brett (USQ).
Footnotes
1 Austrade 2013, Agrobusiness - Research, Consulting, Technology & Equipment
2 AgriFutures Australia, 2018, Emerging agricultural technologies: Consumer perceptions around emerging Agtech.
3 Grant Hamilton et al, 2019, AgriFutures Australia, Horizon Scanning - Opportunities for New Technologies and Industries: Final Report.
4 https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/labour/employment-and-unemployment/labour-force-australia-detailed/latest-release
5 August 2020 Agriculture, forestry and fisheries employed 2.9% of Australian workers Source: https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/labour/employment-
and-unemployment/labour-force-australia-detailed/aug-2020 accessed 8th January 2021.
6 https://daff.ent.sirsidynix.net.au/client/en_AU/search/asset/1030642/0
7 McLeod, R. (2018) Annual costs of weeds in Australia, Centre for Invasive Species Solutions.
8 Williams, J. (2015) Soils governance in Australia: challenges of cooperative federalism, International Journal of Rural Law and Policy.
9 https://nff.org.au/media-centre/farm-facts/
10 Wu W, Dawson D, Fleming-Muoz D, Schleiger E and Horton J, 2019, The future of Australia’s agricultural workforce. CSIRO Data61: Canberra, Australia.
11 Connecting Australia: Future of Farming, nbn 2020. Accessed 6th March 2021 https://www.nbnco.com.au/content/dam/nbnco2/2020/documents/
media-centre/nbn-connecting-australia-agriculture-v2.pdf
12 Dufty N, Jackson T 2018 Information and communication technology use in Australian agriculture, a survey of broadacre, dairy and vegetable farms,
ABARES.
13 Future Employment Study, Greater Whitsunday Alliance, September 2020, KPMG. Accessed 20th February 2021 https://www.
greaterwhitsundayalliance.com.au/new-blog/future-employment-blueprint-kghkk
14 Source: Steven, AH, Mobsby, D and Curtotti, R 2020, Australian fisheries and aquaculture statistics 2018, Fisheries Research and Development
Corporation project 2019-093, ABARES, Canberra, April. CC BY 4.0. https://doi.org/10.25814/5de0959d55bab
15 ABARES 2020, Australian food security and the COVID-19 pandemic, Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences,
Canberra. CC BY 4.0. https://doi.org/10.25814/5e953830cb003
16 Whittle, L 2020, Analysis of Effects of bushfires and COVID-19 on the forestry and wood processing sectors, Australian Bureau of Agricultural and
Resource Economics and Sciences, Canberra. CC BY 4.0. DOI:https://doi.org/10.25814/5ef02ef4a3a96
17 Mobsby, D, Steven, AH, Curtotti, R & Dylewski, M 2021, Australian fisheries and aquaculture: Outlook to 2025–26, ABARES research report, Canberra,
March, DOI: https://doi.org/10.25814/vrza-aa56
18 “Why Australia” Austrade Benchmark Report 2020
19 Global Organisation for Agricultural Robotics 2020, Australian Market of Agricultural Robotics: The Autonomy Code of Practice, Issues and Needs of
Australian Farmers - PART 1 https://www.agricultural-robotics.com/news/australian-market-of-agricultural-robotics-the-autonomy-code-of-practice-
issues-and-needs-of-australian-farmers-part-1 accessed 20th June 2021
21 Source: https://www.agriculture.gov.au/fisheries/aquaculture/aquaculture-industry-in-australia accessed 10th January 2021
22 Source: https://www.engineersaustralia.org.au/News/robots-keep-fish-farms-operational accessed 10th January 2021.
23 Duckett, T., Pearson, S., Blackmore, S., Grieve, B., & Smith, M. (2018). White paper - Agricultural Robotics: The Future of Robotic Agriculture
24 Source: https://www.engineersaustralia.org.au/News/robots-keep-fish-farms-operational accessed 10th January 2021.
25 Source: FAO. 2018. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2018 - Meeting the sustainable development goals. Rome. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
IGO.
26 Parker, R., Clinton, P., Bayne, K. (2016) Robotics in Forestry, New Zealand Journal of Forestry. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301650438
27 Forest & Wood Products Australia (2018) Robotics in the forest – assessing the value of automation. http://www.fwpa.com.au/forwood-
newsletters/1496-robotics- in-the-forest-assessing-the-value-of-automation.html Accessed 06/05/2018.
28 Source: https://www.woodbusiness.ca/automated-harvesting-with-robots-in-the-forest/ accessed 4th April 2021

11
The environment
Robotic technologies such as vision-enabled robots and robotic
floats are utilised extensively in the monitoring and management
of the Australian environment
11.1 Australia’s environment
A healthy environment is important to the quality of life, health
and wellbeing of all Australians. We are recognised as a global
biodiversity hotspot, hosting almost 700,000 native species of
plants and animals, many of which are found nowhere else in the
world. Sixteen of Australia’s unique habitats have been given
world heritage listing, however we are losing biodiversity at an
alarming rate and have one of the highest rates of extinction in
the world. More than 10% of Australia’s land mammals are now
extinct, and another 21% are threatened and declining.1
We are the largest island continent, sixth largest country and with the world’s third largest
ocean territory spanning ~12m square kilometres.2 Australia’s economic exclusion zone
(EEZ) is home to the world’s largest coral reef, the Great Barrier Reef, considered to be
worth $56b in economic and social value as an iconic asset.3 Australia also manages 42%
of the Antarctic territory, which has a fragile ecology on land, ice and sea. As an island,
Australia’s biodiversity has been isolated from many outside threats. However, increasing
globalisation and transport by air and sea exposes Australia’s environment to many
biosecurity threats, including pollution, contamination, and the introduction of pests, weeds,
and disease. The unique nature and richness of Australia’s biodiversity means there is
a national responsibility to protect and conserve native flora and fauna. For this reason,
Australia invests nearly $2b in the environment each year with the value of our biosecurity
system worth $314b when modelled over 50 years.4
Increasing globalisation and transport by air and sea

exposes Australia’s environment to many biosecurity threats,
including pollution, contamination, and the introduction of
pests, weeds, and disease.
In this roadmap, the environment encompasses all living and non-living things that occur
naturally, including climate and weather. It also includes threats to this environment such as
habitat loss, pollution (e.g. litter, air and water contamination), pests and biosecurity threats.

Snapshot The environment: What’s changed since 2018?
Strengths
Australia’s proximity and dependency Many of Australia’s top research bodies have investment
on the marine environment have helped in marine science or marine technology thus providing a
drive interest and innovation in the field diverse body of research
Elevation of the importance of climate and marine ecology Growing emphasis on marine infrastructure
protection, and mitigation against changing climate investments by both government and industry
Wins
An increase in marine industry technology research Increased investment in Machine Learning
and investment with numerous solutions for both (ML) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) research
autonomous and remotely operated marine platforms in the Australian innovation system
Enhancements in communication supporting robotic systems – both subsea communications

and via satellites, with some microsatellite startups in Australia offering new solutions
New opportunities
Investment and support around emerging Investment in more autonomous platforms and
challenges in the marine domain including work methods COVID-19 exposed vulnerabilities and
on the Great Barrier Reef and the Blue Economy dependence on crewed marine platforms
Challenges
Talent retention in high-demand areas of ML/AI and enabling robotic autonomy continue to present
challenges in building research capability both in Australia’s innovation system and robotics industry
Lack of international standards around the development of enabling technologies in the marine
sector. We have seen standardisation across aerial drones but the marine space has yet to adopt
either strong technical standards or operational best practices
Working with regulatory bodies to ensure a robust framework for the operational use of uncrewed
marine platforms, both surface and subsea. The ability to operate systems with minimal supervision
is key in allowing for effectively scaling observational networks

Engage with the international engineering and marine science community through forums such as IEEE
Ocean Engineering Society and OceanObs to recommend technical standards, and establish best practices
for the design and operation of autonomous platforms at sea
Include the operational use of autonomous platforms as part of GBR program efforts

11.2 Robotics and the environment today
Australia is the driest inhabited continent on earth with nutrient poor, unproductive soils (only
6% arable land) and highly variable rainfall, run-off and streamflow. Our natural environment is
at risk and may not be sufficiently resilient to withstand current, emerging or future threats.5
The threats are vast and significant, with pressure from land-use change, pollution, habitat
fragmentation and degradation, invasive species, fire and climate change, all of which require
constant vigilance at massive scales.
Surveillance is made more difficult as pressures on the environment for at national, as well as local scales. This
most of Australia’s small population of housing, food, and water (habitat is an opportunity for robotics to play a
25.7 million (80%) lives within 100km loss), waste management, and energy. role in all these steps on land, in the air,
of the coastline, largely separate from Consequential effects include decreased underwater and on water surfaces.
the bulk of the country’s biodiversity air quality in urban centres due to
Australia has a long and world-leading
and natural assets. The lack of long- pollution, risks of disease due to litter
history of successful deployment of
term monitoring data limits our ability and food scraps (e.g. malaria, dengue,
robotics for environmental monitoring
to understand the pace and extent of rabies), and contamination of food
and management. Vision-enabled
environmental decline, which actions and water supplies from industrial
robots are deployed in long-duration
to prioritise and whether previous activities. Advances in technology will
fleets to collect data, while robotic floats
interventions have been successful. This lead to significant improvements in our
travel the seas collecting data on the
is a particular challenge in the marine understanding of Australia’s biodiversity,
marine environment. While the range of
environment. Hence, Australia has a set including for organisms that have
environmental challenges that can be
of unique drivers to adopt and exploit previously been difficult to identify and
tackled is wide, the type of technologies
robotic, remote sensing and computer monitor. Consequently, Australia needs
that need to be deployed are similar
vision technologies to monitor, manage, innovative tools to allow upscaling
across all environments.
and protect the natural environment. of monitoring programs and ways to
help monitoring, intervention, threat
Urbanisation and a growing Australian
removal, remediation, and restoration
population are placing localised
KEY ROBOTIC TECHNOLOGIES USED IN OUR ENVIRONMENT
SOME OF THE KEY ROBOTIC TECHNOLOGIES THAT ARE BEING APPLIED TO AUSTRALIA’S
ENVIRONMENT INCLUDE:
• Vision-based repeat survey and change detection and quantification, habitat classification,
automated threat assessment (biosecurity)
• Persistent land, sea and air robotic platforms
• Rehabilitation and maintenance robots
• Remote operation of subsea systems
• Communication technologies (both subsea and remote (i.e. 4G, Satellite etc.)
• Robust “marinised” actuation to enable intervention activities
• Miniaturisation of environmental sensors for increased platform flexibility
• Enhanced autonomy enabling deployment of marine robots at scale.

11.3 The future of robotics in the environment
Robots and sensing systems used in the environment need to be robust and persistent to
achieve autonomous operation at scale across the vast distances and varied landscapes of
the Australian continent. A range of technologies are necessary to help monitor and mitigate
environmental challenges. Many of these are close to development, or aspects of the
technology exist in prototype form but are not widely deployed.
• Ground-based mobile robots that can safely negotiate and

operate in remote and rugged terrain without supervision
• Perception-to-Action activities – real-term interaction with
data, where remediation action can be taken as soon as
a problem is identified (e.g. detection and extinguishing of
a bushfire)
• Long-term (trusted) autonomy – navigation perception
capability, long-term planning and robustness (long-term
operation without need for repair). Examples include:
• Clearing litter on roadsides where robots need to be

able to operate safely near cars and people, on rough
surfaces, while being able to identify a range of objects
and take appropriate action (like regulatory and trust
issues facing driverless cars)
• Marine monitoring operations where the robot is required
to abide by the collision regulations (COLREGs) (like
driverless cars on our roads)
• Robust location detection given significant change, e.g.
revisiting an area after a natural disaster
• Robust classification (of plants and animals) in outdoor
environments under all weather and lighting conditions with
extreme precision (i.e. 100%)
• Systems engineering to ensure robots can survive extreme
conditions (fires, floods)
• High speed perception and action. For example, drones
operating at low altitudes in forested areas or surface craft
negotiating flooded and swift-water environments
Such technologies include: • Improved hardware and algorithms for on-board processing.
• Autonomous vehicles to access coastal marine areas under Due to Australia’s sparse population, many areas do not
all weather and traffic conditions. This includes travelling have internet connectivity and, as such, robotic systems in
vast distances and operating for months at a time these locations will need to be less reliant on the internet or
cloud for perception and classification autonomy
• Addition of multi-modal sensor suites aligned with
automated data processing workflows (e.g. hyperspectral • Miniaturised sensor suites to enable newer smaller classes
cameras) of robotic systems
• Overlaid measurements for coral reef health assessments at • Cloud robotics to offload computation to remote resources
different altitudes and resolutions, including remote sensing to assist robots to perform operations including physical
satellite, medium altitude drones and underwater vehicles sample and sensor reading collection.

Funding sources for these activities is a key challenge for considered to facilitate commercialisation of ideas. Upscaling
deployment and operationalisation of robotic technologies. geographic extent and repeat deployments could consider
Many of these can be applied to the environment, and also find not only commercial operation, but also the training and use
application in solving industry-relevant issues. For example, by citizen scientists, rangers, schools and community groups.
underwater robots for reef management might also be used Consideration should be given towards potential research
for underwater asset inspection, or land-based fire-fighting collaborations between environmental robotics researchers and
robots could be used for forestry or agricultural weeding/ those for defence, infrastructure and agriculture.
fertilising activities. Combined multi-use studies should be

environment
Many of the challenges for use of robots in the environment relate to the vast distances and
persistence required for unsupervised operation across the varied continental and marine
scapes of Australia.
The need to provide systems and processes for environmental monitoring, which are designed and built for manufacture and
operation at scale, will be a key driver of adoption of such robotic systems in the future. As for the defence sector, the opportunity
to deploy small robots in high volumes to conduct biodiversity monitoring will accelerate our understanding of the environment and
improve our ability to manage it. While the range of environmental challenges that can be tackled is wide, the type of technologies
that need to be deployed can be applied to most sectors of the Australian economy, and collaboration on platform technologies will
be key to success in the future.

Case Studies
Use of Uncrewed Surface Vehicles

Use of Uncrewed (USVs) for marine monitoring
Surface Vehicles (USVs)
for marine monitoring............. 174
Aerial robots (drones) —
Revolutionising wildlife
monitoring and
conservation......................... 175
ReefWorks — The
world’s first tropical
marine test range.................. 175
ReefScan — The future
of marine monitoring.............. 176
The ReefScan CoralAUV
nimble, advanced
and systematic..................... 176
In the past few years there has been a
The Autonomous Marine sharp increase in the development and
Systems Laboratory............... 177 use of Uncrewed Surface Vehicles (USVs)
to support ocean operations both for
the scientific community, defence and
other marine industries. While increased
autonomy is slowly being incorporated
into existing crewed vessels, the design
of bespoke uncrewed systems allows for
more tailored systems able to address
specific mission requirements with
smaller and more flexible platforms.
One company in Australia, OCIUS, has developed a
Bluebottle USV that makes use of wind and wave
propulsion to provide sustained observations at sea.
While the Bluebottle was initially developed in support
of defence applications, the platform is capable of
carrying environmental monitoring payloads in support
of a broad range of marine science domains, including
remote sensing, oceanographic measurements and
meteorological observations.
USVs are well placed to provide improved observational
coverage of Australia’s expansive Exclusive Economic
Zone (EEZ) as well as support operations in Australia’s
Antarctic territories. Most recently a consortium of
international partners including Australia’s CSIRO
conducted a number of USV deployments in the
Southern Ocean culminating in a circumnavigation of
Antarctica in 2019.
Bluebottles doing a persistent intelligent network patrol using solar

wind and wave energy. Image courtesy of CSIRO.

Aerial robots (drones) — Revolutionising wildlife monitoring and conservation
Estimating the abundance of animals Armed with data on the number of turtles observed by the
is a fundamental part of conservation drones, the scientists then use information about how long
turtles are “detectable” – for example when they are on the
management – managers need to know surface and easy to see – and therefore generate estimates
whether fauna are stable, increasing or of how many turtles they cannot see. Together, this gives an
decreasing so that they can decide on estimate of how many turtles are present in an area during
appropriate actions. For animals that are the survey.
large and conspicuous, this isn’t a problem. Left: CSIRO staff recovering a quadcopter drone during a turtle survey in
But many animals are not. In the ocean, Ningaloo. Image courtesy of CSIRO.
estimating abundance is even more difficult Right: A typical quadcopter drone in flight. Image courtesy of CSIRO.
because of the limitations of seeing through

water. If species are rare or sparse, challenges
can be immense, so that we lack even basic
estimates for species like sea turtles.
To overcome these challenges, scientists at the CSIRO are
turning to autonomous aerial vehicles – aka drones. Drones
can survey large areas far more efficiently than divers or even
observers on boats. Surveys designed to detect sea turtles
by scientists from the CSIRO Ningaloo Outlook team take
around 90 minutes to survey 300 hectares. The drones fly pre-
programmed lines, taking a picture every few seconds.
ReefWorks — The world’s first tropical marine test range
Reefworks is designed to test marine technologies and

uncrewed systems at different levels of technology readiness,
as well as to verify technologies as fit-for-purpose, safe
to operate and environmentally compliant. It caters for
uncrewed and autonomous aerial, surface and underwater
systems and other innovations or sensors that require testing
and evaluation in the marine environment. Services and
facilities include marine platform and sensor test tanks,
tropical marine test ranges with drone corridors, a digital
twin test range, laboratories, workshops, wharf facilities and
Australia is a world-leader in small uncrewed infrastructure at sea.
maritime systems development, however, to
ReefWorks expands our ability to monitor or respond to the
certify and commission marine technologies, challenges facing our marine ecosystems such as coral
especially autonomous systems into bleaching events and other impacts of climate change
operational service, Australia needs to by. ReefWorks is positioned to drive value and innovation
routinely test and evaluate these systems. in a range of sectors including marine monitoring, reef
The Australian Institute of Marine Science restoration, defence, education, agriculture, filmmaking,
search and rescue, transportation, storm-tracking,
(AIMS) provides a national test and evaluation forecasting and mapping.
facility, ReefWorks, to enable the streamlined
commercialisation of next-generation marine ReefWorks offers a national capability to safely test marine technology.
Pictured: the AIMS-QUT reef survey trials of a WAM-V autonomous surface
technologies in robotics, autonomous systems vessel. Photo: Geoff Page, courtesy of AIMS.
and artificial intelligence (RAS-AI).

ReefScan — The future of marine The ReefScan CoralAUV nimble,
monitoring advanced and systematic
The world’s marine ecosystems, critical

to life on earth, are increasingly stressed
and rapidly changing. It’s more important
than ever that we have the data to
make informed decisions about the
most effective way to care for, protect
and sustain marine ecosystems and the
communities that rely on them.
Marine monitoring is expensive, labour-intensive,
sometimes dangerous, and currently only achieved at a
limited scale. Current monitoring systems are only able to
survey a few percent of the total target areas, with surveys
often undertaken years apart or in an ad-hoc manner.
Working with innovative partners, the Australian Institute
of Marine Science (AIMS) has designed a modular suite of The Australian Institute of Marine Science
automated marine monitoring systems that can translate
field data into comprehensive information about the
(AIMS), in partnership with Queensland
state and health of critical marine ecosystems such as University of Technology, has developed
coral reefs. ReefScan leverages technologies in marine a high-performance, reliable and cost-
vision, autonomy and artificial intelligence delivered in effective autonomous underwater vehicle
field-ready, easy to use platforms, supported by web- (AUV). The ReefScan CoralAUV can
based automated workflows. ReefScan products can
be configured to cater for a wide range of needs and
navigate physically intricate environments
environments, improving the effectiveness of efficiency exposed to strong, complex currents, to
of marine monitoring programs. Integrating machine undertake high-resolution monitoring tasks
learning, advanced imaging sensors and robotics. that would be dangerous for divers.
ReefScan offers an ‘end-to-end’ approach from monitoring
design to data collection, analysis and reporting. It uses sophisticated optical methods to create a 3D
terrain map in real time, and navigates as a diver
A family of smart, custom-designed technology will enable users to would, relative to the terrain. It features a sophisticated
monitor much greater marie areas in exciting new ways, providing
deeper insight. Pictured is the ReefScan CoralAUV. Photo: Danielle georeferencing capability and a scientific payload bay for
Koopman, courtesy of AIMS. high-resolution optical (stills, stereo, video), hyperspectral
and sonar-based monitoring. It has onboard AI capability
to undertake analysis and detection tasks in real time.
While some AUVs have already been deployed in
reef environments, they tend to be slow, expensive,
complex to support, and unable to undertake large-
scale mapping without human intervention. Traditional
coral reef monitoring relies on human observers. It is
labour-intensive, limited to diver or snorkeller depth,
typically only operational during good weather conditions
in areas of relatively sheltered water, mostly during
daylight hours, and limited to areas that are safe.
ReefScan CoralAUV is a more systematic monitoring
tool than traditional methods and will be used to meet
functional and operational requirements for reef, benthic
and fish biodiversity monitoring programs.
Navigation sensors allow CoralAUV to undertake a
highly accurate path and repeat the same mission
again in the future. This provides us with a 3D ‘digital
twin’ of areas of the reef and allows for year-on-year
tracking to inform reef management and reef restoration.
The CoralAUV, with advanced capabilities, is scheduled for initial

deployment and operational use in 2022. Image courtesy of AIMS.

