Theory[edit]

Main article: Structural engineering theory

Figure of a bolt in shear stress. Top figure illustrates single shear, bottom figure illustrates double shear.

Structural engineering depends upon a detailed knowledge of applied mechanics, materials science,

and applied mathematics to understand and predict how structures support and resist self-weight
and imposed loads. To apply the knowledge successfully a structural engineer generally requires
detailed knowledge of relevant empirical and theoretical design codes, the techniques of structural
analysis, as well as some knowledge of the corrosion resistance of the materials and structures,
especially when those structures are exposed to the external environment. Since the 1990s,
specialist software has become available to aid in the design of structures, with the functionality to
assist in the drawing, analyzing and designing of structures with maximum precision; examples
include AutoCAD, StaadPro, ETABS, Prokon, Revit Structure, Inducta RCB, etc. Such software may
also take into consideration environmental loads, such as earthquakes and winds.

Profession[edit]
Main article: Structural engineer
Structural engineers are responsible for engineering design and structural analysis. Entry-level
structural engineers may design the individual structural elements of a structure, such as the beams
and columns of a building. More experienced engineers may be responsible for the structural design
and integrity of an entire system, such as a building.
Structural engineers often specialize in particular types of structures, such as buildings, bridges,
pipelines, industrial, tunnels, vehicles, ships, aircraft, and spacecraft. Structural engineers who
specialize in buildings often specialize in particular construction materials such as concrete, steel,
wood, masonry, alloys, and composites, and may focus on particular types of buildings such as
offices, schools, hospitals, residential, and so forth.
Structural engineering has existed since humans first started to construct their structures. It became
a more defined and formalized profession with the emergence of architecture as a distinct profession
from engineering during the industrial revolution in the late 19th century. Until then, the architect and
the structural engineer were usually one and the same thing – the master builder. Only with the
development of specialized knowledge of structural theories that emerged during the 19th and early
20th centuries, did the professional structural engineers come into existence.
The role of a structural engineer today involves a significant understanding of both static and
dynamic loading and the structures that are available to resist them. The complexity of modern
structures often requires a great deal of creativity from the engineer in order to ensure the structures
support and resist the loads they are subjected to. A structural engineer will typically have a four or
five-year undergraduate degree, followed by a minimum of three years of professional practice
before being considered fully qualified. Structural engineers are licensed or accredited by different
learned societies and regulatory bodies around the world (for example, the Institution of Structural
Engineers in the UK). Depending on the degree course they have studied and/or the jurisdiction they
are seeking licensure in, they may be accredited (or licensed) as just structural engineers, or as civil
engineers, or as both civil and structural engineers. Another international organisation is
IABSE(International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering). [7] The aim of that association
is to exchange knowledge and to advance the practice of structural engineering worldwide in the
service of the profession and society.

Specializations[edit]
Building structures[edit]
See also: Building engineering

Sydney Opera House, designed by Architect Jørn Utzon and structural design by Ove Arup & Partners

Millennium Dome in London, UK, by Richard Rogers and Buro Happold

Burj Khalifa, in Dubai, the world's tallest building, shown under construction in 2007 (since completed)
Structural building engineering includes all structural engineering related to the design of buildings. It
is a branch of structural engineering closely affiliated with architecture.
Structural building engineering is primarily driven by the creative manipulation of materials and forms
and the underlying mathematical and scientific ideas to achieve an end that fulfills its functional
requirements and is structurally safe when subjected to all the loads it could reasonably be expected
to experience. This is subtly different from architectural design, which is driven by the creative
manipulation of materials and forms, mass, space, volume, texture, and light to achieve an end
which is aesthetic, functional, and often artistic.
The structural design for a building must ensure that the building can stand up safely, able to
function without excessive deflections or movements which may cause fatigue of structural
elements, cracking or failure of fixtures, fittings or partitions, or discomfort for occupants. It must
account for movements and forces due to temperature, creep, cracking, and imposed loads. It must
also ensure that the design is practically buildable within acceptable manufacturing tolerances of the
materials. It must allow the architecture to work, and the building services to fit within the building
and function (air conditioning, ventilation, smoke extract, electrics, lighting, etc.). The structural
design of a modern building can be extremely complex and often requires a large team to complete.
Structural engineering specialties for buildings include:

 Earthquake engineering
 Façade engineering
 Fire engineering
 Roof engineering
 Tower engineering
 Wind engineering
Earthquake engineering structures[edit]
Main article: Earthquake engineering structures
Earthquake engineering structures are those engineered to withstand earthquakes.

