MEANING OF CONFLICT

The word “conflict” is derived from the Latin word confligere, meaning to “strike together.

Lexically, according to Webster Dictionary, Vol. 1, 1971, conflict means : to strike, to dasy. A
fight, struggle or battle, clash, contention, confrontation, a controversy or quarrel, active opposition,
strife or incompatibility, to meet in opposition or hostility, to contend, to be contrary or to be at
variance.

Conflict also means contradiction arising from differences in interests, ideas, ideologies,
orientations, beliefs, perceptions and tendencies. Although, conflict is a normal, natural and inevitable
phenomenon in any interactive situation of human life, contradictions exists at all levels of the society –
intra – psychic/personal, interpersonal, intra – groups, inter – group, institution, intra – national and
international. Conflict is not necessarily negative in itself. It is often a by – product of social change and
may lead to constructive transformation.

Many scholars have come up with different definitions, concepts, views or school of thoughts of
conflicts from a more intellectual platform all over the world. Thus in a layman understanding, conflict is
nothing but a fight either between two individuals or groups.

Conflict arises because of the differences in personality or the difference in opinion; it is a fact
that when there is difference in opinion, understanding, ideas, at such people tend to think and act
differently and such conflict can arise. Hence it is noted that conflict is perhaps an inherent nature of the
human interactive society and it is inevitable as proposed by conflict scholars.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CONFLICT

 CONFLICT IS A SYSTEM THAT HAS PROCESSES

Conflict exist in layers and the first is always “MISUNDERSTANDING” ans the others are differences
in values, perspective, interest as well as interpersonal and interpersonal differences. Conflict is also
called a process because it begins with one part perceiving the other to oppose or negativity affects its
interest and ends with pain anguish etc.

 CONFLICT IS INEVITABLE

As we know, there is a household of conflict occurring everywhere as no two individual are the same
as there are a number of differences in things such as value, perspective and cultural belief which
otherwise leads to conflict. People should come to understand that conflict is a normal part of life.
People, groups and organizations have unlimited needs but limited resources thus, this incompatibility
to bound, leads to conflict. Conflict is not a problem, it only shows that we have different opinions, it
becomes a problem if poorly managed.

 Conflict is oppositive.
 For conflict to occur there must be an interaction between both parties.
 Concept of Oneself and “of Other”

In a situation of conflict, there is usually a natural tendency to view “the other” as less civilized,
legitimate targets for attack, terrorist or oppressors. This devalued view of one’s “enemy” dehumanizes
people, and tends to destroy empathy and severe the human bond between those in bitter conflict. A
pointer to a better illustration of this claim could be seen in avid assertion by Krog (1999) that: In a
situation like this, there is hardly a way in which a white could appreciate the life of the blacks or
imagine himself in their position. There is therefore an urgent need for those on mediation (particularly
religious persons/groups) to prioritize, as a “potent tool”, initiatives for reconciliation which are based
upon the notion of common humanity, which for Christians, is motivated by the idea of all people being
created in the image of God. Ericson (2001) informs us that “in Northern Ireland, the reconciliation
groups focus on overcoming segregation by providing space for encounters across the Catholic
Protestant divide (p. 227). He attests that he found “numerous testimonies from participants who had
discovered the humanity of and established friendships with people from “the other side” (p. 228). It
goes then to support the view that the notion of ‘common humanity’ could build relationship across
racial, social, cultural and religious divides, and this has much to do with discovering each other as fellow
human beings which also entails waking up from attitudes illustrated by the quotation from Krong.
Personal encounters should therefore, be facilitated by those on mediation. It is essential, even with
your worst enemy, to find out what is causing the problems that make them your enemy. Personal
interaction would do the magic.

CONFLICT ISSUES

Many individuals have tried to avoid conflict at all cost while others tend to blame the other
party for a conflict.

Conflict issues are issues that most likely may lead to conflict occurrences. If the issue is not
resolved, there is a possibility of escalation into violent happenings. One way of identifying conflict is
based on the fact that conflict is closely associated with misunderstanding and disagreement between
parties involved. Like earlier stated, conflict is evitable but it can be minimized and controlled. Here are
some common factors that lead to conflict situation within an organization:

Misunderstanding

Conflict can arise from misunderstanding about:

 The nature, aims and objectives of a job,

 differing expectations about how things should be done,
 Work conditions and wages,
 The different responsibilities of management and employees and
 Difference in values, beliefs, needs or priorities.

