Navigation Primer

for Fishermen
Capt F S Howell MBE

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NAVIGATION PRIMER FOR FISHERMEN
SECOND EDITION
NAVIGATION PRIMER
FOR FISHERMEN
SECOND EDITION

Captain F. S. Howell, M.B.E.

( €Rishing News Books Ltd

SS| Long Garden Walk, Farnham, Surrey, England
WS
 LANCASHIRE LIBRA RY

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© Captain F. S. Howell, 1977, 1986

First published 1977

Second edition 1986

British Library CIP Data

Howell, F. S.
Navigation primer for fishermen — 2nd ed.
1. Fisheries navigation
I. Title
623.89'0246392 SH343.8

ISBN 0 85238 139 5

* /

01641666

Published by
Fishing News Books Ltd.
1 Long Garden Walk,
Farnham, Surrey, England

First printed in Great Britain by

Unwin Brothers Limited
Old Woking, Surrey
Second edition printed in Great Britain by
Adlard & Son Ltd.
South Street
Dorking, Surrey
 Contents

List of Figures
List of Tables
Acknowledgements
Preface to the First Edition
Preface to the Second Edition ..

Chapter | The Compass

Magnetic Compass — Magnetism — Variation — Deviation —
Compass Error — Finding Deviation by Transit Bearings and other Shore
Bearings — Deviation Card — Use of Pelorus — Correction of Courses
and Bearings.

Chapter 2 Charts and Navigational Publications 20

Introduction — Definitions — Use and Construction of Charts — Chart
Symbols and Abbreviations — Correcting Charts — Notices to
Mariners — Pilots — Admiralty List of Lights — Tidal Information —
Set and Drift of Tides — Merchant Shipping ‘Notices.

Chapter 3 Chartwork 40
Use of Instruments — Plotting Positions — Notations on the
Chart — Courses and Distances — Bearings and Cross Bearings —
Running Fixes — Setting a Course to counteract the effects ofa
Tide — To find the Set and Drift of a Tide — Speed, Time and
Distance — Leeway.

Chapter 4 The Sextant 54

Description of the Sextant — Principles of Construction — Index
Error — Adjustments — Measurement and Correction of Altitudes —
Horizontal and Vertical Sextant Angles.

Chapter 5 Use of Traverse Tables. Plane and Mercator Sailing 69

Difference of Latitude — Difference of Longitude — Departure —
Finding Position by the use of Traverse Tables — Plane Sailing —
Parallel Sailing — Mercator Sailing — Meridional Parts.
*
Chapter 6 Nautical Astronomy 84
Introduction — Definitions — Figure Drawing — Use of Chronometer —
Sun’s Meridian Passage — Greenwich Mean Time — Use of the Nautical
Almanac — Finding Deviation by a Bearing of the Pole Star, Sun on
the Meridian, Amplitude or True Azimuth,

Chapter 7 Nautical Astronomy (continued) 105

Finding Latitude by Meridian Altitude of the Sun — Position Lines,
(Celestial and Terrestrial) — Use of Position Lines.

Chapter 8 Ship Stability 114

Definitions and Terms used — Understanding of general principles.

Chapter 9 Miscellaneous 124

Use and Reading of the Aneroid Barometer — Uniform System of
Buoyage and Wreck Marking System — Navigational Marks.

Chapter 10 Use of Electronic Navigation Instruments 144

Introduction — Echo Sounders and Fish Finders — Radio Navigation Systems
— Autopilots — Radar — Satellite Navigation — Decca Navigator —
Loran ‘C’ — Omega