The Autonomous Marine Systems Laboratory
The Autonomous Marine Systems Laboratory (AMSL) at the Australian Maritime College (AMC),
University of Tasmania was officially opened in 2017. The lab brought together existing University
research in maritime autonomy in the polar, commercial and defence spaces. Since 2017 the
lab has mounted three underwater robotics campaigns under Antarctic ice, including at the
Nansen Ice Sheet and the Thwaites and Sørsdal Glaciers, and has contributed data and analysis
to international efforts to understand the impact of warming circumpolar water on the melt of
the continent’s ice sheets, and the consequent impact of sea level rise on Australia’s coastal
communities.
The lab is home to two Autonomous Underwater Vehicles and a growing range of tethered vehicles. The 7.5m long nupiri muka is
equipped with bathymetric mapping and water quality packages and is the focal point for advanced oceanographic and topographic
surveys, with an operational depth of 5,000m. The smaller REMUS 100 operates primarily in the coastal environment and supports
training and consultancy services in the maritime domain, including to the Royal Australian Navy.
To bridge the gap between current capabilities and operational requirements, the Australian Defence Forces (ADF) engaged the
AMC to develop and deliver a suite of operator and technical courses for Navy personnel, building on the AMSL experience of
underwater missions in extreme environments.
Left: Trainees deploying the REMUS 100 during AMC Search’s Mission Controllers Course in the deep-water environment of Lake St Clair, Tasmania. Image
courtesy of UTAS.
Right: The University of Tasmania’s 5,000m depth rated Explorer AUV nupiri muka undergoing trials at Beauty Point, Tasmania. Image courtesy of UTAS.
Contributors
This chapter was based on a virtual workshop held on 1 July 2020 with contributions from the individuals listed below:
Andreas Marouchos (CSIRO) Stefan Williams (USyd) Matt Dunbabin (QUT)
Sue Keay (Robotics Australia Group)
Footnotes
1 Woinarski, JC, Burbudge, AA, Harrison, PL (2015) ongoing unravelling of a continental fauna: decline and extinction of Australian mammals since
European settlement”, proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112: 4531-4540.
2 Our natural environment, Australian Government. Accessed 26th April 2021 https://info.australia.gov.au/about-australia/our-country/our-natural-
environment
3 Deloitte Access Economics (2017) The economic, social and icon value of the Great Barrier Reef https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/au/
Documents/Economics/deloitte-au-economics-great-barrier-reef-230617.pdf
4 Dood, A., Stoeckl, N., Baumgartner, J. & Kompas, T. (2020) Key Result Summary: Valuing Australia’s Biosecurity System, CEBRA https://cebra.unimelb.
edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/3535013/CEBRA_Value_Docs_KeyResultSummary_v0.6_Endorsed.pdf
5 Samuel, G. (2020) Independent review of the EPBC ACT - FInal Report. https://epbcactreview.environment.gov.au/resources/final-report

12
Space
Australia is a world leader in remote asset management in the resources
sector, with remote and extreme environments being excellent testing
grounds for technology that has applications in space.
12.1 Foreword
Australia is a world leader in remote asset management in the
resources sector, with remote and extreme environments being
excellent testing grounds for technology that has applications
in space.
These national competitive strengths catalysed robotics and automation to be one of the
Australian Government’s seven civil space priority areas identified in Advancing Space:
Australian Civil Space Strategy 2019-2028.
Australian robotics have niche and relevant capabilities ripe for translation into the space
sector - advanced perception, artificial intelligence and machine learning, and rugged
‘working’ field robotics that can work collaboratively being just some examples. This
translation is already beginning with robotics projects being awarded grants under the
Australian Government’s Moon to Mars initiative. We encourage Australia’s roboticists
to look to space as a new arena of opportunity for their activities and join the Australian
Space Agency on our mission to transform and grow Australia’s space sector for
generations to come.
Enrico Palermo
Head
Australian Space Agency

Snapshot Space: What’s changed since 2018?
Strengths
Australia’s geographic position is ideal for monitoring satellites, space debris and weather
A strong resources sector capability that is exploring the opportunity to be spun into space
We are involved in several multilateral space projects as our location makes us

vital contributors to global deep space observation and communication systems
Wins
Establishment of the Growth of the industry is anticipated to benefit regional Australia – for example
Australian Space Agency launch site planning and Moon and Mars robotic analogues in remote locations
Australia was one of the early The Moon to Mars initiative ($150m over five years)
nations to sign the Artemis Accords is awarding grants for robotic-related projects
New opportunities
Reduced satellite launch costs and an increase in launch opportunities continue to improve access to space
Expenditure on national security is boosting investment in sovereign spacecraft and satellite systems
There is rising demand for New flight and supply chain opportunities available due to the NASA
space exploration services Artemis program and the Commercial Lunar Payload Services
Manufacture of satellite payloads and supply of ground station services
Challenges
Prior to COVID-19, higher wages overseas led to a skills shortage and difficulty retaining talent
Lack of a mature supply chain and domestic capability means Lack of space robotics
complex space systems are procured from overseas organisations heritage and experience

Australian ecosystem to be designing, developing and deploying robotic systems in space
Australia to be a key supplier due to the miniaturisation of technology and increased uptake of nanosatellites

12.2 Australia’s space industry
Australians rely on space-based technology to provide essential data for everyday activities
– from the day’s weather forecast and emergency management to internet access and online
banking. Space captures the imagination and inspires us all. The global space industry is
continuing to develop new technologies that improve life on Earth and offer huge economic
opportunities as well as creating jobs.
Australia’s location in the southern that these services have become Launch was granted the first civil launch
hemisphere, in line with the longitude embedded in the Australian economy. facility licences in 2021.
of Asia, creates advantages for
Many industries rely on augmented The Agency's economic snapshot of
participation in the international space
GNSS as well as EOFS. Australia and the Australian space sector: 2016-17
industry supply chain.1 Australia has
New Zealand are currently partnering to 2018-194 (the Economic Snapshot),
well-positioned ground stations across
to implement a satellite-based estimated that in 2018-19 there were
a 4,000 kilometre baseline that can
augmentation system (SBAS) named 481 organisations employing 11,560
observe many satellites, space debris,
Southern Positioning Augmentation people in the Australian space sector
and weather conditions. Australia’s
Network, or SouthPAN to improve the with a total revenue of $4.6b. The
clear skies, low noise, and low light
accuracy of GPS and other positioning Agency also estimated that the two years
interference make it a suitable location
services without the need for mobile to 2018-2019 saw:
for ground station operations, and
or internet coverage.2 An independent • An 11.3% increase in the number
satellite calibration and validation
analysis by Ernst and Young (EY) has of organisations operating in the
activities. Australia is also well-
found improved positioning technology Australian space sector from 2016-
positioned for satellite communications
will deliver more than $6.2b in benefits 2017 to 2018-2019
and control operations including access
for Australia, and more than $1.4b in
to many satellites for Earth observations • Increased employment with over
benefits for New Zealand, over the next
from space (EOFS) and global navigation 1,100 direct space jobs created
30 years.3
satellite systems (GNSS). between 2016-2017 and 2018-2019
Robotics Australia Group has identified • Steady increase in space sector
The opening of a rocket launch facility
signs of acceleration in the development revenue, from $4.3b in 2016-2017 to
in Woomera, South Australia in 1947
of Australia’s domestic space industry $4.6b in 2018-2019, a 5.8% increase
marked the beginning of Australia’s
capability in recent years. For instance, over the two years (an average
involvement in space activity. However, it
since the Australian Space Agency (the annual growth rate of 2.9%).
was not until the introduction of space-
Agency) was launched in 2018, the
enabled services such as domestic While Morgan Stanley reports that
Australian Government has invested
satellite telecommunication and globally the space industry is expected
more than $700m in the civil space
broadcasting services in the 1980s and, to grow from US$350b to over US$1.1
sector. Australian company Southern
more recently, the advent of the internet, trillion by 2040.5

The space industry has been moderately impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic, with a
weakening in advanced manufacturing and demand for navigation services, while demand
for satellite communications for TV has increased. While isolation measures have restricted
overseas recruitment of talent, it has also helped with talent retention as people are less likely
to move overseas.6

12.4 Space robotics in Australia today
Australia has global competitive advantages in trusted remote operations and autonomous
systems from our resource industries; as well as strengths in niche field robotic systems and
related technologies, resource technologies, and planetary science. Australia can leverage our
capabilities to realise a long-term flagship role in key areas, which would add unique value to
the global space exploration ecosystem and further our endeavours, with associated market
opportunity. A number of significant initiatives and priorities are already underway.
Australian Government civil Several initiatives have been created collaboration, and identify new
space priorities that support Australia’s ambitions in opportunities to access domestic and
the space industry and in particular global supply chains.
The Australian Government is investing
in the area of robotics. Exploration
in the space sector through a number Space is one of six National
Services has been identified by the
of initiatives to realise its goal to triple Manufacturing Priorities under the MMS.
Australian Space Agency as a key cross-
the size of Australia’s space industry to The Space National Manufacturing
cutting area central to the Moon to
$12b and create up to 20,000 new jobs Priority roadmap will help to lift space
Mars initiative.
by 2030. The Australian Space Agency is manufacturing capability, driving
working to transform and grow a globally Modern Manufacturing collaboration by helping Australian
responsible and respected Australian Initiative businesses demonstrate their space-
space industry to lift the broader qualified products, and identifying new
economy, inspire and improve the lives The Modern Manufacturing Initiative opportunities for space manufacturers
of Australians. This vision is set out in (MMI) is the centrepiece of the to access domestic and global supply
Advancing Space: Australian Civil Space Australian Government’s Modern chains. The roadmap identifies robotics
Strategy 2019-2028,7 with robotics Manufacturing Strategy (MMS). The and automation as key opportunities
and automation on Earth and in space MMI is designed to help manufacturers in the development of products that go
identified as one of seven national civil to scale up and create jobs to lift into space.
space priority areas. manufacturing capability, drive
Image credit: Australian Space Agency.

Space Automation, Artificial Australian Government industry to deliver products
Intelligence and Robotics Moon to Mars initiative and and services into domestic and
Control Complex Artemis opportunities international space supply chains.
• Demonstrator program
In 2020, Fugro Australia Marine The Australian Government’s Moon to
supports demonstrator and pilot
was awarded a $4.5m federal grant Mars initiative (the Initiative) positions
projects which showcase Australia’s
to establish the Australian Space Australian space industry and research
strengths to the world. These
Automation, Artificial Intelligence and institutions to make a significant
projects provide a pathway for
Robotics Control Complex (SpAARC) contribution to NASA’s plans to return to
Australian industry and researchers
in Western Australia. As one of seven the Moon and on to Mars. Through this,
to rapidly develop and demonstrate
Space Infrastructure Fund projects Australia is positioned to work alongside
products and projects, including in
commissioned by the Australian many nations in a global effort, and
space, that will create new capability
Space Agency, this facility will help access opportunities that would
and enable new business ventures,
build the Australian space industry otherwise be unavailable.
revenue streams and the creation of
by supporting the development and Applications for the Initiative opened new markets.
operation of robotic and remote asset in February 2021, with the initiative
management activities. • Trailblazer program
providing $150m to support Australian
Australia’s flagship mission
businesses and researchers to access
supporting NASA’s Moon to Mars
national and international space supply
activities that demonstrates and
chains, create jobs in Australia and
develops Australia’s strengths,
support the growth of industries across
Australian Government ingenuity and capabilities, while
the economy through the development
is investing in the space and application of space technologies.
inspiring the nation.
sector to realise its The Initiative is comprised of three The Supply Chain and Demonstrator
goal to triple the size interconnected programs: programs form the foundation of
• Supply chain program the Moon to Mars initiative, and are
of Australia’s space complemented by the Trailblazer
targets projects and activities that
industry by 2030. build capability in Australia’s space program as the flagship element of
industry and support Australian the Initiative.
12.5 Space robotics in Australia in the future

In the future, there will be complex crewed and uncrewed space missions supported by robotic
elements in orbit, automated laboratories on the surface of exploration sites, and mobile units
directly supporting human explorers working together in human-robot teams. Among the first
steps necessary to achieve this vision will be the development of remote operations as a
foundation service to support and sometimes control ongoing missions.
There will be a need for robust rovers to generate products (including robots) a library of terrestrial analogues. For
to explore, with landers acting as base made from onsite materials. Australia to grow a trusted reputation
stations, and automated laboratories in off-Earth robotics, developers of
Australia also serves as a natural living
working at the direction of human space robotic systems need tools and
laboratory for testing space robotic
operators and, increasingly, to perform methodologies to ensure that such
technologies before deployment. Many
valuable science without direct human systems will work reliably and safely, in
remote areas of Australia with low
intervention. In-situ resource utilisation the harsh conditions of space, according
vegetation cover and sparse population
(ISRU) extraction will be a long-term goal, to the following design principles.
form ideal testing grounds, providing

Design principles vacuum, engineers must consider the contaminants cannot be solved by
additional factors since air convection merely shaking or moving through the
Engineering rovers and robots that can is impossible. atmosphere. Contamination can be
withstand the physics of space is a non- particularly troublesome to a robot's
intuitive experience for traditional Earth- Radiation design since interacting with the dust,
based practitioners. Space robots may High ionising radiation levels outside ice, or particles may be the mission's
be: surface-based or in a microgravity of the Earth's protective atmosphere entire purpose. In thermal management,
environment; and either, internal within present a significant threat to reliable particulate material can also become an
a pressurised atmosphere or external in sensing and computing. Radiation insulator keeping harmful heat near the
the space environment. Surface-based tolerant systems are therefore required robot rather than transferring the energy
external robots such as rovers must for space robotics. Although the amount to the surrounding environment. Careful
be resilient through launch, descent and type of radiation may change design considerations must account
and landing where the equipment will depending on the robot's location and for fractional gravity environments
experience high levels of acceleration the radiation atmosphere around the and how robot surfaces can remain as
and vibration. Temperature variances, body, engineers must carefully consider uncontaminated as possible.
pressure, contamination, materials, and the effects of a single event upset (SEU)
radiation must be carefully considered or "bit flip" in processors, memory, or Vacuum
in the design. Finally, the entire system power transistors. In addition to this, Working in a vacuum presents several
must operate without failure or isolate they must consider the challenges of engineering challenges. Engineers must
failed subsystems and continue the Single Event Latch-ups and long term carefully follow space manufacturing
mission with reduced functionality. This accumulative Total Ionising Dose which standards to ensure that electrical
is important as there will be no ability to will cause destructive failures. While connections, mechanical lubrication,
repair the system should a problem arise there are radiation-hardened compute sensor optics and material outgassing
during the mission. solutions available, robot creators must requirements can accommodate or
consider that the processor speed and safely adjust to this state of operation.
Thermal
architectures could often be orders of Any air molecules trapped in a solder
Surviving in the extreme temperatures magnitude less capable than their on- joint or electrical component during
of space is difficult. A robot on the lunar Earth counterparts. manufacture, for example, will expand
surface, for instance, needs to have and dramatically destroy electronic
materials and power that can withstand Contamination circuit boards or components when
127°C days and -173°C nights. On Earth, we experience a world in exposed to a vacuum. Vacuum adds
Additionally, night and day last for 13 which gravity is one of the predominant additional complexity to the already
and a half Earth days, so a considerable forces. In microgravity environments, extreme thermal management
amount of thermal management the electromagnetic forces can become mentioned previously, as there is no air
and long-term power sources are primary and cause difficulty with to provide convection and move heat
required. Transition to or from shadow contaminants becoming attracted to away from components. The heat will
can represent a dramatic plus or sensor surfaces, solar panels, antennas, tend to ’pool‘ around sources and cause
minus 100°C swing in temperature. heat sinks, etc. Additionally, because failures that would otherwise not be a
If the robot is expected to work in a there is no air in a vacuum, removing problem in an air atmosphere.

Distance Compute provide existing infrastructure and
The distance between the robot and From a computing standpoint, space protection from temperature variances
the location in which it is operating represents one of the most challenging and radiation. On Mars, deep craters
has two direct effects on design. First, environments in which robots could and geographic features larger than any
the speed of light will inherently delay work. As mentioned above, vacuum, on Earth may hold the key to important
communications. The round-trip time radiation and thermal environments volatiles for future human visitors.
to the lunar surface is approximately present significant engineering Robots that can climb, crawl, roll,
2.6 seconds, and the delay to Mars barriers. As such, engineers must descend and jump might become key to
can be between four to 24 minutes. carefully choose and design algorithms future missions. Examples of prototype
Those times also assume a direct line supporting computer vision, navigation, space robots exist in the literature,
of communication; relaying through sensors, knowledge representation, and modern roboticists can benefit
other spacecraft or ground switching and artificial intelligence to work significantly from exploring mobility and
times may increase transmission time. on computing platforms that are design alternatives.
Secondly, as distance increases, the heavily Size Weight and Power (SWAP) Materials
amount of bandwidth decreases for the constrained.
Material selection for robots in space
same amount of power and coverage.
As a result, systems that can operate Sensing presents unique challenges. Mass
Sensors and sensing algorithms must reduction is the foundation of any
autonomously with significant delays and
be carefully selected. Concerns and significant object launched from
limited bandwidth will provide superior
considerations for computing also Earth. As such, lighter metals for
value and reliability.
apply to sensors since they contain robotics structures such as aluminium,
logic, memory, and interconnected titanium, and composites are typically
components. As such, very few off-the- used. Unfortunately, these materials
shelf sensors are likely to be used for and metals are not ideal compared
Surface-based external extended missions. Early algorithms, to heavier metals for heat transfer
robots such as rovers prototypes, and testing must adopt (copper), radiation protection (lead), and
durability (steel and plastics). Designers
must be resilient flexibility in the sensors that can be
used. It is unlikely that state-of-the-art must carefully balance, optimise, and
through launch, compromise material selection based on
Earth sensors will be representative of
descent and landing their flight-compatible counterparts. For mission requirement and environmental
where the equipment robots operating in a vacuum, algorithms constraints that may sometimes seem in
and sensors must operate robustly in direct conflict.
will experience high
high contrast environments where the The above points enumerate just some
levels of acceleration difference between light and shadow is of the changes needed between Earth-
and vibration. unlike anything experienced inside the based robotics and building robots for
Earth’s atmosphere. Finally, simulation in-space utilisation, especially planetary
and high precision modelling of sensors, exploration. Fortunately for today’s
algorithms, and the robot’s interaction robotic designers, there are successful
Traditional internet protocols do not work
in the planned environment are vital to lunar reference missions to learn from.
reliably over significant delays and can
mission success. The Soviet Union’s Lunokhod and the
be wasteful in low-bandwidth regimes.
Chinese Yutu help roboticists understand
Delay and disruption tolerant networking Movement
how to operate in dusty bodies with no
are essential when operating robots at Nearly all planetary surface robots atmosphere. Five successful Mars rovers
great distances and over communication have used wheels as their mode of by the United States teach us how robots
links that lack continuous network locomotion. The mechanical simplicity, might work in a different but equally
connectivity. Modern robots destined ease of modelling, and reliability make harsh Martian environment. Robots are
for other terrestrial bodies will benefit wheels ideal in relatively flat terrain. mobile, but engineers can also learn
significantly by using and improving As robotic designers begin to explore valuable lessons from stationary landers
flexible network protocols that leverage more challenging environments, wheels humans have sent to terrestrial bodies
delay-tolerant networking schemes and alone may not suffice. For instance, such as Venus, Mercury, Saturn’s moon
allow prioritisation of network data. on the lunar surface, lava tubes may Titan, asteroids, and comets.