Poor communication

Communication relies on clear and complete messages being sent as well as being received.
Problems can be reduced by paying attention to how well you send messages and how well you received
them. Both managers and workers are responsible for ensuring that these issues are considered. There
are many ways to improve information flow and communication. Here are some suggestions:

 Keep message books/day books

 Ensure decisions are implemented
 Try to spend twice as much time listening as you spend talking
 Give everyone time to talk at meetings.

Lack of planning

Lack of planning often means an organization moves from one crisis to the next. This sense of
disorganization and lack of direction can be stressful and can create many problems including
misunderstandings. The time spent in planning will be recouped many times over in the more efficient
use of workers’ time, and in real and long-term benefits to clients.

Frustration, Stress and Burnout

When people become frustrated or stressed they are more irritable and more likely to create
conflicts than at other times. It is important to recognize the sign of stress in people’s work situations in
order to prevent burnout. Try to help people identify the causes of work related stress, and take steps to
change these factors or, better still, try to anticipate possible causes of stress before they arise. These
factors could include:

 Threats of violence or actual violence

 Overcrowding or lack of privacy
 Verbal abuse
 Harassment
 Criticism and lack of communication etc.

VIOLENCE AS A POTENTIAL FORM OF CONFLICT

According to the World Health Organization, Violence is the premeditated use of physical force
or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community, which
either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, or
dispossession.

Generally, whatever thing done in a deleterious or damaging way may be termed as violent
even if not meant to be violence (by a person and against a person).

Violence is not an inherent form of conflict but rather a potential form that conflict may take,
but then unfolding event in world history suggest that most conflict resulted in violence which inflicts
life-long injuries on victims as well as losses of lives and destruction of properties. But all these resulted
because the conflict was not resolved, at such it result into destructive form of conflict which is
VIOLENCE.
 TYPES OF CONFLICT

It is important that we know types of conflict we encounter in our day-to -day activities. There
are numerous kinds of conflicts but we will limit ourselves to the following:

Interpersonal conflict

This refers to a conflict between two individuals. This occurs typically due to how people are
different from one another. We have varied personalities which usually results to incompatible choices
and opinions. Apparently, it is a natural occurrence which can eventually help in personal growth or
developing your relationships with others. In addition, coming up with adjustments is necessary for
managing this type of conflict. However, when interpersonal conflict gets too destructive, calling in a
mediator would help so as to have it resolved.

Intrapersonal conflict

This type of conflict occurs within an individual. The experience takes place in the person’s mind.
Hence, it is a type of conflict that is psychological involving the individual’s thoughts, values, ptinciples
and emotions. Intrapersonal conflict may come in different scales, from the simpler mundane ones like
deciding whether or not to go for lunch to the ones that can affect major decisions such as choosing a
career path. Furthermore, this type of conflict can be quite difficult to handle if you find it hard to
decipher your inner struggles. It leads to restlessness and uneasiness, or can even cause depression. In
such occasions, it would be best to seek a way to let go of the anxiety through communicating with
other people.

Intergroup conflict

This conflict takes place when a misunderstanding arises among different teams within an
organization. For instance, the sales department of an organization can come in conflict with the
customer support department. This is due to the varied sets of goals and interests of these different
groups. In addition, competition also contributes for intergroup conflict to arise. There are other factors
which fuel this type of conflict and they include a rivalry in resources or the boundaries set by a group to
others which establishes their own identity as a team.

Intra-group conflict

This type of conflict happens within a team. The incompatibilities and misunderstandings among
these individuals lead to an intra-group conflict. It arises from interpersonal disagreements (e.g teams
members have different personalities which may lead to tension) or differences in views and ideas (e.g
in a presentation, members of the team might find the notions presented by the one presiding to be
erroneous due to their differences in opinion). Within a team, conflict can be helpful in coming up with
decisions which will eventually allow them to reach their objectives as a team.

Conflict can also be classified under the following:

“CONFLICT”

 On the basis of scope are substantive conflict and affective conflict.