Earthquake-proof pyramid El Castillo, Chichen Itza

The main objectives of earthquake engineering are to understand the interaction of structures with
the shaking ground, foresee the consequences of possible earthquakes, and design and construct
the structures to perform during an earthquake.
Earthquake-proof structures are not necessarily extremely strong like the El Castillo pyramid at
Chichen Itza shown above.
One important tool of earthquake engineering is base isolation, which allows the base of a structure
to move freely with the ground.

Civil engineering structures[edit]

Civil structural engineering includes all structural engineering related to the built environment. It
includes:
  Bridges
 Dams
 Earthworks
 Foundations
 Offshore structures
 Pipelines
 Power stations
 Railways
 Retaining structures and walls
 Roads
 Tunnels
 Waterways
 Reservoirs
 Water and wastewater infrastructure
The structural engineer is the lead designer on these structures, and often the sole designer. In the
design of structures such as these, structural safety is of paramount importance (in the UK, designs
for dams, nuclear power stations and bridges must be signed off by a chartered engineer).
Civil engineering structures are often subjected to very extreme forces, such as large variations in
temperature, dynamic loads such as waves or traffic, or high pressures from water or compressed
gases. They are also often constructed in corrosive environments, such as at sea, in industrial
facilities, or below ground.

Mechanical structures[edit]
The principles of structural engineering apply to a variety of mechanical (moveable) structures. The
design of static structures assumes they always have the same geometry (in fact, so-called static
structures can move significantly, and structural engineering design must take this into account
where necessary), but the design of moveable or moving structures must account for fatigue,
variation in the method in which load is resisted and significant deflections of structures.
The forces which parts of a machine are subjected to can vary significantly and can do so at a great
rate. The forces which a boat or aircraft are subjected to vary enormously and will do so thousands
of times over the structure's lifetime. The structural design must ensure that such structures can
endure such loading for their entire design life without failing.
These works can require mechanical structural engineering:

 Boilers and pressure vessels

 Coachworks and carriages
 Cranes
 Elevators
 Escalators
 Marine vessels and hulls
Aerospace structures[edit]
An Airbus A380, the world's largest passenger airliner

Design of missile needs in depth understanding of Structural Analysis

Aerospace structure types include launch vehicles, (Atlas, Delta, Titan), missiles (ALCM,

Harpoon), Hypersonic vehicles (Space Shuttle), military aircraft (F-16, F-18) and commercial aircraft
(Boeing 777, MD-11). Aerospace structures typically consist of thin plates with stiffeners for the
external surfaces, bulkheads, and frames to support the shape and fasteners such as welds, rivets,
screws, and bolts to hold the components together.

Nanoscale structures[edit]
A nanostructure is an object of intermediate size between molecular and microscopic (micrometer-
sized) structures. In describing nanostructures it is necessary to differentiate between the number of
dimensions on the nanoscale. Nanotextured surfaces have one dimension on the nanoscale, i.e.,
only the thickness of the surface of an object is between 0.1 and 100 nm. Nanotubes have two
dimensions on the nanoscale, i.e., the diameter of the tube is between 0.1 and 100 nm; its length
could be much greater. Finally, spherical nanoparticles have three dimensions on the nanoscale,
i.e., the particle is between 0.1 and 100 nm in each spatial dimension. The terms nanoparticles and
ultrafine particles (UFP) often are used synonymously although UFP can reach into the micrometer
range. The term 'nanostructure' is often used when referring to magnetic technology.

Structural engineering for medical science[edit]

Designing medical equipment needs in-depth understanding of structural engineering

Medical equipment (also known as armamentarium) is designed to aid in the diagnosis, monitoring
or treatment of medical conditions. There are several basic types: diagnostic equipment includes
medical imaging machines, used to aid in diagnosis; equipment includes infusion pumps, medical
lasers, and LASIK surgical machines; medical monitors allow medical staff to measure a patient's
medical state. Monitors may measure patient vital signs and other parameters including ECG, EEG,
blood pressure, and dissolved gases in the blood; diagnostic medical equipment may also be used
in the home for certain purposes, e.g. for the control of diabetes mellitus. A biomedical equipment
technician (BMET) is a vital component of the healthcare delivery system. Employed primarily by
hospitals, BMETs are the people responsible for maintaining a facility's medical equipment.