Design Principles for robotic platforms must take
into account both program and system designs.
Naturally not all of them are applicable to all
missions. Following are some of the principles that
must be considered:
Platform architecture
• Community and ecosystem focus on development of
capable platforms
• Individual science, research and commercial groups focus
on payload development
Focused on the support of lunar build up
• Development of capacities designed to deliver services on
the Moon to support ongoing operations
Small and the many
• Many small but different systems working together to
achieve a goal
Collaborative robotics
• The capability to work together with partner robots and
future systems to jointly complete tasks
Surface/field robotics
• Lunar surface as the near term focus area of operations
Common software and architectures
• Extensible and supplier agnostic
• Collaborative and community set standards and software
Persistent and enduring operations
• In support of long-term presence off Earth
Production at a long-term base
• Doing the same task to produce or achieve a goal
• Focused operations in a fixed area opposed to exploring
over the horizon
Australian manufactured systems
• Platform systems locally built for Australian but also
export markets
• Software for sensing and robotics
• Focus on low mass, high value systems and components
Terrestrial analogues
• Proof of viability by the use of terrestrial prototypes
• Extensive in-analogue testing
Integrated into Australia’s remote operations ecosystem
• Interoperability with
• Space Automation, Artificial Intelligence and Robotics
Control Complex (SpAARC)
• Responsive Space Operations Centre (RSOC)
• Analogue site operations
Many missions with high iteration
• Test business models with lots of small missions rather
than one big mission
• Test, break, learn, rebuild
The “ility's”
• Reliability • Upgradeability
• Maintainability • Dependability
• Interoperability • Scalability.
space industry
The Australian robotics community has a unique opportunity to extend itself into the growing
space robotics ecosystem – delivering technology returns to Earth, and energising Australians
to tackle the biggest challenges both on and off Earth.
Space-enabled services boost the software, and applications, and close being established from research to
productivity of all sectors of the strategic alliances with existing space commercialisation. The growth of
Australian economy. Australia’s powerhouses position the nation for opportunities in the space industry
strong education system, geographic success. The establishment of the acts as a strong incentive to encourage
location in the Southern Hemisphere Australian Space Agency in 2018 Australian graduates and researchers
for satellite ground stations, world- has already seen the domestic space with space capabilities to remain
class capabilities in ground systems, industry grow, with better pathways in Australia.
Contributors
This chapter was based on a virtual workshop held on 9 July 2020, attended by 58 people, with contributions from the
individuals listed below:
Ross Dungavell (CSIRO’s Data61) Jonathon Ralston (CSIRO) Mark Micire (Woodside)
Footnotes
1 ACIL Allen (2017) Australian Space Industry Capability, Department of Industry, Innovation and Science, Canberra.
2 Geoscience Australia. (2020) Australia, SouthPAN to position Australia and New Zealand into the future. Geoscience Australia. Accessed 9 July 2021
https://www.ga.gov.au/news-events/news/latest-news/southpan-to-position-australia-and-new-zealand-into-the-future
3 Ernst & Young (2019) SBAS Test-bed Demonstrator Trial: Economic Benefits Report. Frontier SI.
4 Australian Space Agency (2021) Economic Snapshot of the Australian Space Sector 2016-17 to 2018-19. Accessed 9 July 2021. https://www.industry.
gov.au/sites/default/files/2021-02/snapshot-report-australian-civil-space-sector-2016-17-to-2018-19.pdf
5 Morgan Stanley (2020) Space: Investing in the Final Frontier. Accessed 19 June 2021. www.morganstanley.com/ideas/investing-in-space
6 Harrison, L. (2020) Satellite Communications and Astronautics in Australia. IBISWorld AI Industry Specialized Report OD5545.
7 https://publications.industry.gov.au/publications/advancing-space-australian-civil-space-strategy-2019-2028.pdf
Left: Image credit: CSIRO.

Right: New Robotic platforms are required to meet the challenges of lunar operations and they may look different to terrestrial robot designs. Image credit: CSIRO.

13
Drones
Drones and robotics are often discussed in tandem. Most of the issues
surrounding drones also affect robotics but there are issues that are
unique to drones. An aircraft will have similar hardware challenges to a
ground robot for example however their risk profile is very different.
Image courtesy of CSIRO's Data61.

13.1 What is a drone?
All drones are robots, but not all robots are drones. The key
feature distinguishing drones from other robots is their ability to
fly. How are drones different from the aeroplane you might take
to get to your next far-away destination? If the pilot is on-board
the aircraft, then it isn’t a drone.
When people think of a drone, typically a multirotor (and more specifically, a quadcopter)
comes to mind. This is thanks to the prevalence of companies creating consumer hobbyist
drones in this exact configuration (see 'Definition of Uncrewed Aircraft Systems' overleaf).
However, drones aren’t limited to such a narrow definition. They can be fixed-wing, like an
aeroplane, or rotary, like a helicopter or multi-rotor (which has multiple propellers). There are
even hybrid drones which use pieces of different styles to make something more versatile,
like a tilt-rotor. No matter what they look like, they all fly, and they all have no on-board pilot.
There are also many names for drones. Until relatively recently, the term “drone” had
negative connotations and so the term “Uncrewed1 Aircraft System” (UAS) was created.
UAS encapsulates both Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems (RPAS) and Autonomous Aircraft
Systems (AAS). The way in which these categories are broken down under the broad
umbrella of “aircraft” can be seen in 'Definition of Uncrewed Aircraft Systems' overleaf. A
drone purchased for hobby purposes is typically going to fall into the RPAS/model aircraft
category, while systems that do not require a pilot to complete their mission fall into the
autonomous category. As flight control and planning software becomes more advanced, the
line between these two categories becomes more blurred. For the purposes of this roadmap,
we are considering both of these categories listed under “UAS” but will continue to use the
word “drone”.
Drones can be
fixed-wing, like an
aeroplane, or rotary,
like a helicopter or
multi-rotor. No matter
what they look like,
they all fly, and they all
have no on-board pilot.
Example quadcopter

Snapshot Drones: What’s changed since 2018?
Strengths
Drones handle jobs that Australia allows novel Drones are relatively
are dull, dirty, or dangerous drone system testing inexpensive technology
Wins
Drones from all over the world can be tested Australia has the capability to create an
at Australia’s purpose-built test facilities independent drone development system
Drones are now largely accepted by the public
New opportunities
The addition of use-cases for logistics Creation of the Uncrewed Traffic Management (UTM) system
and delivery, and urban air mobility which would seamlessly integrate drones into existing airspace
A supported and connected drone ecosystem Technical developments such as swarming

within Australia to remove supply chain challenges (single operator, multiple drones)
Development of sovereign capability for the creation of drones from start to finish (design,
manufacturing, testing, and training for the drone and associated systems), including the
air vehicle, software, sensors, accessories and support
Challenges
Overcoming factors such as noise, safety and privacy concerns to increase societal acceptance Illegal drones
Finding ways to adequately measure and assure the safety Enforcement of existing drone regulations,
of drones as a system, (including autonomous elements) such as registration of commercial drones

Establishment of a ‘safety and trust assurance Increases in the level of autonomy and decision
of drones’ program for independent evaluation making afforded to drones and the systems
of platforms and their software that use information gathered by them
Operations beyond visual line of sight (BVLOS) becoming The development of a counter-
more widespread through the introduction of clear and drone industry to combat
accessible regulation, equipment and operating standards illegal drone operations
Creation of Australian drone life-cycle (from concept and design, Urban air mobility (UAM) and drone
through to manufacturing and testing, and finally end of life delivery. First moving packages
recycling of the platform), and system management (including and cargo through urban areas and
software, sensors, payload, supporting equipment, and training) eventually people in ‘air taxis’

Definition of Uncrewed Aircraft Systems (UAS) or "drones" as used by this document2
AIRCRAFT
Uncrewed aircraft Crewed aircraft
Uncrewed
Aircraft Systems Balloons Rockets
Remotely Piloted Autonomous

Aircraft Systems Aircraft Systems
(RPAS, including model aircraft)

13.2 Why do people want to use drones?
Drones (and robots more generally) are a good alternative for tasks that are dull, dirty, or
dangerous. If the task is monotonous or repetitive, people eventually lose focus and make
mistakes when their attention wanes. Replacing the person with a drone can not only remove
a large portion of the human-error element, but it can also be more efficient leading to cost
savings. When people are not required to complete the simple and boring tasks, this frees up
humans to work on the elements of a process that require more nuanced decision making.
When people can be removed from drone could be used for target practice at completing the task, particularly
being directly involved in a task it can allowing soldiers to get real-world when compared to crewed aircraft.
make it easier to keep people safe. experience without putting additional One such example is from Murdoch
For example, drones could be sent to pilots at risk. University’s cetacean research unit
take atmospheric measurements over which employed drones to survey
There are many cases where drones
the Fukushima nuclear plant where marine animals when they had
have been used to make tasks more
the environment is too contaminated traditionally used piloted aircraft. 3
cost effective, safer, and more efficient
(“dirty”) for people to safely work. A
13.3 The drone industry in Australia

How are drones used? Some examples include: How did we get here?
Drones are a means of achieving a • Westpac’s Little Ripper surf life Some of the earliest drone activity in
goal, and, unless you are flying for fun, saving drone which drops a flotation Australia was conducted by Aerosonde.
the drone is simply a tool in a larger device to struggling swimmers4 In 1998, they successfully flew the first
problem-solving method. For this • Swoop Aero’s platform being used by drone across the North Atlantic in under
reason, the use of drones spans many the NHS to pick up and deliver urgent 27 hours. Since then, the industry has
different industries, making it difficult COVID-19 test material in the UK.5 grown substantially. Australia is well
to clearly define the true breadth of placed for a globally competitive home-
The ways that drones are used
drone technology. grown drone industry. As shown in the
fall broadly into three categories:
following map of companies contributing
Drones, like any technology or tool, entertainment (such as drone racing
to the drone ecosystem, Australia has
can be used for both good and bad. competitions or joy flights), information
world-class companies supporting the
A decade ago, the word “drone” had gathering (real estate photography,
design and manufacture of the drones
an extremely negative connotation. surveying, or coastal mapping), and
themselves, and their payloads. There
However, it has come to be more payload delivery (package transport
are also groups that provide drone
associated with a typical consumer- and delivery). However, the impact
specific training, and companies that
style remotely piloted air vehicle. While of drones extends far beyond these
will help implement drones effectively
drones are still occasionally adapted seemingly simple uses. The true breadth
and efficiently in an organisation.
for nefarious use or used in a way that of the industry and the implications,
Additionally, there are multiple service
is unwittingly breaking the law, the vast even excluding the economic factors,
providers for hire who can conduct
majority of uses now are legal and for is immense.
a range of drone-related jobs across
the betterment of mankind.
the country.

Map of the companies contributing to the drone ecosystem in Australia
(Mirragin Consulting, 2020)

Highlights in the history of the Australian drone industry
1998 Aerosonde Mk2 was first uncrewed aircraft to fly across the North Atlantic (3270 km) achieved in <27 hours
2002 CASA introduces first regulations concerning drones
2007 First Outback Joe competition (now Medical Express Challenge)
2009 First ArduPilot (open-source flight control software) board released and code repository created
2010 Murdoch University used Insitu’s ScanEagle for surveying marine environments
2012 PX4 released (diydrones.com/profiles/blogs/introducing-the-px4-autopilot-system)
DJI Phantom released

2013 Pixhawk flight controller board released
CASA updates drone regulations with a sub-2kg exempted category

2016 DJI Mavic pro released
First World of Drones Congress in Brisbane (held annually)

2017 Launch of Queensland Drone Strategy
Westpac Little Ripper drone saves swimmers

2018 FAI First World Drone Racing Championship won by Australian Rudi Browning
2019 Alphabet’s Project Wing conducts first drone delivery service in Canberra suburbs
Boeing unveils their first Loyal Wingman aircraft as part of the Airpower Teaming System
2020 (boeing.mediaroom.com/2020-05-05-Boeing-rolls-out-first-Loyal-Wingman-unmanned-aircraft)
2020 First test flight of Boeing’s Loyal Wingman and expanded orders from RAAF

Drone operators in Australia Drone rules and legislation It is possible to obtain permits to fly
much heavier (and larger) drones,
Australia’s largest drone operator Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA) such as those up to 7kg, 25kg and
is the Australian Army. In 2007, the regulates aviation across Australia, 125kg. Likewise, it is possible to
ScanEagle and Skylark were the first including drones. Typical drone obtain permissions to fly at night and
drones introduced into operation with rules include: beyond visual line of sight (BVLOS).
20th Regiment, Royal Australian Artillery. • The drone must be always within Australia is the only country where it
This rapid technology adoption has led unaided eyesight (e.g. during daylight, is possible to get a license to operate
the way for drone acceptance across without binoculars) a commercial drone delivery service.
the country. In other countries, it might be possible
• Drone altitude must remain below
Currently, there are more than 2,100 120m above ground level (AGL) to acquire exemptions to perform this
licensed drone operators in Australia • One pilot per drone activity, but typically it means airspace is
(see graph below) and this looks set to restricted to military bases. This license,
• Fly at least 30m away from people
increase. With an average company size spurred by the capacity for BVLOS flight
not involved in the flying.
of 4-6 people, it is estimated that this in Australia has led companies like
alone results in 10,000 flying drones. In 2016, CASA amended the Part 101 Alphabet (Google’s parent company)
This does not include those drones regulations. These were amended again to conduct world-first delivery trials,
flown under the exempted, excluded in 2018 to move with the changing through Project Wing, in Australia.
or hobby categories, which would industry. The changes involved removing
significantly increase the number of some of the license restrictions on
flying drones in Australia. drones weighing less than 2kg.
Number of Remote Operator’s Certificates (ReOC) holders per annum
AUSTRALIA'S REMOTE OPERATOR'S CERTIFICATE HOLDERS (CASA)
2500
2000
NUMBER OF REOC
1500
1000
500
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Data supplied by CASA RPAS Branch.

*2021 data is provided as of 15 March 2021 (incomplete year).

Estimated drone market share for application area12
ESTIMATED MARKET SIZE BY COMPELLING USE CASES, 2020 TO 2040

(MEDIUM UPDATE SCENARIO)
$3000
$2500
Estimated market size ($m)
$2000
$1500
$1000
$500
2020 2025 2030 2035 2040
Agriculture Government Services Construction E-commerce and deliveries

Defence Recreation Mining Urban/regional air mobility
What are drones currently worth to Australia?

Globally, the drone toy market alone was estimated to be in the realm of US$440m in
2020. Increased adoption of the technology means that drones aren’t just restricted
to Christmas and birthday presents, they are also employed as tools across a range
of industries. The commercial drone market was valued at US$14b in 2020 and is
expected to increase in coming years.6 When you include all aspects (economic value
including jobs and education) of drones, globally the drone industry was estimated to
be worth approximately US$100b between 2016 and 2020.7
In Australia, Deloitte Access Economics estimates drones contribute $5.5b to our

economy which will expand to $14.5b by 2040. This growth is supported by information
from drone software developer DroneDeploy, who state that Australian users of its
technology grew by 190% in Q1 2021 compared with Q1 in 2020.8 The growth looks
set to be driven by industries such as agriculture, construction, mining, and defence,
as shown in the estimated market share (see graph above).
While the dollars and the number of users might be relatively easy to measure or
estimate, the additional value that drones add to our world is immeasurable.

13.4 Impact of drones in Australia
Even if you don’t own or fly a drone yourself, there are still concerns that are often raised.
These concerns include the safety of the platform, and, in the case that they have on-board
cameras, privacy. One additional issue that has proven to have a negative impact on the
perception of drone use is the noise. Complaints were received during the Canberra drone
delivery trials9 and similar concerns have been raised regarding Uber Air’s potential activities.
Such issues have shone light on an announced plans to trial their air taxi Sponsored by Trusted Autonomous
interesting gap in regulation – there is service in Melbourne, Australia, from Systems, SmartSat CRC and RAAF Air
currently no regulation or legislation 2023, citing CASA’s welcoming attitude Warfare Centre partnered with the
enforcing limits on drone noise. Despite to new aircraft and systems as one of Sir Lawrence Wackett Defence and
CASA taking responsibility for complaints the motivating factors for their choice Aerospace Centre at RMIT University,
during trials, including those about of location.13 Earth observation, and positioning and
noise,10 it is not responsible for the navigation (as an alternative to GPS)
BAE Systems recently tested their
enforcement of noise limits. In fact, are two major expected applications of
PHASA-35 high-altitude pseudo-satellite
no agency accepts responsibility for this technology.16
(HAPS) from the Woomera test range.
enforcing any limit, even if the public
This style of vehicle is particularly useful In order to accommodate some of the
deem it to be an unrealistic level.
as a supplement or replacement to testing required by programs, such as
Australia as a drone satellite coverage. It can be launched the HAPS Challenge and Boeing’s Loyal
test-zone more rapidly than traditional satellites Wingman project,17 the Queensland
and will prove useful in disaster relief government has created a custom
Australia has already seen some or scientific mission scenarios.14 drone testing facility in Cloncurry. The
impressive technology from international Similar HAPS vehicles are also made by Queensland Flight Test Range is the first
companies trialled here. For example, Airbus, who created the Zephyr which of its kind in Australia and includes a
Project Wing (a company owned by set a world record for flight in Western large hangar, 2km runway, 30km x 20km
Google’s parent company Alphabet) Australia in 2018.15 High-altitude airspace for altitudes up to 6,000ft,
conducted delivery of food, drinks, and capability is at the forefront of research monitoring equipment including RADAR
medications to residents of Canberra’s with the HAPS Challenge that went out and other supporting amenities.18
outer suburbs.11 Uber Air has also to Australian industry in March 2021.
13.5 Future of drones in Australia

How will drones impact This growth will not be hampered by management (UTM) must become
Australia in future? technical capability. There are plenty a reality. As it currently stands, only
of technical experts and companies remotely piloted aircraft, rather than
The drone industry in Australia is not
creating world-class systems in Australia. totally autonomous air vehicles are
going away. In the coming 20 years,
However, there are other implementation allowed into the civil aviation system.
Deloitte predicts that drones will result in
challenges that will slow progress. A pilot in command is still considered
a $14.5b expansion of GDP and create
essential. However, for applications
over 5,500 new jobs per year.19 The To fully realise drone capability,
in agriculture, mining, transport, and
industries expected to reap the benefits safe airspace integration (not
construction, it may be more desirable
of this growth include agriculture, accommodation) of drones, and
to have a fully autonomous drone
mining, transport, and construction. comprehensive uncrewed traffic
conducting data-gathering sweeps

of an area at regular intervals, with a aircraft club do not need to register their and implementation across a wide range
pilot overseeing the same flights every drones. However, in future, registration of fields. Crucially, Australia also has
hour. To make this a reality, a centrally may extend to all uncrewed or remotely the space and facilities to test emerging
managed UTM system will be required. piloted aircraft. drone technology.
This will avoid any accidents due to
Having these rules is important, however Both the Education and Skills chapters
failure to pass information between
enforcing rules such as these can be of this roadmap cover robotics courses
management systems.
difficult. In some instances, people and education options in Australia in
Drones represent a low barrier to entry. are simply unaware of the rules – this depth, however, with a rise in popularity
They can be cost-effective and easy- makes education a priority. In other of drones, more specialised educational
to-use platforms that perform a wide cases, people deliberately flout the resources are developing. Typically,
array of tasks for an even broader range rules for selfish or malicious reasons – software or mechanical engineering
of domains. This allows them to be this is where counter-drone technology degrees are focusing more and more
quickly adopted by people who don’t becomes important. on this type of technology, with some
necessarily have an aviation or technical institutions creating bespoke courses at
An additional part of the safety challenge
background. Plug-and-play style drones a higher education level. You can now
is insurance. An operation over a single
are extremely popular for casual pilots get a degree in drones! 21, 22 However,
private property (e.g. a farm) might
and hobbyists and often end up in the there is still a need for short-courses or
require one simple approval, whereas
hands of children, viewed as “toys”. bridging courses to allow employees with
a complex drone operation in a city
Framing drones as “toys” has added a previous technical training to officially
might require approvals and insurance
great deal to community acceptance of and efficiently upskill.
for multiple conditions from multiple
the platforms, but has perhaps done a
approving-bodies. This type of process
disservice in that they are often used so
should be centralised and streamlined
casually and without proper regard for
if urban drone delivery or drone taxis
aviation safety rules.
are to become commonplace. At the
Drones represent a low
In many cases, it is possible to overcome moment, it still remains a question barrier to entry. They
negligence with proper education, but how to go about even obtaining all can be cost-effective
it would also be helpful to ensure the those approvals in the first place –
and easy-to-use
overall safety of the drone as a complete how do you get approvals from all the
system – air vehicle, and software people who own the properties in your platforms that perform
(including the autopilot and navigation flight path? These can include private a wide array of tasks
functions). A critical portion of this citizens, companies, government bodies for an even broader
problem is assuring the decision-making, and councils.
range of domains.
and this lies at the heart of autonomy.
Where is Australia’s
A portion of the safety challenge that is advantage in the global
unique to drones, rather than robotics drone industry? Australia has a wide array of technical
as a whole, is the air- and ground-risk
Australia has a significant amount of specialists capable of creating
factor. Questions are still being debated
research and development capability new technology to assist with any
and answers to the following are
through facilities such as the TAS and challenges the future holds. Our
continuously under refinement.
other research institutions. Several training organisations are aware of the
• How do you measure ‘safety’ of legal requirements and best practices
topics of interest have repeatedly
an UAS? for operating and maintaining these
emerged:
• How do you prove it is ‘safe’? uncrewed systems. When industries
• Counter drone technology
• When is it safe ‘enough’? and companies want to make use of
• Swarming/flocking drone technology, they should be looking
Part of the solution to ensuring UAS • Urban air mobility to companies who can help them
are safe enough, is done through
• Logistics and delivery bridge this knowledge gap and assist
legislation. Drone use in Australia is
with finding the right solution to their
regulated via use and weight categories, While Australia is unlikely to become a
problem. The general problem solving
with registration of drones required mass-manufacturer of consumer drones,
approach is shown in diagram on the
for businesses as of January 2021.20 we certainly have the technical capacity
following page.
Currently hobbyists flying only at a model to be world leaders in drone technology

Diagram of problem solving for industry. Experts consider all aspects of the
problem and tailor a solution unique to the customer’s needs
Aircraft + Payload(s)
User-training Specialty Software
Customer
presents problem
SOLUTION
13.6 Summary of main findings

Using drones can have cost, safety, and time benefits. This allows processes to become
more efficient and frees people to work on more complex tasks and decisions. This will be of
particular benefit to the agricultural, mining, and construction industries over the coming years.
The drone industry in Australia, and across the world, is worth a lot to the economy (both
fiscally and in terms of job prospects). It is predicted to grow from $5b to $14.5b in Australia
over the next 20 years. Education about drones and their associated systems will be key to
enabling full participation from all industries.
Drones, as part of a larger group of robotics, is a rapidly growing industry. Australia has huge potential to be world leaders in the field.
We are uniquely placed as a test-bed, and the government should be supporting policy to allow critical research and development to
happen here. Test facilities will be crucial for future developments such as integrated air traffic management systems which will have
to keep crewed and uncrewed vehicles safe, as well as people and property on the ground. The regulatory space is relatively well
placed and currently welcoming the trialling of new technology and systems. This trend must continue if Australia is to maintain and
grow its place as a world leading test facility and drone-operations thought leader.