 On the basis of results are Constructive and destruction conflict
 On the basis sharing by groups are distributive and integrative conflict
 On the basis of strategy are competitive and co-operative conflict
 On the basis of involvement of states and rival fration are internal conflict, international conflict and
internationalized internal armed conflict

CAUSES OF CONFLICT AND VIOLENCE IN NIGERIA AND AFRICA

AT LARGE

Conflicts in Africa may be said to have been caused by a multiplicity of factors such as: arbitrary
borders created by the colonial powers, heterogeneous ethnic composition of African states, inept
political leadership, corruption, negative effect of external debt burden and poverty.

Creation of Arbitrary Borders by Colonial Powers:

Alabi (2006:57) and Cammack et al (1988:13) have observed that the colonization of Africa by
European powers in the 19th century created political units that divided ethnic groups in some cases
and combined rival groups in others. As currently composed, boundaries of most Africa states were
arbitrarily drawn without regard to ethnic and cultural affinities. In some cases, European boundaries
forced starkly different, rival cultures to cohabit within the confines of a single state. The impacts of
these borders were felt to varying degrees from one country to the other throughout Africa. For
instance, the Akan speaking peoples were split between Ghana and cote d’ lvoire; the Ewe ethnic group
has also been split between Ghana and Togo while many Yoruba are found in the Benin Republic. It
should be noted that since the 1950’s when Africa nations started to gain independence, these arbitrary
borders have more often than not become source of conflict.

Heterogeneous Ethnic Composition of Africa States and the Resultant Problem of Ethnicity:

Carment (1994:137) and the United Nations (1987) have submitted that of the over 180 states
of the world, only a small number are ethnically homogenous. This probably suggests that multi-ethnic
states are likely to continue to be a feature of international politics and that ethnic conflict is not only a
threat to the African continent but also a menace to the whole international community (Ryan 1990:14;
Instituto Del Tercer, 1997:160). However, one cannot deny the fact ethno political conflicts have been
on the increase in Africa throughout the 20th century. This is probably not unconnected with the factor
of ethnic diversity of most African states and the resultant problem of ethnicity. Eminue (2004:19) and
Osaghae (1992: 214) submit that of all the factors, multi- ethnicity is the most frequently associated with
conflict. Truly, given the fact that ethnic cleavages are already deep and political discrimination against
minority groups is widely practiced in Africa, ethnicity cannot but be a great potential for separatist
activities. Ethnicity has bred the feelings of suspicion, hatred and distrust among members of the various
ethnic groups in Africa and has no doubt re traded political integration in Africa. It is therefore not
surprising to note that at least twice (1967-70 civil war and 1993 -1999 friction) ethnic rivalry has been
the major cause of internal conflicts in Nigeria. Similar stories may also be told of Liberia, Uganda,
Rwanda, Burundi, Somalia, Sudan, Congo and a host of other Africa states.
Inept Leadership

Africa has consistently suffered from the problem of inept leadership which has retarded
political integration and unity in almost all African states. Given the heterogeneous composition of most
African states, perhaps what they needed most are the virtues of administrative tact, political tolerance
and social justice. These essential ingredients are to be provided by the continent’s leadership.
Unfortunately however, the realities on ground in most African nations have revealed that most African
leaders are weak, corrupt and unpatriotic. Apart from retarding national integration and socioeconomic
developments, the attitudes of these rulers have sparked off widespread bloody violence. Sudanese,
Nigerian, Algerian and Liberian civil wars lend credence to the fact that African leaders have failed to
forge national unity in their respective countries. Judging from the above observation, one cannot but
agree with Adedeji (1999: 11) when he asserts that:

what African countries have lacked during most of their history, as independent states are
leaders who are unifiers, chiefs in the true sense, who bind wounds, hold everything and everyone
together, mobilize and motivate their people, pursue a policy of inclusion rather than exclusion and are
seen by one and all to be of the highest integrity and beyond suspicion.

The point therefore is that African leadership must be acceptable to all sections of the
community if the process of integration is not to be halted. Until then, a recurrence of conflicts across
Africa may continue to be a common phenomenon.