Appendix 153

Index 176

vi
 List of Figures

Page
Fig 1 SCCHON OL ana gnetie COMPASS, = We, wi eS Ally ce dan 6 nck 1
Fig 2 Ib Dem iiie Ae Zig eae hepa ees Aisha ions Womens Tee 2
Fig 3 Graduated compass with methods of graduation........ 2)
Fig 4 Bar magnet and lines of magnetic force ............... =
Fig 5 Effect of north magnetic pole on compass needles in N
Hemisphere sheer eis Oh ae an eRe Oe tick es 4
Fig 6 Compass rose and annual variation................... 6
Fig 7 West and East variations from true north.............. 6
Fig 8 Ship-and gear eftects om déviationtes.e2 en). ee ey f
Fig 9 Variable deviation through ship’s gear ............. pe: 8
Fig 10 Calcnlanion Ob coipassrerror ene 9
Fig 11 Finding deviation by shore bearings ................ a 10
Fig 12 Skerchrolipelorus.. 3. sgtseey tek eta cohans SR itso ne: 15
‘Fig 13 Parallcisotlatituderandhmernidians seem are es eee pa
Fig 14 Linear and angular measurement of latitude and longitude ZZ
Fig 15 Mercator’s projection of latitude and longitude scales . . . 2S
Fig 16 Examples Olithantsiscales:< ane gee es «eaesae 24
Fig 17 Fathom: and metic ;chartieatunes:0en4-2 wack ola Jig
Fig 18 Metric:charts with symbols and terms i+ .3:..45 .s0.-54. 30/31
Fig 19 OMAN ECM AL ILIGIC ae eine Os hah ene OS Stier east OZ
Fig 20 Anotherexample of -achart title veoa.maero sen sere e 33
Fig 21 Example ra chant COrmecion, es. 258.2 2G ee sak 34
Fig 22 Another example-of a chatt.correction. sor a4 ede: wns 34
Fig 23 Gomectionblockson-aschantye s2v.a5e oe he eee es 34
Fig 24 Title page of Admiralty Notice to Mariners............ 2h)
Fig 25 didalintormation and chartidatum: 2s. ..eke ws es Se OF
Fig 26 iiwospecimens oll Ma noticess.2hins wai: ag PEGE ons ss. 38
Fig 27 SETI GLO MMA SOSILION Gocas.5 oc onc stysev Neem. yes Koh 42
Fig 28 Marking accourse atdrdistances ce uesa. Salas fakes 63 43
Fig 29 Another example of marking a course and distance ..... 44
Fig 30 Further example of marking a course and distance...... 45
Fig 31 Using parallel rulets to lay off aicoutse: 256.00. 64.4 es 46
Fig 32 Checking positions by cross and transit bearings, etc. ... 47
Fig 33 Oita ecavlixger geen nae see. toe ire ei Made sd aw yack; 48
Fig 34 Sect CeammUN NAG ablkeuse ee Miee Mes erie Site betas 49
Fig 35 Allowing for tidal stream in fixing with ‘running fix’..... 49
Fig 36 Setting a course to counteract tidal stream............. 50
Fig 37 Finding the set and drift of tide experienced ...........
Fig 38 Checking leeway scan s52 5 sah sete ct seers ree
Fig 39 The. séextant..2 fete oe ct tees oa cna reper
Fig 40 Showing how double reflection on sextant obtains
MeaSULeMeNt.Of ANGle %e-soaee hoe een es
Fig 41 [liwstrates-indexserrotss sm. 2 SG.4 sn ten atone emer
Fig 42 Using the-sun to find (imdexierror Gy ee ee
Fig 43 Micrometer. vermmer readies. 55.22.05) ee ees
Fig 44 SightingthessUn as it te te ee wee ee
Fig 45 Binding true altitudes cams faster ear Aa ace ee eer ie
Fig 46 Howecdip"is defined 4c: oy ance oe oe oe ee er
Fig 47 Details illustrating refractions, semi-diameter, etc.......
Fig 48 Diagram ol astatiompomteremas. cy wus tare rent en
Fig 49 Using a station pointer to obtain a fix..................
Fig 50 Using a-protractor to.obtainea tix oe ea eras 9 oie
Fig 51 Securing distance off by vertical angle.2 4.752295 5.. 2%.
Fig 52 Checking distance off Dyisextamtg.s: 15ee et Same oe
Fig 53 Diapram:of definitions ..-24-0) 2 anseee
Fig 54 Factors involved im Gepartuie’ 227 fase eae ris 3or
Fig 55 How, traverse tablestarewisedy 2 erate
Fig 56 Further diagram on use of traverse tables..............
Fig 57 Another diagram showing use of traverse tables........
Fig 58 Principle of plane saline... 1 fc aye ne rea ern ar
Fig39 Principle of parallel sailing yiset ee ee
Fig 60 Principle.of Mereatorsailing.2* 0.54255 ee ee
Fig 61 Factors used in solving Mercator sailing problems ......
Fig 62 Trigonometrical ratias of triangles 246, see ee oe
Fig 63 Solution of course and distance problems in Mercator sail-