Case studies
Payload developer — AVT Australia

Payload developer —
AVT Australia........................ 200
Drone manufacturer —
Freespace Operations............. 201
Drone operator —
Astra Drone Solutions............. 201
Consulting organisation —
Mirragin RAS Consulting......... 202
Control system and
software — ArduPilot.............. 202
AVT Australia specialises in the design

and development of gyro-stabilised
imaging systems for intelligence,
surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR),
target acquisition and counter UAS
operations. AVT Australia's systems
are supporting airborne, ground and
maritime missions in over 50 countries,
serving the defence, aerospace and
uncrewed systems industries.
AVT Australia's CM62 Micro Gimbal is a next-generation
tactical ISR system that weighs as little as 260g
to deliver superior capabilities for small uncrewed
aerial system (sUAS) operations. Its low power draw
allows the sUAS to achieve long flight endurance.
The compact system incorporates an electro-optical
sensor and a custom LWIR core for day and night
operations. Excellent zoom capabilities facilitate
long-range detection and identification, whilst the
aircraft maintains a safe standoff distance. The
CM62 is optimised with onboard video processing
features, including multi-sensor streaming, encoding
onboard, recording onboard, object tracking,
electronic and roll stabilisation, scene steering and
geo-positioning information. With an IP67 rating, the
CM62 is ruggedised to endure extreme environments
experienced in tactical sUAS operations.
AVT Australia's CM62 Micro Gimbal mounted as a payload for

demonstration. Images courtesy of AVT Australia.

Drone manufacturer — Freespace Operations
Freespace Operations is an Australian RPAS alpine environments. For example, the Callisto RPAS is being
manufacturer specialising in the design and configured to carry the Riegl VQ-840-G bathymetric LiDAR
which weighs approx. 15kg when fully integrated to the RPAS.
operation of industrial heavy-lift multirotor
drones. Freespace has extensive expertise in Freespace Operations also supports the Spektreworks ‘Cobalt’
systems ranging from 10kg to 150kg MTOW series of VTOL fixed aircraft in Australia. Cobalt Vertical Take-
off and Landing (VTOL) - comes in hybrid and electric versions.
(maximum take-off weight) aided by their
in-depth knowledge of the ArduPilot autopilot Callisto heavylift octocopter (image supplied by Freespace Operations).
system. The ‘Callisto’ is their company flagship
product which allows various field changeable
power, propulsion and payload configurations
with new products also in development stages:
Callisto 50 Octocopter; Callisto Lite Octocopter
(Cconfigurable for <25 kg TOW applications);
Callisto Hybrid-Petrol ICE Power Module.
These aircraft with heavy payload capacity of up to 25kg
allow Freespace Operations to assist both defence and
commercial projects. They are designed to suit a wide range
of heavier payloads, harsher wind/environmental conditions
and remain airborne for a much longer time than consumer
off-the-shelf solutions – this includes marine, mining and
Drone operator — Astra Drone Solutions
This UAS is uniquely identifiable by its spherical protective

cage and modular payload system. This protection mechanism
allows the EXO to withstand low energy impacts while
being able to safely roll along any surface including ceilings
and walls. The Astra EXO is being used by customers all
across Australia.
Upper-left: Astra EXO drone for mining stope inspection. Image courtesy of
Astra Drone Solutions.
Bottom-right: Example images of a mining stope taken by the Astra EXO
drone. Image courtesy of Astra Drone Solutions.
Astra Drone Solutions is an Australian UAS

services and engineering company that
specialises in performing confined space and
complex environment inspections. Founded
in 2017, Astra has built a reputation for
delivering high quality data from some of
Australia's most hazardous underground
mines. These inspection tasks are primarily
conducted using Astra’s in-house developed
UAS, the Astra EXO.

Consulting organisation — Mirragin RAS Consulting
Mirragin is a drone consultancy and project management company, which helps organisations to
successfully implement drone programs, to reduce costs, increase capability and to save lives.
With a deep knowledge of the uncrewed system industry and advanced robotics and autonomous
systems technologies, Mirragin can assist with: Strategy and Project Management; Technology
Selection, Integration and assessment; Risk Management.
Mirragin specialises in uncrewed, autonomous and robotic systems, as well as the artificial intelligence required to support and
drive these systems. They have a strong understanding of technological developments and latest trends in industry. Mirragin also
has an extensive understanding of the uncrewed systems and emerging technology industry in Australia. This allows Mirragin
to bring together operators, UAS and payload manufacturers, software designers, and training organisations to provide the best
outcomes for industry.
Mirragin Consulting's core methodology approach to solving problems. Image courtesy of Mirragin.
Control system and software — ArduPilot
ArduPilot is a trusted, versatile, and open-source autopilot system supporting many vehicle types:
multi-copters, traditional helicopters, fixed wing aircraft, boats, submarines, rovers and more.
The source code is developed by a large community of professionals and enthusiasts, a large
proportion of whom are Australian based. The open-source nature of development has allowed
fast integration with other software and hardware, notably Pixhawk flight controllers (with ports
available to other controllers), ROS, MAVROS and MAVLink, and Mission Planner, and companion
computers like Raspberry Pi or Arduinos. It remains reliable due to the prioritisation of bug fixes
over new features, and versions are extensively tested before being released as stable.
ardupilot.org ardupilot.org/dev/docs/common-contact-us.html

Contributors
This chapter was constructed with contributions from the individuals listed below:
Nicola Kloet (Mirragin) Rob Sutton (Mirragin) Catherine Ball (ANU, World of Drones
and Robotics)
Footnotes
1 Previously “Unmanned”
2 Definition of Uncrewed Aircraft Systems (UAS) or "drones" as used by this document. Image adapted from CASA AC101.01v3. Civil Aviation Safety
Authority (CASA), (2019) Civil Aviation Safety Regulations (CASR) Advisory Circular (AC) 101-01 v3.0, https://www.casa.gov.au/standard-page/casr-part-
101-unmanned-aircraft-and-rocket-operations
3 Sydney Morning Herald, (2012) https://www.smh.com.au/technology/here-comes-the-drone-age-20120910-25o6p.html
4 BBC News (2018) Drone saves two Australian swimmers in world first https://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-42731112
5 Skyports partners with the NHS in Scotland (2020) https://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-42731112
6 Grand View Research (2021) https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/global-commercial-drones-market
7 Goldman Sachs (2015) https://www.goldmansachs.com/insights/technology-driving-innovation/drones/
8 FarmOnline National (2021) Flight of the drones gets bigger and bigger https://www.farmonline.com.au/story/7215580/drones-are-massing-over-
australian-skies/
9 ABC News (2019) https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-03-09/google-drones-group-of-angry-residents-in-australia-fight-back/10885254
10 CASA (2021) Drone Delivery Systems https://www.casa.gov.au/drones/industry-initiatives/drone-delivery-systems
11 The Guardian (2019) Google’s world-first drone delivery business wins approval in Canberra https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2019/
apr/09/googles-world-first-drone-delivery-business-wins-approval-in-canberra
12 source: Deloitte Access Economics. Deloitte Access Economics (2021) https://www.infrastructure.gov.au/aviation/drones/files/economic-benefit-
analysis-of-drones-to-australia-final-report.pdf
13 ABC News (2020) https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-02-28/uber-air-plans-for-1000-strong-melbourne-helicopter-fleet/12007092
14 BAE Systems (2020) https://www.baesystems.com/en/article/ground-breaking-solar-powered-unmanned-aircraft-makes-first-flight
15 SolarQuotes (2018) https://www.solarquotes.com.au/blog/solar-zephyr-wa-mb0852/
16 Australian Defence Magazine (2021) https://www.australiandefence.com.au/defence/air/challenge-announced-for-development-of-australian-haps
17 Queensland Govt (2020) https://statements.qld.gov.au/statements/91088
18 Queensland Govt. (2020) https://www.statedevelopment.qld.gov.au/industry/priority-industries/aerospace/unmanned-aerial-systems
19 Deloitte (2020) “Economic benefit analysis of drones in Australia” https://www.infrastructure.gov.au/aviation/drones/files/economic-benefit-analysis-of-
drones-to-australia-final-report.pdf
20 CASA (2021) “Register Your Drone” https://www.casa.gov.au/drones/register
21 Undergraduate degree: https://polytechnic.purdue.edu/degrees/unmanned-aerial-systems
22 Masters degree: https://www.upc.edu/en/masters/applications-and-technologies-for-unmanned-aircraft-systems-drones

14
Education
Education is crucial in order to provide a pipeline of suitable
employees capable of meeting the requirements of our thriving
robotics industry
14.1 Education and training
in Australia
Australia invests a lot into education and training and the industry
generates $134b in revenue and employs more than 765,000
people — almost 5% of Australia’s working population.1 The
Australian government aims to invest $32.4b into Australian
schools by 2029 representing an annual increase in funds from
2018 of $1.0b each year.
In order to have a thriving robotics industry in Australia, it is important to have a workforce
that has the capability to meet the requirements of a competitive business. The Education
side of the equation is crucial to provide a pipeline of suitable employees.
Robotics education in Australia runs a wide and varied range, from students in Prep using
simple robots to learn directional terminology all the way through to academics in higher
education performing world leading research. This chapter seeks to give the reader an
overview of what is happening in each domain, covering five broad sectors; Foundation to
Grade 10 Education, Senior Secondary, Vocational Education and Training (VET), Higher
Education (University) and education provided by other organisations.
Case studies are provided for each specific domain to better illustrate the use of robots in
each of these settings.

Snapshot Education: What’s changed since 2018?
Strengths
Increasing awareness within schools of the need for STEM related skills
Popularity of robotics with students driving implementation within schools
Governments support for STEM programs
Wins
Increasing number of mechatronic students graduating from Australian universities
Robotics and coding are useful tools to deliver the Australian school curriculum
Teaching of robotics and coding is compulsory in all Queensland State

Schools with robots available for loan to schools through a lending library
New opportunities
COVID-19 created an acceptance of online learning which has opened up more resources to support education
Challenges
Continuation of funds to schools for equipment and professional development
Gender diversity in robotics is not improving, despite a decade of women in STEM initiatives
Decline in international student enrolments and revenue due to COVID-19

Tighter mapping of robotics as a way of addressing curriculum requirements
Additional courses (Secondary, VET) utilising robotics
More communication between industry and education about required skills

14.2 Robotics in education
It is interesting to note that, unlike other areas of robotics in Australia, robotics education has
two distinct, but related aspects to it:
1 The explicit teaching of robotics knowledge and understanding
2 he use of robotics as a pedagogical tool to assist and enhance learning across all
T
aspects of the curriculum.
Teaching of robotics: Explicit robotics across all aspects of the curriculum the use of robots as a pedagogical tool.
subjects can be found in Senior are becoming more and more popular. Robot platforms are easy to use for
Secondary, VET and the Higher Robots are being actively used to novice students and serve as a way to
Education sectors. These subjects support learning in subjects as diverse engage students with the curriculum
teach students all the skills necessary as Mathematics, English, Science, requirements necessary at school.
to understand how robots work. They even Music.
All states in Australia follow either
might include topics such as electronics,
Foundation — Grade 10 the curriculum guides set down
mechanics, programming, control
education by the Australian Curriculum, or a
systems, maintenance etc.
version that is very similar. Within the
Robotics as a pedagogical tool: Robotics Primary education in Australia Australian Curriculum lies the subject
platforms have improved in useability encompasses students from ‘Technologies’, which can be further
over the years to the point where they approximately five years of age broken down into Digital Technologies
are relatively cheap, with a wide range (Foundation) and runs for between six and Design and Technologies. The
of uses and very small learning curves and seven years of schooling. Grades following graphic and table outlines the
to get them up and running. As a result 7-10 are sometimes referred to as topics that are taught within this subject.
of this, the use of robots as pedagogical Middle Years. Primary and Middle Years
tools to assist and enhance learning Education focuses predominantly on
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
KEY IDEAS AND
TECHNOLOGIES SUBJECTS
Source: https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/f-10-curriculum/technologies/
structure/ - accessed 15th Nov 2020

TABLE 2
Design and technologies Digital technologies
Knowledge and understanding Knowledge and understanding
Technologies and society Digital systems

• the use, development and impact of technologies in • the components of digital systems: hardware,
peoples’ lives software and networks and their use
Technologies contexts Representation of data
• technologies and design across a range of • how data are represented and structured symbolically
technologies contexts
Processes and production skills Processes and production skills
Creating designed solutions by: Collecting, managing and analysing data

• investigating and defining Creating digital solutions by:
• generating and designing • investigating and defining
• producing and implementing • generating and designing
• evaluating • producing and implementing
• collaborating and managing • evaluating
• collaborating and managing
It is worth noting that the teaching responsible for a whole class for knowledge and understanding. Students
of robotics is not specified within the the majority of their teaching week. learn how to build and program robots
curriculum documentation. Instead This permits the teacher more scope and have the chance to create their
teachers are free to use a variety of and flexibility to blend different own unique solutions to address the
different tools to meet the teaching of learning objectives into rich tasks open ended challenges that these
the Curriculum's requirements. Robotics that concurrently cover several topics. competitions promote.
is a fun and engaging tool to meet these As a result, this means that the use
The Technologies subject is required to
requirements. of robotics can be an effective and
be taught from Foundation through to
engaging way of covering multiple
Generally speaking, the programming Grade 8, with schools given the option
subjects. In Middle Years education we
of robotics falls into the Digital to provide the subject as an elective in
start to see the introduction of specific
Technologies area, whereas the Grades 9 and 10.
subjects not necessarily integrated with
construction of a robot will address
other subjects. In the Australian Curriculum, as well as
the Design and Technology area. It’s
specific subjects that are required to
important to note that the Technologies While the predominant use of robots
be taught, there are multiple ‘General
subject is not focused on teaching a at this age level is as a pedagogical
Capabilities’ that are defined, concepts
particular platform, but rather the skills tool, extra-curricular activities like
that are expected to be embedded into
required to build or operate a platform. robotics competitions are increasingly
all areas of the curriculum. Robotics
becoming popular, which serves
In a Primary Education setting, it is is a tool that neatly fits one of these
to teach students explicit robotics
common to have a single teacher General Capabilities – Information and

Communication Technology (ICT). This While not common, there are options VIC: Systems Engineering – Product
means that robotics can be used as for mature aged students to complete Design and Technology
a tool to enhance other areas of the secondary education level standards
SA/NT: Design, Technology and
curriculum and there are many examples through various organisations.
Engineering – Digital Technologies
of robotics being used to supplement
subjects such as English, Mathematics, ACT: Electronics and Mechatronics –
Science, Geography, Music and Art. Robotics and Mechatronics
All states within Australia have different TAS: Design and Technologies – Digital
Senior secondary subjects at this level and below Technologies
education represent some of the options available
WA: Engineering Studies
Senior Secondary education to students.
encompasses students in Grades 11 These subjects dive into significantly
QLD: Digital Solutions – Engineering
and 12. Once students get to Secondary more detail around the construction,
schooling, we start to see more explicit NSW: Design and Technology – programming and use of robots
teaching of robotics-related content. Engineering Studies - Software Design in society.
14.3 Vocational Education and Training (VET)

Vocational Education and Training (VET) qualifications have been developed with the specific
goal of preparing students with skills for work. VET is designed to help people to join or rejoin
the workforce, move into a new career or gain additional skills in their existing career. VET
qualifications have a very practical focus. As well as specific skills for your chosen occupation, a
VET course will often include generic work-based topics such as workplace health and safety.
VET Providers can include: Robotics at TAFE institutes are a Training to prepare students through
• technical and further education relatively new avenue, with multiple Vocational Education and Training for
(TAFE) institutes states now offering courses that involve a career in robotics is very embryonic
• adult and community education the use of robots: in Australia. There are some TAFEs
providers • TAFE WA starting to look into it and others who
• agricultural colleges • 22527VIC Cert II Integrated are keen but not sure where to start. The
• private providers Technologies (Robotic Control costs involved to purchase equipment
• community organisations Systems) and find skilled teachers creates a
• industry skill centres • 22519VIC Cert IV Integrated roadblock for many.
• commercial and enterprise training Technologies (Robotic Control
providers. Systems) Currently, there is no specific
• TAFE SA qualification related purely to robotics,
• Diploma of Applied Technologies more broadly it appears in Engineering
Some universities and schools also
• TAFE QLD qualifications. In the future, with the
provide VET in addition to their other
• currently working with CSIRO and support of industry and government,
offerings. VET sector qualifications
BHP to develop a robotics course we would expect to see a qualification
include:
• TAFE NSW related directly to robotics.
• Cert I-IV • Skillspoint program offerings
• Diploma • VIC (14 TAFEs)
• Advanced Diploma • Robotics appears in some
• Graduate Certificate. Engineering courses.