Party Systems and Power Struggle:

In Nigeria, looking at its political and economic environment, the quest to capture and control
the distribution of power and resources is majorly the basis for the existence of most political parties
(Abbas, 2016; Tyoden, 2016). Therefore, each political party perceives any other party in the society as a
potential competitor and therefore, as an opponent in the struggle for control of 12 | P a g e power thus
employing different strategies and means leading to conflicts in the process. Banking on this, desperate
politicians who wish to win elections (even if they are not qualified to win elections) mobilize
unemployed youths to perpetrate various electoral crimes such as abductions and assassinations of
opponents and innocent victims, rigging of election results. This explains election periods in Nigeria as
described by President Olusegun Obasanjo as are a-matter-of-door-die or a-matter-of-life-and-death.
Unfortunately, this kind of electoral politics which fosters the development of political party thuggery,
armed banditry and assassination have, of course, signaled serious dangers for the democratic and
partisan politics in Nigeria over the years. As reported by Abbas (2016) this is more evident in the deaths
of numerous civilians and several cases of high profile political assassinations with the major ones in the
killings of Chief Bola Ige, Dr. Harry Marshall, Dr. Chuba Okadigbo, Chief Ogbonnaya Uche, Sa’adatu Rimi,
Funsho Williams, Lambert Saturday Dogogo, Aminasoari Dikibo, Ayo Daramola, Modu Fannami Gubio,
Dipo Dina, and several others.

Corruption and Inequality

Corruption is referred to as misuse of office for personal gains. It could be seen as an abuse of
entrusted power for private gains. Bala Mohammed sees it as lack of discipline, a diversion from the
norm, appearance of bias and intention to subvert any influence by a public official receiving something
to influence his/her decision. Despite the fact that, corruption has been considered as morally
degrading, socially unacceptable and politically destructive, it has unfortunately over the years ate deep
in into most public and private organizations and individuals of Nigeria. The effects of corruption all over
the Nigerian society and strata have led to inefficiency, injustice, inequality, intolerance thereby leading
to conflict and violence. Over the years, corruption has therefore taken a seriously destructive
dimension thereby undermining the establishment of good governance, accountability and transparency
by the political class who are supposed to be the arrow heads of solving Nigeria’s problem. Indeed, the
failure by the government to address this problem has created extremely rich and extremely poor
classes in most Nigerian communities thereby leading to series of conflict generating tools in each
society with attendant consequences. Beyond this, it is summarised that the major causes of conflict in
most Nigerian communities among others include:

 Self-identities rather than collective identities by the national citizens;

 Degeneration of individual and group moral values;
 Lack of respect for the human rights of citizens by individuals and the government;
 Prevalence of poverty, hunger, diseases, illiteracy, unemployment, deprivations and other
unfulfilled needs; and
 Poor governance as manifested in corruption, mismanagement, leading to incompetence,
inefficiency, impunity, injustice, failure to deliver basic services, and overall insecurity, etc.

Poverty

Africa is one of the poorest continents of the world. This is largely due to harsh environmental
conditions, corruption and huge foreign debt that exacerbate the conditions of poverty (IIiffe,
1995:253). For instance, desertification has contributed to famines in a number of African states such as
Ethiopia and Mali. As a result, the number of people living in extreme poverty in sub- Saharan Africa
grew from 217 million in 1987 to more than 300 million in 1998 ( Corbett 2005). If therefore the saying is
true that a hungry man is an angry man, then conflicts may for long be a part of Africa life owing to this
situation of absolute poverty prevalent across the continent.

IMPACT OF WARS AND CONFLICT ON AFRICA’S SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

The unending political tensions, wars and conflicts in the continent have had lasting negative
impact on the socio- economic development of Africa because socio- economic development cannot be
sustained in an environment riddled with violence, instability and insecurity ( Conteh, 1998:20). Some of
these are briefly examined below.

a. Problem of reconstruction:-

This is perhaps the most debilitating impact of wars and conflicts on Africa’s development. All
countries coming out of conflict face major challenges of reconstruction in order to avoid a recurrence
to violence. It is needles to state that during war times, infrastructural facilities are wantonly destroyed
while loyalty, patriotism and mutual relations are broken between hitherto friendly peoples and nations.
Such broken relationships must be mended to ensure lasting peace between belligerent groups while
the destroyed facilities are to be replaced. It is worthy of note that this amounts to a total waste of
material resources and unnecessary dissipation of energy on unproductive ventures. This has been the
general trend of events in Africa and has been retarding growth and development in the region (Global
Coalition, 2004:7).

b. Unemployment:

Wars and conflicts in Africa have combined to compound the problem of unemployment in the
continent. Today, throughout Africa, high rate of unemployment, particularly of youths, is a major
source of concern. It has been growing at an annual rate of 10%. In countries coming out of conflict,
many young people not only lack employment; they have also been denied education and economic
empowerment because of war. instructive to note that without other means of economic support, there
is a danger that unemployed former combatants will engage in criminal behaviour, especially with the
many small arms in circulation in war- torn countries.

c. Death/ Loss of lives:

A great number of Africans: young, old, male, female, civilians and military men alike, have lost
their lives to various wars and conflicts on the continent. For instance, in the 1994 genocide in Rwanda,
(Global coalition 2004:7) about 800,000 Rwandans were reportedly massacred. Similarly, the Burundi
civil war claimed over 200,000 lives as at the year 2000,. In Liberia, over 250, 000 lives were lost in the
country’s fourteen year civil war between 1990 and 2004. The same may also be said of Sierra Leone in
which an estimated 200, 000 people were killed during the nation’s civil war between 1991 and 2001.
But perhaps the most pathetic situation occurred in Sudan. The civil war in Sudan has been one of the
longest and costliest on the continent with an estimated two million lives lost to the war (Global
Coalition, 2004:10). It is disheartening to note that this unprecedented loss of lives in Africa as a result of
wars and conflicts is having debilitating impact on human resources available to Africa. The services of
the departed souls whom God has endowed with great skills, talents and potentials are no longer
available to be harnessed for Africa’s development.

Refugee problem:

One of the attendant effects of wars and conflicts in Africa is the emergence of numerous
number of displaced persons who have become refugee in different nations across the continent
( Instituto Del Tercer, 1997:45;Uwechue, 1996:16). According to Article, 1 paragraphs 1 and 2 of the
Convention Governing the Specific/ Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa (1969) a refugee is a person
who, owing to well- founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality,
membership of a particular social group or political opinions, is outside the country of his nationality and
is unable or, owing to such fear is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country, who, not
having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such
events in unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it” or “ every person who, owing to
external aggression, occupation, foreign domination or events seriously disturbing public order in either
part or the whole of his country of origin or nationality, is compelled to leave his place of habitual
residence in order to seek refuge in another place outside his country of origin or nationality”

It is sad to note that violence and lawlessness have caused a severe humanitarian crisis in Africa
as many displaced people are now spread throughout the continent. For instance, in Liberia, the 2004
Report of the Global Coalition for Africa (2004:8) noted that an estimated 700,000 were internally
displaced as at 2003. The spill- over effects of the Liberian conflicts were felt in neighbouring countries
through increased refuges flows. About 3000 Liberians were hosted by Nigeria at the height of the crisis
while an appreciable number of them also became refuge in Guinea. In Sudan, an estimated 4.7 million
Sudanese were displaced during the nation’s prolonged civil war. As at 2004, the total number of African
refugees was put between 15 and 20 million (UNHCR, 2004). They became refugees in neighbouring
countries in the region. As refugee, the affected persons have been exposed to serious risks of diseases
and hunger.

SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEMS AND WARS OF CONFLICT IN AFRICA

As a way out of the predicament of wars and conflicts that have bedeviled Africa, it is apt to
offer some valuable suggestions based on a thorough analysis of the causes of the problem. In this wise,
two major broad solutions may be experimented with to bail Africa out of recurrent conflicts and wars.
These are committed and sincere leadership and eradication of poverty.

Committed and Sincere Leadership

African states need committed and sincere leaders that will lead by example and who act as
good, responsible and responsive fathers to all the component sections and peoples in their countries so
as to promote peace and harmony within the confines of their respective countries. This can be done in
a number of ways:

Even distribution of resources

African leaders must ensure an even distribution of resources among the various geo-political
zones in their countries. Marginalization of one unit/ group should not be allowed in order to win the
support and cooperation of all and sundry and to avoid any feeling of alienation

Promotion of rule of law

African leaders should also endeavor to promote the rule of law. This involves equal access to
justice by all citizens irrespective of their status, respect for court decisions by the government and
influential, and conduct of free and fair periodic elections among others. When and where leaders
promote the rule of law as indicated above, there are a guarantee of peaceful coexistence among
people and a peaceful transition of power from one government to the other. Succession dispute
related conflicts that are very rampant in Africa may thus be easily eliminated.