PU. shs a chaske Sate eaten laa eee hetMUO
Fig 64 Calenlated position atendsal ringceres. sear ce
Fig 65 Prine Verticalin Qe y> B.cee ies Oar aero Leena eee
Fig 66 Phe azimuth, ss ah-aesa 2 nesta Makerere to mca een ete
Fig 67 Concept of the celestial concave
Fig 68 stoke rel 0)5(ORR ERROR unr ces | A ore, earn ee
Fig 69 Local hourrangleof sting 24. cee ee
Fig 70 Sunsgeorraplical position @ mins anne eee ree
Fig 71 Position line in relation to sun’s true bearing...........
Fig 72 Declination of sun in northern and southern hemispheres
Fig 73 Greenwich hour-angle ot Sun, 74 eee ee ee
Fig 74a,b Sun west and east of the meridian
Fig 75a,b stéreographic projections a and by as. ee oe
Fig 76 Obtaining local or ship’s mean time
Fig 77 Finding the Pole Star
Vill
Fig 78 Naming error when the sun is on the meridian .........
Fig 79 Sun on the meridian
Fig 80 SUUSCLDS UNG & cearga yi iPearte At SUN sched be oun
Fig 81 Taking anramplitude of the-sui-: «dese. s.0- 42h 2. 5
Fig 82 INAMEROnurle rail PUT: ns. pele nidan an Runde a natura:
Fig 83 IDiacbann Ol aM plutide ten... 8 ycthh to van oR epee dsay oo
Fig 84 Finding deviation Of the compass...) 066.545 etwee. so
Fig 85 Finding latitude by meridian altitude. .........5.4....
Fig 86 Sun’s true bearing in relation to position line...........
Fig 87 Interceptmethod illustrated... hen eee. os;
Fig 88 Rlotting position linesion chart). new ons ouee <. ok
Fig 89 Fosition plotted on squared paper=<*2.4) eat...
Fig 90 DIOCESE OSLO UN CS 51 hocnes ase) Pet eA ere: Bl
Fig 91 Terrestrial and celestial position lines on chart .........
Fig 92 Celestial positions plotted on squared paper ...........
Fig 93 MOvEMent Of Centre Of DUO aNnCyn +. aa ine
c..55.
Fig 94 ETUC LON Olavity Oliv CsSel: ee erm nc tie oe upon ee
Fig 95 isplaccimenteandidralty., cc. rience yor ck eas
Fig 96 IMetacentiic NeICht OF: VeSSEl =. wa.as i oes eels
Fig 97 INESELVE DUOVANCYZ OR VESSCIn. a: jet at pail ele i iatee acer
Fig 98 TCIM ONE Len atin er ee ree tn hase Aco Bigs pectin a
Fig 99 SHOWwineestces Of COMMIDMUM 2. 5 4.s.0r syceaae es A
Fig 100 Ete CeOminee Slt taCe GUIS ean ky ce nee ys 2a
Fig 101 NeasULeS HOR SeCUTING STADIMLY.. aro renee wean heen ees
Fig 102 Piece onnoisting trawl on stabuity: 2205 da. 5 ecu en ht 2 ore
Fig 103 PAD ete aD An OMICUEN tore ey 5 ag. i eee ee lay ween
Fig 104
LSS) Use 8 AIG ois a Br Rt ei CSE EM oer ae ert aeNeeo Rea ee
Fig 105 Finding centre of a depression, Northern hemisphere ...
Fig 106 Wind direction in depression, N. hemisphere ..........
Fig 107 Wind direction in depression, S. hemisphere...........
Fig 108 Inclination of isobars — high and low.................
Fig 109 Wind direction in.bigh pressure area: <7. cis sce te
Fig 110 Secondarvalower seas toc du ae teat Saaetd ee apis sara 8
Fig 111 Section through a depression N and S hemispheres .....
Fig 112 Section through an occlusion N and S hemispheres......
Fig 113 pAM eA DUGY AGe=—— SYSTCII Ar pe ee kre Shs Pe Satsang wots
Fig 114 VAcW-A; buoyage and beacons (L700) :.c024 25.22. --.
Fig 115 Symbol toandicate buoyage direction. ...0..ve6s6d.08
Fig 116 IUOVASE SV MIDOIS artes oie ne cue SMG ead
Fig 117 INewadan ters —— DUOV ave. es. eavcte< och fetid 1 orem ate
Fig 118 Wedding tights and sector Mt tan. me ce see awes e ac
Fig 119 SyMDOW OL Montvessel amen: secee et hic a. SE WwaSicwens
Fig 120 Lightvessel with wateh DUOY .---.-
Fig 121 AsLanbDy DOOY tae Samus Oe ts oe cere re
Fig 122 Echo Sounder and Fish Finder. 25...
Fig: 123 Radio Navigcatiom Systenml! \.4....5.. 70s ee
Fig 124 ATO DHOG 2 Stacie « ditaby Mee a ene a iene
Fig 125 FAGAT Seale Leas ate ore oh OS Greate hae eeeae
Fig 126 RAGAiR PL Perea toma eae eet eRe ees ee
Fig 127 Orbital planes Orsarcllitessa. 4 aaaee
Fig 128 Satellite:Navigator ..c. 4a. a oe oe ee ee
Fig 129 SatelliterN aviv ator sens ere wey tea ee he oe
Fig 130 Decca Navigator MikeJier men. ee eee
Fig 131 Loran ‘C’ and Omega Marine Navigator System
 List of Tables