14.4 Higher education
Robotics offerings at a Higher Education level can be accessed via a number of different
paths. Out of the 43 accredited universities within Australia, there are three main qualifications
that learners can pursue; Bachelors, Masters and Doctoral degrees.
The field of robotics is extremely A typical Engineering degree is four This means a four year Engineering
broad, and as such there are a variety years in length, but there are Science degree might cost up to $28,000.
of different courses that could be degrees that are three years and it Mechatronics engineering, a hybrid of
undertaken, each with varying levels of is possible to combine degrees to be mechanical and electrical engineering
robotics as part of their course work. awarded a double degree in five years. degrees is often considered a direct
Masters degrees and PhDs can range path into robotics, although there is
Examples of Degree options:
from three years full-time and upwards. no professional accreditation for the
• Electrical Engineering degree and, to become a professional
Some universities allow students to
• Mechanical Engineering engineer, a graduate will need to choose
start specialising straight away, whereas
• Computer Systems to be either a mechanical or electrical
others provide generic first year plans to
engineer. The number of mechatronics
• Software Engineering give students a taste of all the various
graduates is growing every year in
• Mechatronic Engineering fields before making specialisation
Australia, which indicates a pleasing
decisions in their second year.
• Mathematics increase in capability. The Australian
• Data Science The typical cost for tuition for an Council of Engineering Deans reports
Engineering degree in 2020 is that Honours degrees awarded in
• Information Technology
approximately $7,000 per year. Mechatronics have almost doubled
• Artificial Intelligence

from 2016-2019 from 364 to 6682 with students select their capstone project Australia, through periodic accreditation,
domestic students making up ~73% of topics in late February, and they are in strongly influences what is taught,
total student numbers. serious job hunting mode around July. and how. Teaching has to balance
Employing a student part-time, over the abstract theoretical knowledge with the
The purpose of higher education
summer, for work experience or for a practical. Typically the theory is covered
degrees is arguably to provide students
capstone project provides a means for in lectures, bedded down and applied
with the skills and accreditation
industry and students to get to know to problems in tutorials, and put into
necessary to go on and find employment
each other, and this could lead to a practice during laboratory settings. For
in the robotics sector. Work in the
permanent arrangement. a variety of reasons it is not practical
sector may begin before completion
for universities to have large amounts
of the degree through things like work
of industrial gear for teaching – class
experience and work placements. For
sizes are large, laboratory space is
example, in an Engineering degree, all
students are required to complete ten
The purpose of higher limited, and expensive assets become
education degrees is obsolete. This has, in the past, set up
weeks of industry work before they can
some friction between academia and
graduate. Engineering degrees have a arguably to provide industry. From a simplified point of
capstone project, two semesters long in
students with the skills view, academia seeks to teach students
final year, where students undertake a
sizeable engineering/research project and accreditation the skills and concepts necessary to
be able to solve a variety of general
to put their engineering knowledge into necessary to go on and
problems, whereas industry often
practice, as well as develop their skills in find employment in the requires employees to be already
project management, report writing and
robotics sector. proficient on specific hardware and
presentations. These projects can be
software platforms. A certain amount of
done within a company.
‘on-the-job’ training is always expected,
This results in a large cohort of but reducing that where possible is of
University engineering education is
Engineering students and graduates, at particular interest to industry. Progress
highly constrained. On the one hand
different points in their learning journey, is being made, however, with many
Tertiary Education Quality and Standards
looking for work. One of the challenges higher education institutes having
Agency (TEQSA), the independent
facing higher education and industry industry advisory boards that work with
national quality assurance and
is a way of coordinating the needs of course designers to mutually benefit
regulatory agency for higher education,
industry looking for talent with the both sectors.
sets rules about what constitutes
talent looking for work. Industry needs
an Honours degree, and Engineers
to be aware of the university cycle –
14.5 Other robotics education avenues

Outside of these formal applications of robotics in the education sector, lie a variety of
different entities that also have a hand in promoting robotics. These may be in the form of
competitions that students can enter, companies that manufacture robotics specifically for the
education market, and organisations that promote robotics in an educational setting.
While these entities do not contribute to any formal qualification or recognition, they provide another example of engaging activities
that continue to promote robotics in the education sector. Robotics education within the confines of a mandated curriculum gives
a broad introduction to the field to all students, whether they are interested or not. These additional activities that exist outside the
classroom offer the Robotics industry a unique opportunity to tap into and support students who are genuinely passionate about
robotics and are likely to become the workforce of the future.

Case Studies
Trinity College....................... 212 Chancellor State College......... 216

Galen Catholic College............ 213 The mechatronics
degree at QUT....................... 217
Pembroke School.................. 214
Australian Army Drone
St Mary’s Primary School........ 214 Racing Team — Army Cadet
Drone Racing Camp............... 218
VEX Australia........................ 215 CQ Gladstone District
STEM Cluster....................... 219
Wyndham Tech School........... 216
Trinity College
Trinity College is an Anglican K-12, co- As students progress through the years, the complexity of what
educational, day school in the northern they are doing increases. This has seen a noticeable increase
in not only the skill of the student with coding and robotics
suburbs of Adelaide, South Australia. It through critical and creative thinking, but also in the use of
comprises four EY-10 Schools (soon to be the language associated with robotics (e.g. Year 1 and 2 being
five) and a Senior Year 11-12 School. The able to explain algorithmic thinking, or Year 5’s being able to
objective is to embed science, engineering talk about ‘if statements’ and cause and effect). The language
and technology skills into students to is the key as much as the use of robots in the classroom as it
allows cross curricular to be happening in Maths and Science.
inspire innovation and foster well-rounded
life capabilities including self-confidence, Outside of the classroom learning, students that wish to
communication and leadership. develop further in a team setting are provided the opportunity
to explore robotics in a competitive environment as part of
At a Junior School level Trinity College has looked at a bottom either Robocup Junior in the Junior / Middle years or FTC in
up approach to help build the foundations. This has been done the Senior years. Students from Year 4 upwards participate in
via mapping the Digital Technologies curriculum through the Robocup and have the opportunity to compete at a local, state
Digital Technologies Hub K–6 continuum and ACARA. This or national level, which Trinity has been doing for 15 years.
whole school approach targets the students coding, problem
Left: Year 1s independently programming Microbits. Image courtesy of
solving, collaboration and critical thinking skills. Trinity College.
Each year level works with a different device specific to
their age group and is challenged with a series of learning
opportunities to learn and extend themselves. In the first
half of the year, students work in a more virtual, non-robotic
environment with programs such as Code.org, then in the
second semester, delve into practical hands-on experiences
with the devices.
Teachers are provided support in class to show best practice
and help them develop the skill and confidence to teach in
areas they are not necessarily confident in, accepting the fact
that they are learning just like the students. Robotics platforms
used include Bee Bots, Cubetto, Micro Bits, Edisons, Mbots,
Ozobot and Ev3 / NXT’s.

Glasshouse One Giant Leap Australia
Christian College................... 220 Foundation........................... 223
Marist College Ashgrove.......... 220 Social robots for
empathy in education............. 223
RoboCup Junior Australia........ 221
Micromelon Robotics.............. 224
Brisbane Grammar
School Robotics.................... 222 Robocoast........................... 225
Galen Catholic College
Thanks in part to the great collegiality shown by the schools

and community support in the region, Wangaratta was
awarded the honour of hosting the 2016 and 2017 Australian
National VEX Robotics Championships. The success of these
championships and publicity gained in the region, sparked an
interest in robotics.
The schools continued to work closely together to develop
their programs, and host their own local program development
sessions inviting other schools to join. St Anne’s Primary
in Albury, and Beechworth Montessori became the next
schools to take on VEX Robotics also as an extra-curricular
offering. In 2019, Galen Catholic College also introduced VEX
Robotics into its mainstream curriculum and continues to run
both programs.
VEX Robotics was introduced to North East With the growth of student/schools involvement, the region
now has enough teams to support local competitions,
Victoria in October 2016, after being inspired from three teams in 2016 to 20 teams in 2019. The teams
by the 2016 National Science week theme also travel together to Canberra, Melbourne and Adelaide
Drones, Droids and Robots. Local teachers, to compete in the larger competitions, creating great
both Secondary and Tertiary, along with camaraderie and collaboration. At each competition the
students, parents and interested community senior students encourage and assist the junior students
and new teams.
members organised a workshop to investigate
VEX Robotics. Three schools then took up Success at the 2017 VEX Australian Championships has
the challenge of setting up a VEX Robotics inspired robotics in the area, with significantly higher
participation from our region at subsequent competitions.
Program, with funds and support from
LLEN networks. Galen Catholic College and Success with robotics in our region has come through strong
Borinya Community Partnerships set up their collaboration and building networks. This has allowed our
students to grow, develop into STEM leaders and inspire not
programs as extra-curricula with it being only each other but the whole community.
optional participation for all levels. Wodonga
Middle Years College, introduced it into their Albury Competition with students competing with Wodonga, Albury and
Galen teachers and senior students running the event. Image courtesy of
mainstream curriculum. Galen Catholic College.

Pembroke School St Mary’s Primary School
The Robotics curriculum at St Mary's

spans from Foundation through to Grade
6. Foundation to Grade 2 students explore
and learn how Beebots, Ozobots and
Spheros work. They initially play with the
robots to see what they do, how they work
and the components that make them work.
Primarily using Beebots, the focus with the Foundation
children is to make robotics fun but challenging, and
this involves Beebot races and obstacle course races.
Students are given a variety of materials that cater for
different challenges, such as a variety of vinyl mats to get
In 2018, Pembroke identified robotics from one location to another, maze materials, roads and
obstacles to create their own courses to navigate. The
as an area that was worth exploring in aim is for them to be unafraid of exploring and to develop
more depth. It offered opportunities confidence in using different robots.
for students to develop knowledge in
As they progress through to Grade 2, challenges become
programming and engineering concepts harder and the requirements become more demanding.
as well as better understand how these Students are expected to represent their code in a visual
areas tie into developments in industry way and set their work out sequentially. Through Grades
and technology in general. Increased 3 to 4, they are introduced to Lego WeDo 2.0 and Scratch
automation, programming and innovative while continuing to use the Ozobots. It is during these
grades that students begin to code the Ozobots online
technologies called for a curriculum that and explore more uses for them. We begin to explore
would support students in preparing for a creating robots rather than just being a user through
rapidly evolving workplace. Makey-Makey.
In Junior School students are exposed to robotics In Grades 5 and 6, the focus is on being a creator rather
through LEGO EV3 robots as well as exposure to drone than a user with the introduction of Micro:Bit and Lego
technologies using block based programming software. Mindstorms. In 2019, the school entered the regional
Robocup Junior competition in Horsham, taking out first
In Middle School students build upon skills developed place in the line following competition.
in Junior School with a focus on automation processes
and how we might be able to replicate these processes Every year level explores the uses of robotics in everyday
through the use of Vex IQ robots. There is more of an life so the students can see the relevance of what they are
emphasis on the sensors and actuators used as well as working on in school. A 3D printer has now been added
a deeper understanding of the programming required. By to the classroom and with this technology, students can
Year 10 they learn how to program complex robots and design and build housing units for Microbits and Makey-
drones using Python and C++ text based programming. Makeys to add another layer into the robotics unit.
In Senior School students begin some deeper Foundation students Elli and Maddi work together to create and
investigation into automation, particularly autonomous code a roadway for their Beebot. Image courtesy of St Mary’s
Primary School.
vehicles, the ethics surrounding their use, and how they
function. There is more emphasis on sensors, particular
vision, touch and distance sensors, and how we can use
these to replicate real world automated processes through
open ended design briefs that require students to develop
solutions to complex problems. Students are introduced
to engineering concepts and are required to engineer
components using advanced technologies such as 3D
printing that will complement their solutions.
Students are provided with opportunities to further
develop their skills through the school's successful
Robotics Co-curricular Program.
Pembroke School students Rosa, Emily, and Alinda demonstrate their

robotics programming to Chief Scientist for South Australia Caroline
McMillan and Principal Luke Thomson. Image courtesy of Pembroke
School.

VEX Australia
The VEX Robotics Competition, presented by the Robotics Education Competition Foundation,
is the largest and fastest growing middle school and high school robotics program globally with
more than 24,000 teams from 70 countries playing in over 1,700 competitions worldwide.
Each year, an exciting engineering challenge is presented in the form of a game. Students, with
guidance from their teachers and mentors, build innovative robots and compete year-round.
In addition to learning valuable engineering skills, students gain life skills such as teamwork, perseverance, communication,
collaboration, project management, and critical thinking. The VEX Competition prepares students to become future innovators with
95% of participants reporting an increased interest in STEM subject areas and pursuing STEM-related careers.
There are four different VEX Robotics Competitions to participate in:
1 VEX IQ Competition – VEX IQ Challenge is for primary and middle school students. Two robots compete in the Teamwork
Challenge as an alliance working collaboratively to gain the maximum points in 60 seconds. Teams are randomly drawn to work
together to amass the greatest point score, with each team having a unique robot, each match is unique, thus requires strategy,
communication and collaboration.
2 VEX Robotics Competition – VEX Robotics Competition is for middle and high school students and like IQ, teams form randomly
drawn alliances and are competing against another two-team alliance. The idea of alliance once again highlights the future
skills of communication, collaboration and analysing the strength and weaknesses of each teams’ skills/bots to form a
winning strategy.
3 VEX U Competition – The potential for this is growing as the VEX alumni growth is currently being developed.
4 VEX AI Competition – Brand new global pilot competition for 2021 season. Four Australian teams out of 50 world-wide will be
part of this pilot season.
The competition is fully autonomous and will use an array of new sensors including the Game Positioning System (GPS), AI Vision
Sensor, VEX LINK Communications, and a Sensor Fusion Map. Each team brings two robots that they design and build to work as a
team. Teams can 3D print, machine parts and use custom electronics. This game will take students’ future work skills to the next
level. It is an exciting development for VEX robotics.
Two Teams competing in the Secondary School Division at the 2019 VEX Robotics Australian National Championship held at the Adelaide Convention Centre.
Image courtesy of Robotics Education Competition Foundation.

Wyndham Tech School
Robotics training is in full swing at Wyndham teachers to enable them to apply and continue the learning
Tech School. Hosted by Victoria University introduced by the Tech School in their own school.
Polytechnic in Melbourne’s West, the Tech A few years ago, access to this type of training and technology
School is providing 24,500 secondary school across secondary schools in Melbourne’s West was varied
students from 34 partner schools access to and inequitable. The Tech School evens the playing field by
providing all students the opportunity to engage with robotics
the skills required for many of the jobs that in a contemporary and supportive environment.
haven’t been created yet.
Located at Victoria University Polytechnic’s Werribee campus,
With state government funding for ten Tech Schools across Wyndham Tech School helps to introduce students to the
Victoria, these high-tech learning hubs offer innovative, diverse career possibilities available through TAFE and the
problem-based education programs aimed at providing University environment, strengthening their interest and
students with practical experience using the latest technology opportunities for post-secondary education and training.
and equipment. Each Tech School is unique in its course
offering, with programs co-designed with local industry Factory of the Future, students will be working with Industry Partners to
work on projects that reduce production time. Image courtesy of Wyndham
partners and specialists in school networks. The distinctive Tech School.
and highly interactive learning environments help students
to develop the Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics (STEM) skills they need to compete in the future
global jobs market.
At Wyndham Tech School, students from 34 partner schools
are introduced to robotics in Year 7, continuing to build on
these skills right through to Year 12. Wyndham Tech School’s
unique offer includes projects co-delivered by industry partners
for students to problem solve, design and develop solutions
using a variety of robotics. Access to both service robots and
industrial robots used in industry provides opportunities to set
up collaborative solutions, challenging curiosity and extending
creativity. A key feature of the Wyndham Tech School’s
programs is the professional development undertaken with
Chancellor State College
Chancellor State College is a P-12 campus The College has committed to the use of mostly Lego-based
on the Sunshine Coast in Queensland. The platforms to provide students with a continuity between
platforms. There is a consistent feel between the Lego
College Primary Campus has an extensive software and students understand and feel comfortable using
range of curriculum offerings that are aligned the Lego bricks and pieces as they have often had exposure to
to ensure a seamless digital learning pathway them at home.
through the years of education.
Students engage in many different coding platforms. The emphasis
however, is always on computational and design thinking. Image courtesy of
Primary campus students will have opportunities to engage Chancellor State College.
with multiple platforms including Lego WeDo, BluBots, Lego
Spike and EV3, and Arduino all as part of their delivery of
curriculum learning. The curriculum is mapped against a
College-created scope and sequence for delivery which
emphasises the development of functional skills as roboticists.
Students in Prep and Year 1 begin to develop algorithms
and the functional use of syntax when giving a digital system
instructions, this is further developed within Year 3 where they
continue the development of these algorithms to include the
use of peripheral devices within their design solutions. This is
then continued further within Year 5 where students begin to
include branching and user input.

The mechatronics degree at QUT
At Queensland University of Technology (QUT) mechatronics is a major in the engineering degree,

leading to the award of a B.Eng. (Honours) (Mechatronics). Entry requires a selection rank of 75
and Maths C (advanced maths) is strongly recommended. It is a 4-year program, but students can
obtain a double degree in five years by combining engineering with Industrial Design, IT, Maths
or Science.
The first semester is common to all engineering students and covers engineering principles, design and energy. In the second
semester students start streaming into majors with computation and foundations of electrical and mechanical engineering.
Mechatronics has three design units, starting in the first semester of second year where students design and build a line-following
robot. In the third year students tackle a more complex project, to reflect their increased ability, and in the final year the project also
brings in aspects of product design and entrepreneurship. Projects typically involve working in teams, since team skills are critically
important in industry and learning about personal dynamics is considered as useful as technical knowledge.
Study in areas like digital systems, signal analysis, control, and autonomous systems is included. Most units have hands-on
practical or laboratory sessions and assessment is based on assignments, exams and practical work. Apart from a major in
mechatronics, students can add a second major, an additional focus on topics such as aerospace, computer and software systems,
mathematical sciences, mechanical or medical engineering. Or, students can do two minors each with a less intense focus drawn
from a large list of options such as aerospace, biotechnology, electrical engineering, engineering management, manufacturing,
materials, medical engineering, mechanics of machines, robotics, project collaboration, software engineering and many more.
There are two robotics units: Introduction to Robotics covers the kinematics of robot arms and an introduction to computer vision
– this course is available free online as the QUT Robot Academy; and Advanced Robotics covers mobile robots – motion models,
control, path planning, localisation and SLAM.
Final year also brings a two-semester capstone project where students bring their research and design skills to bear on a significant
problem. Their “client” might be a company, or it might be an academic at QUT. In addition to the technical project work, students
also need to create a project scope, create Gantt charts to manage time and delivery of milestones, write reports and give
presentations.
Mechatronics students Emily Corser and Sean Wade McCue with RangerBot at QUT's display at Qode. Image courtesy of QUT.

Australian Army Drone Racing Team — Army Cadet Drone Racing Camp
Since its formation in 2017, the Australian Army Drone Racing Team has been a leader in
getting Australian youth excited and inspired in STEM. Drone racing sells itself! It is fast-paced,
fun, exciting to fly and thrilling to watch. Learning by doing in drone racing develops STEM skills,
fosters lifelong learning and instils a sense of curiosity, confidence and teamwork.
In January 2020, the Australian Army Drone Racing Team delivered the first ever Drone Racing Camp to 22 Australian Army
Cadets as part of their elective training program. The five day camp assumed no previous knowledge of participants, with the only
requirement being an interest in drone racing.
The unique curriculum, underpinned by an applied learning approach and delivered by highly-skilled and passionate drone racers,
was a winning combination. With the emphasis on hands-on learning, cadets built their own drone on day one, developing skills in
critical thinking, problem solving and troubleshooting. Day two saw cadets learning to code and program their drone. By day three,
the cadets were out flying the course and practising on the simulators. Cadets were encouraged to explore design options and build
modifications to improve and enhance their drone. Crashing was an opportunity to problem solve, reinforce STEM skills and learning
through repair and rebuild, and build confidence to experiment.
Drone racing has an easy entry point but requires continued commitment and practice to progress beyond a beginner level. The
camp provided valuable learning opportunities for cadets to draw on the knowledge and skills of the Army Drone Racing Team
pilots, build resilience through crashes and drone malfunctions plus foster teamwork by supporting others experiencing the
same challenges.
Drone racing as a sport piques the interest of young people into the aerial robotics world, and has real-world application within the
STEM disciplines and the rapidly expanding technological career pathways. The success of the drone racing camp was evident in
the excitement and enthusiasm of the cadets to further develop their drone flying skills, and aspire to be selected as a pilot on the
Australian Army Cadet Drone Racing Team.
There are now Drone Racing Teams representing the Australian Army, Navy and Air Force with its pilots drawn from a diverse and
varied range of employments. The Military International Drone Tournament to be held in 2021 will see Australian Defence Force
Teams race against teams from New Zealand and the UK. It just may be the Australian Army Cadet Drone Racing Team who are the
ones to beat.
Craftsman Dylan Field, pilot name BurntFPV, coaches student drone racing pilots at Army Cadet Drone Racing Camp. Image courtesy of the Australian Army.