Protection of Fundamental Human rights

African leaders should also promote, protect and guarantee the fundamental human rights of
their citizens. In particular, the fundamental rights of freedom of speech, association and religion should
be guaranteed. People should be free to assess and criticize the performance of government without
fear of persecution. Opposition must be tolerated while the fourth realm of government, the press,
must not be censured. In this wise governments would always be kept on her toes to provide qualitative
and sincere leadership in their countries.
Eradication of Poverty

Without much controversy, one may boldly declare that poverty is the root of all evils in Africa.
A poor man, who has been economically humiliated and financially traumatized may not be said to be in
his right senses. Hence, it may be apt to observe that a hungry man is a mad man. He can steal, kill,
maim and destroy. Poverty can demean a man and affect his psychology negatively. Hence a major
policy instrument for peace and stability in Africa that is riddled with wars and conflicts is the
eradication or at worst, a reduction of the monster of poverty. This can be achieved in a number of ways
as suggested below:

Equal access to qualitative education

Governments in Africa should give their citizens equal access to qualitative education. The
importance of education to the socio- economic development of a nation has been well articulated in
the Millennium Development Goal. Education, no doubt, is a lever to human and societal development.
Apart from imparting skill and knowledge in the citizens, it will also eliminate ignorance. Education will
also empower citizens for employment in the future. It makes labour more mobile across the globe.
Opportunities for survival are very much available to the educated people.

Provision of gainful employment for the youths

Governments in Africa should also strive to provide gainful employment for all their citizens
especially the youths. Industries and factories should be established to absorb the teeming graduates of
higher institutions of learning in African countries. Government should also encourage farming through
mechanized agriculture. Modern farm implements and technology should be provided for farmers at
cheap prices. Apart from eradicating the problem of hunger, this will no doubt equally enhance the
economic empowerment of youths and eradicate idleness.

Adequate remuneration of civil servants

Government workers should be adequately remunerated white promotion should also be based
on competence and performance. Their salaries should be enough to sustain their families. This will go a
long way at reducing the incidence of misappropriation and embezzlement of public fund that have
always starved African governments the much needed fund for development.

CONCLUSION

Since independence in the late 20th century, African countries have been betting with the
problem of civil wars and inter- state conflicts. This has taken its toll on Africa’s development in a
number of ways especially in death of her illustrious sons and daughters and alienation of her peoples
which in turn has been hindering the process of integration and cohesion in Africa. Thugery, looting and
arson have become part and parcel of Africa’s political culture. This should not be allowed to continue if
Africa is to witness sporadic growth and development and compete favourably with other continents of
the world. All hands must therefore he on deck to halt this negative development and chart a new
course for peace in Africa. This will not only enhance adequate security of life and property in Africa, it
will also attract foreign investors to Africa for the adequate exploration of her numerous natural
resources for growth and development.
 CONSEQUENCES OF CONFLICT

Conflict per se is neutral, neither good nor bad. It can have positive as well as negative
consequences for the parties involved and for the larger social system of which the disputing parties are
members.

Positive Results of Conflict

On the positive side, conflict can bring opportunity, drama, development, and growth to individuals,
groups, and organizations, resulting in increased cohesion and trust. It can lead, as well, to more
effective personal and organizational performance. Positive consequences for individuals involved in
conflict can include:

 Reconciliation of the interests of the disputing parties: Most conflicts can end with at least
some satisfaction of the legitimate interests of the parties involved, usually through some
integrative agreement of mutual benefit. Rarely do conflicts have to end in clearcut win/lose
outcomes.
 A sharpened sense of identity and solidarity: As individuals engage in conflict, their sense o who
they are as persons, with unique needs tends to be sharpened. As they differentiate themselves
from one another, they uncover ways in which they are similar and different. The similarities
enhance rapport and a sense of solidarity, the difference help to sharpen a sense of identity.
 Interaction: Conflict tends to promote interaction at an interpersonal level and create a new
system of which all parties are instantly a part. As one party change, all the other parties must
then change to restore the equilibrium.
 Internal change: As disputing parties experience conflict and engage in dialogue with others of
differing needs and beliefs, they are confronted with the prospect of making adjustments in
their positions. The pressure to explore new ideas and feelings can challenge an individual to
move from rigidity to flexibility, with consequent internal change.
 Clarifying the real problem: Conflicts often emerge around different solutions to a particular
problem shared by the disputing parties. As dialogue is conducted and the parties begin to
explore the interests underlying the contrary positions, the real problem can be identified and
addressed.