CQ Gladstone District STEM Cluster
The Central Queensland Gladstone District STEM Cluster is made up of primary and secondary
state schools in the Gladstone Region. The cluster leaders have coordinated and fostered a
productive and ongoing partnership with local industry organisations Queensland Alumina
Limited (QAL) and Rio Tinto Yarwun. This education-industry partnership has effectively developed
and refined an innovative project scope aimed at engaging students in Years 3-10 to undertake
context-specific robotics challenges that mimic real-world industry processes.
Students, supported by teacher-coaches and STEM professional mentors, are guided to design, build and program Lego Mindstorm
robots to solve real-world industry challenges, including: navigation safety and collision avoidance whilst transporting bauxite
from the Gulf of Carpentaria to the Port of Gladstone; utilisation of short-cuts during bauxite ore transport to increase company
productivity; accuracy in unloading of the bauxite cargo upon entry into port; and the extract of alumina through the refinement
process known as the Bayer Process, including digestion (navigation through a series of pressure tanks and spin through a series
of flush tanks), clarification (mud waste slurry is sent to the red mud dam), precipitation (via chemical processes) and calcination
(precipitate is located in a kiln, pushed through the kiln, and deposited at the end of the kiln ready for transport to the local
smelter). In 2020, the project scope was refined to incorporate an Acknowledgement of Country challenge component, as an
opportunity to foster student engagement in reconciliation, respect and recognition of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
histories and cultures.
The partnership and the associated robotics challenges were initiated in 2018, with QAL and Rio Tinto Yarwun contributing
expertise in industry processes to assist the state school cluster leaders with development of the Beginner and Advanced
robotics mats and challenges for the newly formed Gladstone Robotics Competition. The industry partners also contributed STEM
professional mentors to visit participating schools to support students with developing their digital solutions for the Gladstone
Robotics Competition and provide financial support to purchase competition resources. The competition mats, challenges and
handbook engage students in the Digital Technologies, Science and Maths curricula, as well as cross-curriculum priorities, and
support the development of career pathways into local industry.
Each year, the cluster leaders train teachers in a teachers-teaching-teachers model in the use of Lego Mindstorm robotics to
support students to solve the industry-modelled challenges. Students then spend several weeks at their home schools preparing
for the large culminating event showcasing their efforts, the Gladstone Robotics Competition.
QAL Electrical Engineer Russell Stewart judges a team entry into the Gladstone Robotics Competition Beginner Division. Image courtesy of Central Queensland
Gladstone District STEM Cluster.

Glasshouse Christian College
The Glasshouse Christian College (GCC) then opened in Google Earth, along with LiDAR and/or EM
AgriTech Agricultural Consulting program aims to determine if the plant health correlates with soil factors
(EM) or topographic factors (LiDAR). Finally, analysis and
to have senior students become capable and recommendations for the producer is compiled and the use of
confident in using a drone for the purpose these technologies in agriculture evaluated.
of crop monitoring and management, and
These activities reflect a staged approach to suit various
integrate EM and LiDAR layers to provide year levels and QCAA Senior Agricultural Science General
conceptual agronomic consulting services for Senior Syllabus.
the local farming community.
Travis from Glasshouse Christian College flying a drone over a potato crop
Initially, students learn the background theory of land in the Darling Downs region to determine plant health using NDVI and
DroneDeploy at early establishment phase. Image courtesy of Glasshouse
management and plants and soil health, along with the Christian College.
technologies of NDVI, EM and LiDAR. Links are made in the
field during practical components that examine soil types and
textures (EM link), plant stress investigations using a hand-
held Green Seeker (NDVI link) and topographic variations
(LiDAR).
Once drone safety and flying capabilities are established,
students start to conduct NDVI mapping. The drone that is
used to scan the different crops is a Phantom 3 fitted with a
Sentera NDVI camera, and the images captured are uploaded
to Drone Deploy to generate a NDVI map that represents plant
health. The maps are analysed independently to establish
some basic conclusions on plant health alone. The map is
Marist College Ashgrove
students to utilise and apply their prior knowledge to create

a new and innovative solution. This task was full of rich new
learnings in the areas of: networking (VNC, SSH), operating
systems (Linux); programming (threading, path-finding,
interfacing); web development (Bootstrap, JSON, AJAX); and
databasing (SQLite).
Students’ projects were outstanding. Some students enhanced
their robots with streaming video through the PiCam, others
used Javascript Turtle to draw a map of the robot’s path, and
some also attached speakers - robots began to play music
such as: ‘Stayin alive’ by the Bee Gees, and employed speech
synthesisation. Consequently, robots could speak commands,
and reassure victims (with a Scottish accent).
At Marist College Ashgrove, Year 12 Digital
Solutions students developed a website- To interface between the LEGO Ev3 motors/sensors and the
Raspberry Pi, an adapter called the BrickPi (available from
controlled fire fighting robot using LEGO and Dexter Industries) was used. Each Raspberry Pi hosted a Flask
a mini-computer called the Raspberry Pi. The web server which was used to interface with the robot and the
robot was required to: navigate a maze; record database. Students were given access to a very basic purpose-
turns, movements, the locations of fires in a built Flask template on GitHub. This template scaffolded some
database; and rescue a hypothetical victim. of the technologies they would need to apply.
Students were to remotely control their robots Overall, the project was a nice addition to the senior curriculum
via an internet connection – therefore some at Marist College, and prepares students for an Internet of
type of real-time mapping or visual display Things future where devices (and robots) will increasingly be
connected and controlled online.
was encouraged.
Speakers provide an awesome soundtrack to groove along to while working.
Prior to this project, students had learnt Python coding, web Image courtesy of Marist College Ashgrove.
development, and databasing and SQL. This project required

RoboCup Junior Australia
RoboCup Junior is a project-oriented educational initiative for students. It is designed to

introduce RoboCup to primary and secondary school children. The focus in the junior league is on
education. RoboCup is an international effort whose purpose is to foster Artificial Intelligence (AI)
and robotics research by providing a standard problem where a wide range of technologies can be
integrated and examined. As well, the initiative serves as a basis for project-oriented education.
RoboCup Junior Australia and the RoboCup Junior Educational Competition were introduced to the world in Melbourne in 2000.
The timing was perfect and it was tagged “The educational game of the new millennium”. Since then, RoboCup Junior Australia has
experienced exponential growth where well established committees host major competitions in every Australian state and territory.
The competitions have multiple divisions – where autonomous robots are designed, built and programmed to partake in Soccer,
Simulated Rescue, Rescue Maze and OnStage Theatrical Performances. Each of these categories have progressive stages based
upon the experience of the students. Each category requires a minimum of two students per team. RoboCup Junior does not
require nor suggest a specific platform, but allows the students to choose the robotic platform(s) they wish. This enables innovation
and experimentation with new technologies. It also encourages students to explore and utilise more advanced electronics and
sensors. Students progress from using educational kits to creating custom robots with 3D printed parts, and custom electronics.
The programming languages used range from block based (horizontal and vertical) to complex text based languages. As the
development of languages emerge, the use of them for the robots at RoboCup Junior has been seen.
Participation rates have steadily increased in regional and state competitions as well as the annual Australian Open National
Competitions. In addition, more and more regional competitions are being run throughout each state and territory, further
increasing the number of students, teams and schools who have connected with RoboCup Junior Australia. All competitions are
open entry, meaning no qualification is required to participate at state/territory or national level. The last census done indicated
that more than 300 schools, 1,200 teams and 3,500 students participated at the state and national level. Additionally, many
students only participate in regional competitions, or at school competitions without attending a state event. The total participation
is estimated to be more than 5,300 unique students.
RCJA is thankful for the very long time support of Modern Teaching Aids.
Rescue Competition, Line follow and lift - LEGO MINDSTORMS. Image courtesy of RoboCup Junior Australia.

Brisbane Grammar School Robotics
Beyond curriculum subjects at Brisbane Grammar School (BGS), students are offered a range of
opportunities to experience and build robots.
Lunchtime clubs for Year 5 and 6 students incorporate LEGO Mindstorms, LEGO Spark and MBot platforms for students to develop
basic programming and building skills. Students explore the potential of these kits as well as being given specific tasks to achieve,
such as LEGO sumo competitions, programming challenges and design constraints.
Year 8 students take part in a four-day immersive robotics design thinking project called Robots to the Rescue (R2tR). Students
use the design thinking process, select a real-word problem and develop a robot prototype that could help solve that problem. They
design their robot on paper, build a cardboard model and finally build a working LEGO Mindstorms robot prototype that is displayed
to parents and peers during a product ‘pitch.’ Representatives from the QUT Design department were influential in the creation of
this program.
From Year 7 to 12, students take part in the BGS Robotics Club. This is an activity that runs all year. An application process helps
ensure that students value their place, this helps cap the numbers for this very popular activity. Students in the BGS Robotics Club
take part in the FIRST Tech Challenge robotics competition. BGS attended the state competition for the first time in 2018 and had
two teams invited to attend the national competition in 2019.
In 2020 the BGS team was invited to represent Australia in the FIRST Global Challenge as ‘Team Australia’. Collaborating with
students from three other Queensland teams, the BGS students took part in three months of STEM challenges, social media
outreach and technical challenges. Each country can only elect one team and Team Australia competed against more than
190 countries.
For students wishing to learn the fundamentals of hardware, Mechatronics is a technical club in which students design, build and
program their own circuit boards to then build working robots. Students also develop a ‘club project’ which is usually a large robot
contributed to by many students from the club.
In 2019, BGS was invited to join the only Queensland FIRST Robotics Competition team (FRC). This complex competition involves
robots that weigh more than 50kg, are powered by a car battery and are predominantly custom made. BGS aims to have its
own FRC team in the next couple of years, allowing students considering Engineering or Mechatronics at university to gain this
valuable experience.
Team members preparing for the nationals in the FIRST Tech Challenge Robotics competition. Image courtesy of Brisbane Grammar School.

One Giant Leap Australia Foundation
The Kibo Robot Programming Challenge Educational Objective: A simulation can only approximate
(Kibo-RPC) is an educational program in the real world. Participants are expected to learn techniques
for creating simulation programs that perform well in the
which students solve various problems by real world despite uncertainties and within margins of error.
programming free-flying robots (Astrobee and Students learn the necessity of controlling and correcting
Int-Ball) in the International Space Station positions and orientation of a free-flying robot and how to
(ISS). It is hoped that, by providing these perform assigned tasks in the onboard environment through
students with the opportunity to work with simulation trials. 2020 was the inaugural year of this
Challenge and there were seven countries involved – Australia,
professional scientists and engineers, they will Indonesia, Taiwan, Japan, UAE, Thailand and Singapore.
be inspired to develop their own educational
and professional goals to a high level. The Astrobee robot onboard the International Space Station. Image courtesy
of JAXA/One Giant Leap Australia Foundation.
Participants have the chance to learn cutting-edge
methodologies and hone their skills in STEM. The Kibo RPC
also expands international exchange by encouraging students
to interact with other global participants. This program is
hosted by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)
in cooperation with the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA).
The scenario for 2020 was: Emergency alert is activated!!! A
meteor has crashed into the International Space Station (ISS)
and the air is leaking out somewhere. As a team, create your
own program to operate the Astrobee and Int-ball and stop the
ISS air leakage.
Social robots for empathy in education
Since 2018, Nvoke Future Learning has been fellow humans, and as a result of completing the program,
delivering tailored social robotics programs students have found they are better able to communicate and
express themselves.
to grades 5-8 in South East Queensland
schools using humanoid robots, Pepper and Nvoke Future Learning has improved outcomes for regional
NAO by SoftBank Robotics as the tool for and remote students, parents, and communities via engaging
with schools, activating interest, promoting awareness and
learning. Social humanoid robots provide a ensuring inclusivity for all. These technologies are able to truly
vehicle for simulation of social and emotional transgress socio-economic barriers and therefore contribute to
regulations, enabling students to practice brighter futures.
empathy in a safe environment.
Pepper robot with Pittsworth State School students and Nvoke Future
Learning team. Image courtesy of Nvoke Future Learning.
Within the overarching theme of empathy, students work in
project teams taking on coding, user experience, design and
communication roles to identify and solve problems for their
community by developing an application for the robot, boosting
their confidence, knowledge and engagement in the program.
The class explores the social and ethical implications of the
introduction of robots in our society, which allows them to
identify key challenges and opportunities to consider as they
create the future of robotics in their community. By working
together to develop interactive, robot-based solutions, students
develop patience and empathy for both the robot, and their

Micromelon Robotics
Micromelon Robotics has been developing classroom equipment and software since 2017, with
the core goal of building tools that lower the barrier of entry to text-based programming for school
students. With simple and intuitive classroom tools, students are able to focus on problem solving
and creative thinking in the context of robotics, as well as continuing their learning into more
advanced topics like 3D printing, electronics and computer vision.
As with many engineering challenges, the key to understanding what is going on is to visually see how it relates to things that you
may already know. Throughout school trials, Micromelon has developed software in combination with a programmable robot that
allows students to code using drag and drop blocks simultaneously with Python. This allows for students to see exactly how their
Python code alters the structure of visual elements that they already understand.
Because the students can watch the text and blocks update live no matter which part they edit, they are able to begin interacting
with text based code without fully leaving the comfort zone of a drag and drop environment. This results in students beginning to
edit text based code gradually, while being able to spot and correct errors by looking at the visual elements. While each student is
able to progress at their own pace, teachers are able to push students' comfort zones by restricting their editing method.
One of the most important aspects of robotics is troubleshooting and debugging. When a student’s robot exhibits unexpected
behaviour, they often fall on whichever style of code they are more comfortable with. To help students while debugging, features
were added that highlighted each line of text code and corresponding block live as the robot was running their program. This
visualisation of their code as it runs on a physical robot reinforces the link between blocks and text, and helps them to find problem
sections of code.
To expand the ways students can visualise their code and with the rise of remote learning, these features are now being integrated
into the Micromelon Robot Simulator. Students, whether remote or in the classroom, will be able to attempt different and more
difficult challenges. The simulator also opened up the important discussion of designing for ideal vs physical hardware in school
trials, which was released in late 2020.
Virtual Micromelon Rovers ready for a SumoBot competition. The Code Editor runs the same program on a real rover or a simulated one. Image courtesy of
Micromelon Robotics.

Robocoast
The Sunshine Coast has a great history of individual schools doing well at state robotics
competitions. By themselves they were struggling to attract enough funding to take students to the
next level of preparation for university entry into courses such as Mechatronics at QUT. Forming a
hub of ten schools back in 2017, Robocoast enjoyed sponsorship from local council and Modern
Teaching Aids, which helped fund a local robot sumo competition that grew from eight teams
entering in 2017 to 160 teams in 2019.
Students and teachers, returning from competitions held overseas, provided workshops not only in robotics and coding, but further
skills such as 3D drawing, laser cutting and 3D printing, which are fundamental in producing world-class machines. In 2019,
Robocoast ran workshops for 1,900 students and 350 teachers from over 100 schools as well as providing speakers for a number
of education conferences across the states.
In 2020, Robocoast was selected to be the organisation to introduce Australia to the RoboRave program of robotics challenges,
which has spread through 35 countries around the globe. 110 teams came together in the University of the Sunshine Coast
Stadium for what might well have been the largest robotics competition for students in the southern hemisphere in 2020!
In the space of five years the Sunshine Coast morphed from a sleepy backwater in robotics education to a dynamic focal point in
Australia, and has emerged a global leader in competitive robotics. The fundamental belief of this not-for-profit is that once students
have the confidence to teach their peers, then excellence will follow.
As the students in those robotics teams have matured, they have been encouraged to start their own mini tech-companies. Five
such businesses have been doing well, offering workshops based out of the University of the Sunshine Coast and Peregian Digital
Hub, selling tickets on Eventbrite.com and building their own fan base of robotics stars for the future.
Image courtesy of Robocoast.
Contributors
This chapter was based on a virtual workshop held on 20 August 2020 with contributions from the individuals listed below:
Damien Kee (Educational Technologies Simon Coad (Trinity College, SA) Nicci Roussow (Exaptec)
Consultant) Greig Tardiani (T4L, NSW) Gail Bray (Wyndham Tech School)
Footnotes
1 Caldwell, J.P. (2021) Education and Training in Australia, IBISWorld AU Industry Report.
2 King, R. (2021) Professional Engineering Graduates by Branch of Engineering, ACED Australian Council of Engineering Deans.

15
Skills
Rapid technological change is transforming the workplace. The
introduction of robotics, automation, and artificial intelligence
means education and training are a priority, with the loss of 75
million jobs predicted globally by 2025
15.1 Introduction
Rapid technological change is transforming the workplace. The
introduction of robotics, automation, and artificial intelligence (AI)
is asking educators, students, and the Australian workforce to
prepare for the future of work – to ensure that all Australians are
equipped with Industry 4.0 relevant capabilities.1
Education and training are a priority, with the loss of 75 million jobs due to technological-
driven change predicted globally by 2025. Notably, this loss is offset by the expected
creation of 133 million jobs, an increase of 58 million jobs in the coming five years.2 Of key
importance is that the creation of any work roles from our digital transformation will require
skills investment.
How we prepare for the future of work, whilst supporting our present needs, is a
complicated question. Knowing which skills to prioritise for our businesses and people to
succeed requires close cross-sector collaboration between government, education and
industry. The World Economic Forum3 suggested that from 2020 most occupations would
have one third of their skill set built on skills not considered crucial in 2015. Support for the
STEM curriculum – focused on applied education in the disciplines of science, technology,
engineering and mathematics – in vocational education training is being paired with skills
for core Industry 4.0 fields. Industry needs, prioritising such areas as automation, AI and
machine learning, may offset this grey area of the future of work. Additionally, focus on
soft skills to develop the human qualities of workplace roles, e.g. complex problem solving,
emotional intelligence and creativity, is strongly advocated.2
Industry 4.0 forecasts massive disruption to workers as they adapt to advanced technology
in the workplace.4, 2 The skills gap is fundamentally a mismatch between the skills that
workers in the economy possess versus the skills demanded for work roles. Before Industry
4.0 businesses would commonly recruit new staff to future proof emerging skills gaps in
the workplace. But, due to the acceleration of change, the high frequency of emerging
skills and the low numbers of workers pre-trained with those emerging skills make these
recruitment strategies much less viable. Instead, to bridge the skills gap, existing workers
are required to either upskill, which is training in new skills to continue their role, or reskill,
where they retrain for a different role. Job displacement is therefore much more normalised
under Industry 4.0 work conditions. However, the risk of widespread job displacement
under Industry 4.0, when workers are unable to overcome the skills gap, is structural
unemployment brought about by technological change making job skills obsolete.3 Given
resource constraints are defined as Australia’s premier barrier to change management and
future workforce planning, creating access to upskilling or reskilling is an imperative for the
new robot economy.