Conflicts often involve groups and occur between group members. Conflict can have positive
consequences for all group members that are parties to the dispute. Some of them include:

 Increased trust: As individuals enter into any experience with one another in group setting, trust
is low, resulting in defending behaviors on the part of group members. In conflict situations this
tendency is exacerbated, since the disputing parties perceive the possibility of their failing and
being hurt. As individuals share their thoughts and feelings with one another in the group, trust
builds, freeing energy previously spent in defending. 4 1994 Neil Katz &Kevin McNulty.
 Incensed productivity and results: As conflict is exposed and the parties involved express their
thoughts and feelings, the group can be healed of some of the negative feelings that tend to
prevail in conflict situations. As the group is freed of diverting emotions and discovers new
solutions, its productivity can increase.
  Group unity: Conflict fosters a sense of group unity and identity as disputing parties reconcile
individual differences. Without conflict, groups become stagnant and uncreative.

Negative Results of Conflict:

Often the positive benefits of conflict are overshadowed by harmful consequences that result
when disputing parties attempt to achieve their goals at the expense of others. Such forcing exchanges
often bring about an escalation of the conflict that is difficult to reverse. When forcing methods are
used, any of the following negative consequences can follow:

 Minor differences can escalate into major conflicts involving actions imposed by a power person
or group on another, resulting in greater loss to the system as a whole.
 The number of issues in the conflict can increase, resulting in greater complexity and greater
difficulty in managing the situation.
 Specifics can give way to global concerns, which often cause the person to be equated with and
confused with the issue at stake or the entire relationship between the disputing parties to be
called into question.
 The intention can shift from getting a specific interest satisfied to beating the other parties at all
costs.
 The number of parties can increase, making it even more difficulty to de-escalate the conflict.

Indigenes/Settler phenomenon

It does not matter how long one might have stayed in a place or community once the person
does not belong to the ethnic group within the territory then he/she is unfortunately regarded as settler
not fit to enjoy certain rights and privileges in Nigeria. In most Nigerian communities, the said indigenes
usually hold sway over political structures in their areas and the so called settlers also who also
predominantly depend on the state resources as means of livelihood are usually treated as second class
citizens and therefore a source of frequent and sometimes occasional conflict in their communities.
Plateau state has become a classical example of this issue having recorded frequent clashes which have
led to a lingering crisis of supremacy since the return of democracy in 1999. However, the Plateau state
is not an exception as there is a notable crisis of indigene and settler across the country as evidenced in
subsidize education, scholarship, employment quotas, and admissions quota, etc. These issues
continued to generate tensions and acrimonies in various Nigerian communities. Another area of
concern between indigenes and settlers is the contention on the use and ownership of land and other
resources which have resulted in to violent crises and conflict among many people and communities in
the country.
 REFERNCES

 Adedeji, A (1999). Comprehending and Mastering African Conflicts: The Search of Sustainable
Peace and Good Government, London, Zed Books.
 Adeyemo, F.O (2000). Conflicts, Wars and Peace in Africa, 1960- 2000 , Lagos, Franc Soba Nig.
Ltd.
 Alabi, D.T. (2006). “Emerging Trends and Dimensions of the Rwandan Crisis” African Journal of
International Affairs and Development.
 Barkindo, B., Omolewa, M; and Babalola, G. (1994). Africa and the Wider World (Book 3), Agbor/
Akure/ Ibadan/ Ilorin, Longman Nig. PLC.
 Cammack P; Pool, D; and Tordoff, W. (1988). Third World Politics: A Comparative Introduction,
London, Macmillan Education Ltd.
 Carment, D. (1994). “ The International Dimensions of Ethnic Conflict: Concepts, Indicators and
Theory” Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 30, No 2.
 Conteh, J.S. (1998). “ Colonial Roots of Conflicts in Africa: A Historical Perspective, Prevention
and Resolution” African Journal of Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution, Vol. 2, No
1, Jan- April
 Directorates of General Studies of English(GSE), (2022). Federal University of Petroleum
Resources Effurun(FUPRE).