Snapshot Skills: What’s changed since 2018?
Strengths
Both industry and the higher education and skills training sector Governments are future proofing our
(with support from key stakeholders) have reacted proactively to workforce by introducing students to
current and future skills shortage in the robotics field Industry 4.0 skills from an early age
Australian universities have designed/redesigned Funding is available to retain staff through skills
Mechatronics engineering programs in response development, industry and education institutions
to demand from industry engaging in Industry 4.0 capabilities
Wins
Company professional development Increasing demand for both the professional and paraprofessional
for micro-credentials is increasing Industry 4.0 workforce with adoption of automation
Vocational education models are evolving to include non-formal Mechatronics engineering has experienced
education, and access to online self-paced learning growth of 600% over the past two decades
New opportunities
As a result of COVID-19, the utility of Industry Federal Government funding
4.0 relevant skills were tested across workplace, of $500m allows educators to
school, and government spaces deliver Industry 4.0 skills
Challenges
Complex systemic barriers to upskilling Limited professional development opportunities for educators,
and reskilling highlight the requirement and gaps between the industry requirements and the outcomes
for inclusive curriculum and access delivered by education institutions are a concern
A lack of preparedness for vocational education needs arising from Industry 4.0, and the education facilities
inability to adapt fast enough, makes it difficult to align the strategies of innovation and the workplace

Gather data on the key metrics of Industry 4.0 AISC revision of the IRC structures to better integrate
training to provide cross national uniform program small to medium enterprise employers into a VET
and policy guidance that is evidence based development consortium
Delivery of free, open access micro-credentials on entry A campaign for stronger inclusion
level Industry 4.0 topics, and inclusion in a national online of soft skills in the curriculum and
library of industry-recognised micro-credentials key performance indicators
Micro-credential courses for the workplace, emphasising common Industry 4.0 technician or
paraprofessional level technology management skills, and inclusion in a national online library
of industry-recognised micro-credentials

15.2 Skills in the robotics industry today
Technology is the driving force of Industry 4.0, so it is understandable that tech absorbs our
focus, particularly during early stages of innovation. However, overlooking how we integrate
technology, people, and processes is to the detriment of achieving an Industry 4.0 capable
workforce. As we support workers involved in digital transformation, defining their individual
roles and responsibilities, skill gaps emerge.
To systematically address the wide STEM education and coding in schools, has allocated more than $64m funding
range of training and support required and improving tertiary and vocational for early learning and school STEM, with
to successfully upskill a population, study opportunities directly related funding for educating all Australians in
engagement from key stakeholders to robotics and industrial automation digital literacy and STEM totalling $1.1b
is necessary. Here, key stakeholders fields. These are clear indications that under the National Innovation and
are defined as government policy the stakeholders are aware of the skills Science Agenda.7
makers, educators, industry leaders gap resulting from the current education
State governments also funded the
and employers, social services, and training model in Australia and the
same objective to boost up the essential
unions, advocates, and the individual urgent need for addressing the issue.
skills of the future robotics and industrial
workers themselves. Both industry and the higher education
automation workforce. In Queensland
and skills training sector have reacted
The national skills deficit is predicted the 2020 Premier’s Coding Challenge
proactively with the support from
to reach 29 million by 2030, with poor aimed to promote project based learning
government as well.
digital literacy a prominent concern.5 in STEM across scholastic grades 3
Robotics applications in Australian to 10.8 In Victoria, there is focus on
industry sectors are expected to increasing the participation of school
become ubiquitous in the coming five students in STEM, and community
to ten years, raising the question of
Robotics applications awareness of STEM has been identified
how these robots will be designed, in Australian industry as one of the eight top priorities.9
fabricated, programmed, run, and sectors are expected
serviced. Answering this question with Upskilling leads to
to become ubiquitous increased innovation
a future focus, a number of Australian
universities have either redesigned their in the coming five
There is a mutual correlation evident
Mechatronics engineering programs to ten years, raising between innovation and upskilling,
or developed new Mechatronics the question of how such that increasing outcomes for
engineering programs in the past few one variable stimulates the other.10
these robots will be
years.6 This has happened due to the Reinforcing innovation as a growth
continuous demand from the industry designed, fabricated, factor in Australian industry success
to train new graduates with robotics and programmed, run, cases has, most notably, been
automation skills to aim for the future and serviced. investment in training and development
industrial environments. Several TAFEs initiatives.11 Additionally, the $1.5b
are also upgrading their courses on Modern Manufacturing Strategy aims
industrial automation and control to fulfil to drive economic growth, investing in
the industry demand. Primary and secondary higher value jobs and improving the
Not only the industry and skills training education resilience of supply chains following
sectors, the government also has a good the COVID-19 pandemic. There is also
The current Australian school curriculum
understanding of the current and future a continuation of the Manufacturing
recommends Digital Technologies be
skills shortage in the robotics field. This Modernisation Fund, co-funding
introduced in grade 2 and embedded
is clearly visible from the amount of $52.8m to invest in transformative and
into the curriculum from grades 3 to 10
funding allocated by both federal and innovative technologies and processes.
progressively. The Federal Government
state government budgets into improving Beyond upgrading SME manufacturing

processes, the fund intends to grow a downtime due to training.2 There is that technology-driven change does not
skilled workforce inside small business. a huge opportunity for the Australian meaningfully address complex systemic
VET and non-formal education sector barriers or encourage the lifelong
Engaging with supported workplace
to capture a training market where learning approach that Australians who
skills programs means that workers
conventional long term courses may not face such barriers need to find equity in
can develop technical as well as soft
fulfil the requirements. education and employment.
skills, such as problem solving and
communication, to optimise equipment To meet this acknowledged need, the As outlined in the Organisation for
usage, whilst improving the resilience Federal Government is funding reform Economic Cooperation and Development
and cognitive flexibility needed to adapt of the vocational education sector, with report,13 the underlying ethical question
to ongoing technology-driven innovation.3 $500m to upskill or reskill 340,000 is how we build curriculum and access
With funding available to retrain staff school leavers and unemployed persons that is inclusive, with sustainable
through skills development, industry nationally. There is a clear opportunity development for all. This is a shared
and education institutions engaging in for formal and in-formal educators responsibility – a challenge for
Industry 4.0 capabilities can set targets to capitalise on their potential to government policy makers, educators,
to balance performance and innovation, deliver Industry 4.0 skills, but for most industry, unions, social services,
driving our national economy. educators this requires a pivot in training advocates, and it also holds individuals
focus. A secondary opportunity is to accountable to partner in the process of
Immediate need for short train the trainers, with their upskilling an lifelong learning.
courses in Industry 4.0 investment – role modelling the lifelong
relevant skill sets Demographic trends require careful
learning model.
analysis, but to speak in broad terms
It has been estimated that only one socially disadvantaged groups face
third of Australian employees have the the greatest barriers. In Australia
necessary entry-level skills for Industry these groups include Aboriginal
4.0 technology integration in the It has been estimated and Torres Strait Islander peoples,
workplace, with another third allocated that only one third of regional Australians, older job seekers,
as unskilled, and the remaining third Australian employees people living with a disability or mental
categorised as having an unknown illness, refugees, single parents, and
skill level.12 This is on par with global
have the necessary
women.14 Such groups are vulnerable
estimates indicating 54% of the entry-level skills for to poverty and not addressing the
workforce will need reskilling between Industry 4.0 technology widening skills gap worsens barriers
2018 and 2022.2
integration in the to employment equity. Equipment
For reskilling, training defined as short and baseline skills, such as digital
workplace.
courses of less than one month appears literacy, are needed before mainstream
appropriate for 13% of the workforce. opportunities can become viable for
In comparison, courses of less than disadvantaged students.
six months duration are cumulatively Barriers to upskilling A related challenge to national
appropriate for 35% of the workforce, employment equity is the rise of robots
As noted, a key recommendation from
whilst courses of six months or longer for in the Australian workplace, which is
the first Robotics Roadmap was to,
19%. With regards to upskilling, “shop negatively impacting employment in
“equip all Australians with Industry 4.0
floor” industry data is limited due to the emerging economies. The International
relevant skills”.1 Barriers to upskilling
ad hoc nature of on-the-job training. It Labour Office found developed nations
and reskilling the populace fall into
is forecast that upskilling short courses are re-shoring work, where production is
a number of categories: situational,
of less than one month duration on brought back to the developed nation,
institutional, dispositional, academic,
relevant topics such as digital literacy, as it is more profitable to do so under
employment training opportunities,
cybersecurity, and other Industry 4.0 Industry 4.0 than off-shoring to low-cost
and barriers based on culture. Whilst
specific skills would benefit the majority developing countries.15 Re-shoring is
the COVID-19 pandemic response
of employees (estimated over 50%). thus forecasted to present issues for
has rapidly brought forward change
The strong benefits for employees to Australian international trade relations
management practices in educational
access upskilling short courses are time with developing nations.
and professional settings, the reality is
and cost savings, thanks to minimal

15.3 The future of skills in robotics
The increasing installation of industrial robots in workplaces by Australian manufacturing and
service industries follows trends across the US, Japan, and China. By 2030 it is estimated 20
million existing jobs will be performed by robots globally.16 However, humans won’t be jobless
if our existing workforce is trained to work for and with robots.4 This opportunity creates a new
professional and paraprofessional workforce domain, reinforcing why Australia needs to align
vocational education and training with Industry 4.0 capabilities.
To illustrate, the mining and resource
industry is a leading sector in employing
autonomous vehicles in transportation.
As of February 2020, Australia leads
the world by operating 369 autonomous
haul trucks out of the global total
of 459 with a year-on-year increase
of 32% compared to 2019.17 These
trucks are sophisticated computer
controlled robotic vehicles operated
and maintained by a specially trained
workforce. This example demonstrates
that with resources, market need, and
applied vocational training Industry 4.0 Industry 4.0 workforce with adoption system to formal education, non-formal
career pathways can transform Australia of automation. Reshaping the labour education does not necessarily provide
into a global leader. market means harvesting the multiple a continuous path structure. It can
benefits of robotic labour, such as often be sourced online, as workshops
Agriculture increasingly deploys robotic
productivity increases and reduction or short courses, and may be industry-
applications to fill gaps in labour
in costs and wastage, whilst moving recognised but not accredited. Non-
availability. For example, like many
human capital into parallel or newly formal education models reduce barriers
operators in the food supply chain,
developing domains of work. to upskilling and reskilling. There is
mango farms heavily depend on
equity in the right to access non-formal
seasonal workers, such as backpackers. Evolution of vocational education across demographics such
There is a clear need to develop fruit education models, including as age, location, language, level of
picking robots, which involves highly micro-credentials education, and gender. Non-formal
specialised skills of image processing,
Formal education systems can education contributes to programmes
embedded and mechatronics systems
no longer independently prepare on technical and soft skills, as well
design, and agronomics. The world-first
graduates for work, given the range as offering support for sociocultural
mango-picking robot is the result of
and rapidity of emerging skills gaps development.21
university collaboration with industry.18
Here, mechatronics can meaningfully across industry roles. The challenges Formal education providers including
solve a labour crisis for producers, whilst of formal qualifications include time to universities and TAFE are increasingly
substantially improving on the job safety completion, unacknowledged partial offering micro-credentials with
in ongoing and adapted agricultural completion, limited recognition of government support. Micro-credentials
roles, and open agribusiness to the robot prior learning, and unclear learning are content-targeted short courses
service industry. outcomes for employers. Vocational offered as a complement to traditional
education models in Australia are coursework and have been forwarded
These industry examples demonstrate therefore evolving to include non- as the solution to emerging skills
the increasing demand for both the formal education.19, 20 Designed either preparation.19, 13 Recently topics to
professional and paraprofessional as an alternative or complementary upskill current workers in the robot

economy include AI, cybersecurity, IoT, which is how advanced technology is workplace practices is unlikely, given
cloud computing, blockchain, robotics developed in real terms. Given the rate the demonstrated benefits seen by
and big data. Unlike a university degree of new graduates, paired with clear organisations and staff who overcame
or vocational qualification, micro- industry and community need during the hurdle of COVID-19 restrictions.16
credentials are agile training solutions the rollout of Industry 4.0, Australian
Australia achieved a “new normal”, in
that can take as little as one hour to tertiary educators have successfully met
less than twelve months, defined by
complete. They can be aggregated to the market – adapting to educate this
agility and adaptation to technological-
build larger and more recognisable emerging labour force.
driven change. Given that disruption
credentials, such as robotics
Appendix C summarises the accredited from rapid technological change is
service technician.20
mechatronics courses currently on offer standard for Industry 4.0 workplaces,
Easy access to digital resources and across Australia’s university and TAFE this attitude of resilience and focus on
self-paced learning environments programming.6 upskilling is predicted to strongly benefit
through online micro-credentials offer Australians as we continue on the
individuals the ability to take control Transition to online trajectory of an industrial revolution.
of their learning experiences and technologies
upskill themselves.22 Furthermore, COVID-19 accelerated the need for the
Industry employers as
embedding micro-credentials into adoption of new workplace practices/
vocational education
company professional development technology due to rapidly changing work
collaborators
has enabled employers to upskill conditions. Both physical distancing There is an apparent lack of
a cohort of experienced, university laws and the ability to work from home preparedness for vocational education
qualified workers. For example, Telstra saw a range of virtual platforms offset needs arising from Industry 4.0 in
partnered with the University of the inability to be in person at meetings, Australia, undermining workforce
Technology Sydney to deliver a suite network events, and classrooms. Video strategy alignment with innovation
of micro-credentials for their staff and conferencing apps saw a surge in use, strategy.3 Key to successfully disrupting
successfully upskilled on data analysis, online interactional spaces such as education is resource constraints.
advanced data analytics, and machine visual collaboration software and task Professional development opportunities
learning – minimally disrupting work management tools like JIRA and Miro for educators are limited compared
whilst enhancing team collaboration and also rapidly entered the common home to the new skill sets required. Thus,
cohesion.23 Queensland’s Department office tool kit, and training options in-class learning may more reflect
of Employment, Small Business and using virtual and augmented reality what the teacher understands than
Training (DESBT) is implementing a technology entered professional and what the students need for industry
micro-credentialing pilot program over education facilities at higher rates of roles and activities,13 and gaps exist
three years (2019–22) to support adoption than previous. Clearly, barriers between the skills needed by industry
adoption of workplace innovation and to Industry 4.0 adoption that might and the general outcomes delivered by
improve productivity. have continued unchallenged given the education institutions.
noted pre-pandemic complacency are
The rise of mechatronics lessened due to immediate operational
Given emerging skills shortages,
engineering courses needs when working under pandemic
there is a fundamental challenge of
whether formal and informal education
With fewer than ten accredited courses guidelines.12, 24
facilities can adapt fast enough to
available cross nationally prior to 2000,
COVID-19 provided the opportunity for the needs of people employed, or
the relatively new multidisciplinary
Australians to test the utility of Industry seeking employment, in the new and
field of mechatronics engineering has
4.0 relevant skills across workplace, transitioning job roles. The “Connecting
experienced massive growth over the
school, and government spaces. Wage Education to the Real World”
past two decades – showing a rise of
subsidies, such as the Job Keeper report26 addressed this challenge by
over 600%.6 Originally incorporating both
valued at $130b, aimed to facilitate the recommending the teaching profession
mechanical and electronics systems,
retention of staff during the pandemic be strengthened, both in teacher quality
mechatronics also covers robotics,
and helped offset immediate costs and respect for educators, as well as
communication, systems, control,
of on-the-job training for employers.25 harnessing technology to supplement,
and product engineering. Broadly, this
Post-pandemic, decreasing investment not replace, high quality educators.26
branch of engineering aims to generate
in the technology that supports agile This report also advocated for vocational
design solutions unifying the subfields,

education and training (VET) systems to and safety requirements; and minimally employers having high diversity with low
foster agile and reciprocal partnerships affect work hours.27 availability.
with their respective industry employers,
The Australian Industry and Skills There is an underlying challenge
not just industry leaders.
Committee (AISC) have actioned a range for the AISC to operationalise SME
SME owners have a more immediate of Industry Reference Committees inclusion within the AISC ethical practice
relationship with staff and often work (IRC), which operate as the formal guidelines to form an agile, responsive,
in the business themselves, meaning channels to advise on, develop, and timely VET system that meets the rapidly
they are far more closely attuned to review industry-specific skills training evolving on-the-job requirements. After
what training is needed. SMEs seek VET packages. IRC personnel are industry all, Australian SMEs may fund a fair
programs that: are agile, accessible, and leaders, peak bodies, and unions. Whilst share of the development and running
meet their immediate needs; conform small business is acknowledged, true costs of highly specialised job-focused
to policy, legislation, workplace health representation is debatable due to SME short courses.
15.4 Main findings for skills in the

robotics industry
Equipping the Australian population Australia can measure its progress, and credentials course development.
with Industry 4.0 skills is increasingly determine areas for improvement, to 4 Gather data on the key metrics
a national priority. Technology-driven meet long term goals: of Industry 4.0 training such as
changes are already occurring in 1 Delivery of free, open access type, engagement, utility, rate
classrooms and workplaces across micro-credentials on entry level of completion to provide cross
the country, but these can appear Industry 4.0 topics, such as digital national uniform program and policy
reactive and ad hoc rather than literacy, available on an ongoing guidance that is evidence based.
proactive strategies. Frameworks to basis. Inclusion in a national online Informed decisions from this data
develop inclusive workforce-critical library of industry-recognised micro- can be applied in government (e.g.
digital capabilities, technical skill sets, credentials. resource allocation), education
social and emotional skills, as well (e.g. professional development
2 Development of micro-credential
as adaptability and resilience require for adult educators), and industry
courses for the workplace based
national leadership. Thus, strengthening (e.g. encourage businesses to
on industry need, emphasising
our economy to withstand future become proactive about upskilling,
common Industry 4.0 technician
disruptions requires government, such as scout-shape-shift media
or paraprofessional level tech
education, and industry stakeholders to campaigns).
management skills, e.g., cobot
collaborate on workforce skills training
programming, using an internet of 5 A campaign for stronger inclusion
and support.
things dashboard. Inclusion in a of soft skills in the curriculum
Long term goals for Industry 4.0 national online library of industry- and key performance indicators.
vocational education may best define recognised micro-credentials. According to the World Economic
Australia's purpose in engaging 3 AISC revision of the IRC structures Forum,2 skills to focus on are:
learners, set financial expenditure to better integrate small to medium complex problem solving, creativity,
targets, determine appropriate return enterprise employers into a VET people management, critical
on investment, ultimately demonstrating development consortium. The thinking, coordinating with others,
how VET assists economic growth. For underlying goal is an agile and emotional intelligence, judgement
the purpose of this publication, we have timely system with capacity to and decision making, service
set five specific goals that we consider quickly address common emerging orientation, negotiation, and
can be reasonably accomplished in skill gaps for workplace training, cognitive flexibility.
the next five years – and against which potentially linked to micro-

Case studies
RoboTradies — Strategic upskilling

RoboTradies — towards Industry 4.0
Strategic upskilling
towards Industry 4.0.............. 234
Strategic skill
development at
Campbell Arnotts................... 235
Automated
mango harvester................... 236
Robotics and
skills in aerospace................. 236
Smart infrastructure
inspection with
the FORCECOR
AIMSCLOUD suite.................. 237 PTE Hydraulics, a specialist manufacturer
making strong moves towards an
High school robotics — Industry 4.0 smart factory, is aware that
Delivering industry skills......... 238 project success is built on teamwork, not
machines alone, and that operators need
support and training. PTE Hydraulics
has engaged the industrial psychology
program, RoboTradies, which runs in
parallel with both design/build and
integration of new robotic cells and IOT.
The aim is machine usage, but also clearer
communication across levels of staff, with minimal time
off tools. RoboTradies engages staff with individual
assessment, job analysis and support, followed by
tailored training and reinforcement of learning for the
manufacturing teams over the course of the project.
The immediate outcome for PTE Hydraulics is improved
performance with the robotic cells and IOT, but long
term the goal is to run a SME smart factory that
engages and retains all staff.
Strategic upskilling, that is planned and paired with
a project’s technology roll out, shows the road to
successful job displacement. Training and support
opens new work profiles for existing staff. For PTE
Hydraulics machinery upgrade projects are not a
standalone investment, but part of a schedule of works,
where investment in staff technical and soft skills form
stepping stones for professional development. This is
a strong case outlining how Industry 4.0 skill gaps lead
to upskilling and then job displacement that positively
impacts the workforce.
Large scale metalworking equipment requires trained staff;

automation for smart factories are providing the next generation of
skills to metal fabricators. Image courtesy of Freelance Robotics.

Strategic skill development at Campbell Arnotts
Operating in Australia since 1962, Campbell Arnotts now employs more than 2,000 persons
nationally. Underlying this fast-moving consumer goods company’s successful expansion into
Industry 4.0 food processing is the understanding that employees working across the business,
from factory floor to management, need strategic skill development to ensure Campbell Arnott’s
digital transformation. Automation is optimising factory operations.
Since 2015 Campbell Arnott’s have invested in innovative infrastructure, including $500m on upgrading existing plant and an
additional $3m on the Culinary and Innovation Centre in Sydney, to elevate the food processing standards across the Asia-Pacific
region. From production scheduling, inventory management, order fulfilment, equipment operations and maintenance, through to
machine learning and robotics, Campbell Arnott employees benefit from in house vocational training to improve decision making
and outcomes across every step of the supply chain.
Robotic Palletising and AGV for Sydney Warehouse. Photo: William Phan.

Automated mango harvester
CQU University developed an automated through the undergraduate course, producing a good example
mango harvesting unit which is capable of university training involving interaction with industry and
academic experts in robotics and automation field for future
of detecting and locating mango through industrial applications.
intelligent image processing and then moving
and activating harvesting arms (manipulators Automated mango picking system. Image courtesy of Prof. Kerry Walsh.
and end effectors) on a mobile platform.
This project is industry funded, including support of
Horticulture Innovation Australia, with industry experts,
university researchers and students working on different
aspects. Prof. Kerry Walsh is the project's team leader, with
the customised deep learning machine vision algorithms
developed by Dr. Anand Koirala and Dr. Zhenglin Wang.
The mango picking manipulator and the end effector was
implemented by a final year engineering student Ruan Nortje
as his final year thesis project under supervision of Assoc.
Prof. Preethichandra. This activity provided an excellent
opportunity to apply engineering knowledge and skills gained
Robotics and skills in aerospace
The aerospace industry, across Commercial

and Defence, is facing a general shortage
of highly skilled personnel in the Avionics/
Systems/Software knowledge areas.
Qualifications in these disciplines are directly
transferable to emerging technologies such
as robotics, machine learning, data analytics
and addictive manufacturing, which are set to
revolutionise the aerospace industry.
While the aerospace industry needs expertise and skills on
previous and current generation technology, it is leaning
forward to embrace these emerging technology trends and
preparing the workforce of the future.
To meet this challenge, Airbus is actively working with
Queensland schools through the Queensland Government’s
Aerospace Gateway to Industry Schools Program (AGISP), and
with Aviation High through the Federal Government’s Pathways
in Technologies Program (P-TECH), which is focusing on data
analytics. Work experience, work place tours, mentoring and
challenging project activities are provided by Airbus to students
with a passion for aerospace.
Airbus is also working with a number of universities for work
experience opportunities and with a number of universities
and innovative Small to Medium-size companies in the area of
research and development.
Robots offer large payloads with the pinpoint accuracy required for
successful project delivery in the aerospace industry. Image courtesy of
Freelance Robotics.

Smart infrastructure inspection with the FORCECOR AIMSCLOUD suite
Smart city solutions provide digital insights into our urban and rural infrastructure to better
manage these assets in both the short and long term. FORCECOR highlight the positive impact
of infrastructure service robots through the deployment of their AIMSCLOUD system, which uses
robotic platforms linked to the cloud for software interface.
AIMSCLOUD/Structures is a software system tailor made for the management of bridges, large culverts and other structures. It
stores inventory, condition status, maintenance schedules, Timber Drill reporting and Scour Sounding information. The system
analyses trend information and forecasts future inspection requirements according to the relevant standards.
AIMSCLOUD/Drainage custom stormwater drainage inspection software features GIS/GPS capabilities to record and log defects
and maintenance actions for all types of stormwater infrastructure. The system is a graphical connection to the AIMSCLOUD –
POLE hardware. The hardware comprises up to 4mp imagery with 45x Optical zoom. Location information is recorded via RTK GPS
with up to a 20mm accuracy. All information is recorded wirelessly to the SIM DRAINAGE system for graphical display, condition
information, and report generation.
In addition to providing periodic inspections and asset management services, AIMSCLOUD has been operational across Moreton
Bay Regional Council as a permanent smart city initiative since 2020, with ongoing Council investment expanding the smart system
due to its ease of use and success with Council operations and planning.
Image courtesy of Mark de Hayr at Forcecor.

High school robotics — Delivering industry skills
The Centre of Excellence in Automation and Robotics at Alexandra Hills State High School
is delivering dynamic and innovative programs that develop industry-driven skills and equip
students to enter work roles not yet fully defined. A unique approach to drone (UAV) education is
one example of the Centre of Excellence moving beyond the standard curriculum.
In addition to completing a Certificate III in Aviation (Remote Pilot - Visual Line of Sight), with the opportunity to obtain commercial
UAV licencing (CASA RePL), students solve real-world problems - completing infrastructure inspections and wildlife monitoring
using visual and thermal imaging, using industry-standard software for drone-based landform surface mapping and using aquatic
drones (ROVs).
The Centre of Excellence has engaged with scientific organisations and technology companies (e.g. Australian Centre for Robotic
Vision, Haddington Dynamics, BIA5, Verterra and GreenBio) to develop industry-driven projects including: advanced manufacturing
with 3D printing and laser technologies, programming collaborative robots, design of fire-fighting robotic vehicles and vertical
farming with automated irrigation and robotic harvesting. In 2020, Alexandra Hills State High School was also selected as a
founding member of the ICT Gateway to Industry Schools Program (Queensland) and is working with primary industry partner
Freelance Robotics to support student pathways into university or the workplace with Industry 4.0 technology.
Access to an industry standard Drone (UAV) Licence course - the Certificate III Remote Pilot Licence, followed by Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA) Remote
Pilot Licence and Aeronautical Radio Operator Certificate (via RTO 32292) - readies the students at AHSHS for Industry 4 employment. Image courtesy of
Freelance Robotics.

Contributors
This chapter was based on a virtual workshop held on 29 May 2020 with contributions from the individuals listed below:
Amanda White (Freelance Robotics) Reza Ryan (TAFE Qld) William Pagnon (Freelance Robotics)
Jackie French (TAFEQld) D.M.G. Preethichandra (CQU) Elliot Duff (CSIRO's Data61)
Footnotes
1 A Robotics Roadmap for Australia (2018). Australian Centre for Robotic Vision.
2 World Economic Forum (2018). The Future of Jobs Report. Centre for the New Economy and Society.
3 World Economic Forum (2016). The Future of Jobs: Employment, Skills and Workforce Strategy for the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Global Challenge
Insight Report.
4 Acemoglu, D. & Restrepo, P. (2019). Automation and New Tasks: How technology displaces and reinstates labor. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 33,
3-30.
5 Rumbens, D. (2019). While the Future of Work is Human, Australia Faces a Major Skills Crisis. Deloitte: Media Release.
6 Engineers Australia (2020). Engineers Australia Accredited Programs. Retrieved from https://www.engineersaustralia.org.au/sites/default/
files/2020-07/Web%20List%20-%20V39%20-%20200706.pdf
7 Department of Education, Skills and Employment (2020). Australian Curriculum: Support for Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM).
Retrieved from https://www.education.gov.au/support-science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics
8 Queensland Government (2020). Premier's Coding Challenge #cybersecureqld. Retrieved from https://education.qld.gov.au/about-us/events-awards/
awards-competitions/premiers-coding-challenge
9 State Government of Victoria (2016). Victoria’s Lead Scientist Strategic Plan 2018-2020. Author: Melbourne.
10 Toner, P. (2011). Workforce Skills and Innovation: An overview of major themes in the literature. OECD Directorate for Science, Technology and Industry,
Centre for Educational Research and Innovation.
11 Australian Bureau of Statistics (2006). Innovation in Australian Business 2005, Cat. No. 8158.0.
12 KPMG Digital Delta (2020). The 2020 Fourth Industrial Revolution Benchmark.
13 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2019). OECD Future of Education and Skills 2030.
14 Community Affairs Reference Committee (2014). Bridging our growing divide: Inequality in Australia. The extent of income inequality in Australia.
Commonwealth of Australia: Parliamentary Report.
15 Carbonero, F., Ekkehard, E., & Weber, E. (2018). Robots Worldwide: The impact of automation on employment and trade. Working Paper 36,
International Labour Office.
16 PwC (2017). Workforce of the future: The competing forces shaping 2030.
17 Global Data (2020). Mining Industry Quarterly Review, Q2 2020 – Tracking Commodity Prices, Production and Projects.
18 McCosker, A. (2019). World-first mango harvesting robot to take the grunt work out of fruit picking. ABC Rural News. Retrieved from https://www.abc.net.
au/news/rural/2019-06-01/world-first-mango-harvesting-robot/1116036
19 Oliver, B. (2019). Making Micro-Credentials Work for Learners, Employers and Providers. Deakin University: Melbourne.
20 Ralston, S. (2020). Higher Education’s Microcredentialing Craze: a Postdigital-Deweyan Critique. Postdigit Sci Educ, May, 1-19.
21 UNESCO (2011). Non-Formal Education. Retrieved from http://uis.unesco.org/en/glossary-term/non-formal-education
22 Santandreu Calonge, D., Aman Shah, M., Riggs, K. & Connor, M. (2019). MOOCS and upskilling in Australia: A qualitative literature study. Cogent
Education, 6, 16873922.
23 Johnston, M. (2020). Telstra taps UTS to upskill workforce with micro-credentials. IT News. Retrieved from https://www.itnews.com.au/news/telstra-
taps-uts-to-upskill-workforce-with-micro-credentials-549731
24 Sydow, L. (2020). Increased demand for Houseparty, ZOOM, Hangouts Meet and Microsoft Team surfaces due to work from home policies, social
distancing measures and government lockdowns during the coronavirus pandemic. Retrieved from https://www.appannie.com/en/insights/market-
data/video-conferencing-apps-surge-coronavirus/
25 Frydenberg, J. (09-04-2020). Coronavirus Economic Response Package (Payments and Benefits) Rules 2020. Australian Government: Federal Register
of Legislation.
26 WISE-Gallup Survey (2015). Connecting Education to the Real World. Retrieved from https://www.wise-qatar.org/wise-gallup-survey-connecting-
education-real-world/
27 White, A.M.V. (2020). The Australian Manufacturing Industry Skill Gap. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B9oLsJTqAzk

16
Appendices
Appendix A
Standard and/or project under the direct responsibility of iso/tc 299 secretariat
(Standardization in the field of robotics, excluding toys and military applications)1
ISO/WD 5124 Robotics— Services provided by service robots — Safety management systems requirements
ISO 8373:2012 Robots and robotic devices — Vocabulary
ISO/DIS 8373 Robotics — Vocabulary
ISO 9283:1998 Manipulating industrial robots — Performance criteria and related test methods
ISO 9409-1:2004 Manipulating industrial robots — Mechanical interfaces — Part 1: Plates
ISO 9409-2:2002 Manipulating industrial robots — Mechanical interfaces — Part 2: Shafts
ISO 9787:2013 Robots and robotic devices — Coordinate systems and motion nomenclatures
ISO 9946:1999 Manipulating industrial robots — Presentation of characteristics
ISO 10218-1:2011 Robots and robotic devices — Safety requirements for industrial robots — Part 1: Robots
ISO/DIS 10218-1 Robotics — Safety requirements for robot systems in an industrial environment — Part 1: Robots
ISO 10218-2:2011 Robots and robotic devices — Safety requirements for industrial robots — Part 2: Robot systems and integration
ISO/CD 10218-2 Robotics — Safety requirements for robotics in an industrial environment — Part 2: Robot systems and integration
ISO 11593:1996 Manipulating industrial robots — Automatic end effector exchange systems — Vocabulary and presentation of
characteristics
ISO/DIS 11593 Robots for industrial environments — Automatic end effector exchange systems — Vocabulary and presentation of
characteristics
ISO/TR 13309:1995 Manipulating industrial robots — Informative guide on test equipment and metrology methods of operation for
robot performance evaluation in accordance with ISO 9283
ISO 13482:2014 Robots and robotic devices — Safety requirements for personal care robots
ISO 14539:2000 Manipulating industrial robots — Object handling with grasp-type grippers — Vocabulary and presentation of
characteristics
ISO/TS 15066:2016 Robots and robotic devices — Collaborative robots
ISO 18646-1:2016 Robotics — Performance criteria and related test methods for service robots — Part 1: Locomotion for wheeled
robots
ISO 18646-2:2019 Robotics — Performance criteria and related test methods for service robots — Part 2: Navigation
ISO/DIS 18646-3 Robotics — Performance criteria and related test methods for service robots — Part 3: Manipulation
ISO/DIS 18646-4 Robotics — Performance criteria and related test methods for service robots — Part 4: Lower-back support robots
ISO 19649:2017 Mobile robots — Vocabulary
ISO/TR 20218-1:2018 Robotics — Safety design for industrial robot systems — Part 1: End-effectors
ISO/TR 20218-2:2017 Robotics — Safety design for industrial robot systems — Part 2: Manual load/unload stations
ISO/FDIS 22166-1 Robotics — Modularity for service robots — Part 1: General requirements
ISO/TR 23482-1:2020 Robotics — Application of ISO 13482 — Part 1: Safety-related test methods
ISO/TR 23482-2:2019 Robotics — Application of ISO 13482 — Part 2: Application guidelines
IEC/TR 60601-4-1:2017 Medical electrical equipment — Part 4-1: Guidance and interpretation — Medical electrical equipment and
medical electrical systems employing a degree of autonomy
IEC 80601-2-77:2019 Medical electrical equipment — Part 2-77: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential
performance of robotically assisted surgical equipment
IEC 80601-2-78:2019 Medical electrical equipment — Part 2-78: Particular requirements for basic safety and essential performance
of medical robots for rehabilitation, assessment, compensation or alleviation

Appendix B
Australia’s AI ethics principles2
1 Human, social and environmental wellbeing: Throughout their lifecycle, AI systems should benefit
individuals, society and the environment.
2 Human-centred values: Throughout their lifecycle, AI systems should respect human rights, diversity, and
the autonomy of individuals.
3 Fairness: Throughout their lifecycle, AI systems should be inclusive and accessible, and should not
involve or result in unfair discrimination against individuals, communities or groups.
4 Privacy protection and security: Throughout their lifecycle, AI systems should respect and uphold privacy
rights and data protection, and ensure the security of data.
5 Reliability and safety: Throughout their lifecycle, AI systems should reliably operate in accordance with
their intended purpose.
6 Transparency and explainability: There should be transparency and responsible disclosure to ensure
people know when they are being significantly impacted by an AI system, and can find out when an AI
system is engaging with them.
7 Contestability: When an AI system significantly impacts a person, community, group or environment,

there should be a timely process to allow people to challenge the use or output of the AI system.
8 Accountability: Those responsible for the different phases of the AI system lifecycle should be
identifiable and accountable for the outcomes of the AI systems, and human oversight of AI systems
should be enabled.

Appendix C
Accredited Mechatronics Courses offered by the Australian Tertiary Sector, 2020.
Institution Course
Australian National University Bachelor of Engineering (Honours) (Mechatronic Systems)

Bachelor of Engineering (Research and Development) (Honours) (Mechatronic Systems)
Master of Engineering in Mechatronics
Central Queensland University Bachelor of Engineering (Honours) (Mechatronics)

Bachelor of Engineering (Honours) (Mechatronics) and Diploma of Professional Practice (Co-op Engineering)
Chisholm Institute of TAFE Bachelor of Engineering Technology (Mechatronics)

Advanced Diploma of Engineering Technology (National Code No 21622VIC) in Robotics and Mechatronics
Curtin University Bachelor of Engineering (Honours) (Mechatronic Engineering)
Deakin University Bachelor of Mechatronics Engineering (Honours)
Edith Cowan University Bachelor of Engineering (Mechatronics) Honours

Master of Engineering (Mechatronics Engineering)
Federation University Diploma of Engineering – Technical

Bachelor of Mechatronic Systems Engineering (Honours)
Flinders University Bachelor of Engineering – Robotics (Honours)
Griffith University Bachelor of Intelligent Digital Technologies - IoT and Robotics
Macquarie University Bachelor of Engineering (Honours), with a major in Mechatronic Engineering
Monash University Bachelor of Robotics and Mechatronics Engineering (Honours)
Queensland University of Technology Bachelor of Engineering (Mechatronics)

Bachelor of Engineering (Honours) (Mechatronics)
RMIT University Bachelor of Engineering (Advanced Manufacturing and Mechatronics) (Honours) dual degree option Business
Master of Engineering (Robotics and Mechatronics Engineering)
Associate Degree in Engineering Technology (Advanced Manufacturing and Mechatronics)
Diploma of Applied Technologies
Swinburne University of Technology Bachelor of Laws / Bachelor of Engineering (Honours) in Robotics and Mechatronics
Bachelor of Computer Science in Robotics and Mechatronics
Bachelor of Engineering (Robotics and Mechatronics)
Advanced Diploma of Engineering Technology – Mechatronics Engineering Design
TAFE NSW Diploma Of Engineering - Technical (Mechatronics)
TAFE QLD Certificate IV in Industrial Automation and Control
TAFE South West Certificate II in Engineering Studies
TAFE WA Integrated Technologies (Robotics Control Systems) - 22519VIC
University of Adelaide Master of Engineering (Mechatronic)

Graduate Diploma in Engineering (Mechatronic)
continued overleaf >

Appendix C — cont.
University of Canberra Bachelor of Engineering (Honours) – Major in Robotics and Artificial Intelligence
The University of Melbourne Master of Engineering (Mechatronics)
University of Newcastle Bachelor of Mechatronics Engineering (Honours)

Combined degree Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering (Honours) with Bachelor of Mechatronics Engineering (Honours)
Combined degree Bachelor of Mechatronics Engineering (Honours) with Bachelor of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
(Honours)
Master of Professional Engineering (Mechatronics)
UNSW Australia Bachelor of Engineering (Honours) (Mechatronic Engineering)
UNSW Global Diploma In Engineering - Mechatronic Engineering
University of Queensland Bachelor of Engineering (Honours) (Mechatronic Engineering)

Bachelor of Engineering (Honours) and Master of Engineering (Mechatronic Engineering)
University of South Australia Bachelor of Engineering (Honours) (Electrical and Mechatronic)

Bachelor of Engineering (Honours) (Mechanical and Mechatronic)
Bachelor of Engineering (Honours) (Mechatronic)
University of Southern Queensland Bachelor of Engineering (Honours) (Mechatronic Engineering)
University of Sunshine Coast Bachelor of Engineering (Mechatronic) (Honours)
University of Sydney Bachelor of Engineering Honours (Mechatronic)

Bachelor of Engineering Honours (Mechatronic) (Space)
University of Technology Sydney Bachelor of Engineering (Honours) in Mechanical and Mechatronic Engineering
Bachelor of Engineering (Honours) in Mechatronic Engineering
Bachelor of Engineering (Honours) in Mechanical and Mechatronic Engineering with Diploma in Professional Engineering
Practice
Bachelor of Engineering (Honours) in Mechatronic Engineering with Diploma in Professional Engineering Practice
University of Western Australia Bachelor of Automation and Robotics
University of Wollongong Bachelor of Engineering (Honours) (Mechatronic Engineering)

Master of Engineering (Mechatronics Engineering)
Victoria University Certificate IV in Industrial Automation and Control
Western Sydney Institute of TAFE Advanced Diploma of Engineering (MEM60112) in Mechatronics
Western Sydney University Bachelor of Engineering Advanced (Honours) - Robotics and Mechatronics
Bachelor of Engineering (Honours) - Robotics and Mechatronics
Bachelor of Engineering Science (Robotics and Mechatronics)
Master of Engineering (Mechatronics)
Footnotes
1 https://www.iso.org/committee/5915511/x/catalogue/
2 https://www.industry.gov.au/data-and-publications/building-australias-artificial-intelligence-capability/ai-ethics-framework/ai-ethics-principles

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A Robotics Roadmap

for Australia 2022

Our Vision is to build a sustainable robotics industry in Australia. We do this by supporting

Published by Robotics Australia Group.

2. Trust and safety..................................................... 16

6. Healthcare and wellness......................................84

8. Transport and mobility........................................118

14. Education............................................................ 204

15. Skills.................................................................... 226

Australia invests heavily in cybersecurity but does not make

A Robotics Roadmap for Australia 3

Responsibility for creating a second edition of the roadmap

4 Robotics Australia Group

Jobs matter Time matters Safety is Regional service Certainty counts

A Robotics Roadmap for Australia 5

Image courtesy of Robusty.

6 Robotics Australia Group

Establish Australia as a global leader (as

Develop and release a 10-year Australian Artificial Intelligence and

Add ‘Artificial Intelligence and Robotics’ to the Australian Research

Update the Australian and New Zealand Standard Industry

A Robotics Roadmap for Australia 7

8 Robotics Australia Group

A Robotics Roadmap for Australia 9

mobility interactivity communication autonomy

10 Robotics Australia Group

Data and benchmarking

A Robotics Roadmap for Australia 11

Research and Production Marketing and

12 Robotics Australia Group

1 Reef Works 7 Parks

A Robotics Roadmap for Australia 13

By having researchers from different institutions,

14 Robotics Australia Group

Trust and Safety

As robotics become increasingly semi-autonomous

A Robotics Roadmap for Australia 17

AUTONOMOUS AUTOMATED AI-ENABLED: WHAT'S IN A NAME?

As the breadth and application of semi-autonomous and autonomous systems continues to

18 Robotics Australia Group

A Robotics Roadmap for Australia 19

Systems Safety Framework

Legislation Tort/Common Law

Safety Management Systems

Operational Risk Change Emergency

Process/Functional Human Factors/

Technical Hazardous material

20 Robotics Australia Group

Components of system safety

Consideration of how parallel disciplines such as operational safety management, cybersecurity,

• Safety of operator and maintainer • Safety in design

A Robotics Roadmap for Australia 21

– non-deterministic effects of actions; cost of running a Hardware components

22 Robotics Australia Group

A Robotics Roadmap for Australia 23

24 Robotics Australia Group

CASA’s classification hierarchy for Uncrewed Aircraft Systems (UAS)12

Manned aircraft Unmanned aircraft

Remotely Piloted Autonomous Aircraft

4.4 Impact of COVID-19