Traverse Tables 28 degrees

Traverse Tables 28 degrees
Meridional Parts (terrestrial spheroid)
Memdional Pants (terrestrial spheroid)... 24.4... ce ss
POS APIS OS OO = 100) fryget 2 ses cigs ganda oe
Pocamirnmls (Os 16002199) ek ae en cv ake uve a aeeee oe
Pogeniiiitis O1 BMpur UNCHOUS ih) 2c.fea cees et: Lee oe.
PO RAT IEN INS Olan, ek UN CHONS tric ciao Saretrocite Ae a
PV CRSIN OS Our re etre Sac ahve Weems « S Avsn cyarch eterna
PAG USNC SeaOMIREN er ohio ne Saha anlar oh kuna ae tag
|
EU SIES PATSISN 6;Biel Se ea eee er ree ane Satie Poasete
1
ERTS IRSIEG OP SDC ASA ee ae aa ge See ce eer ee a
PADICE A LAOUTPAMDLC™ 26 acu5is basa ton aicko SsGansu bee nb eoNig eter e stolons
lems mil Olhe dINeGre estar dow yee. soins chiens anus wane onsastenn
UBS ECCong VaVi TE OCS Uke 06 eS a re te me eeeeerRen
Bae He AZAINIUICNS OU HON OU aca cou aah bs ceeas sucks etaysiteh sae!ete
Wee ATTICS lg TO nO gals si caen arohe sib aiaguteleis ret Nats ala shes
Tee AMDUUUC CSO) LOLS esca.ca. 5 fied a ch tha a tunigsyens aie ayes
Altitude Correction Tables, 10°-90° (sun stars planets)
NOD MNI AV ea ieee fe Nee cro Plies actos Jum rest ui
GONVe USO Ol ATCMO IMC 2c oie yin 4 Shai Seevaca
PR CLeMe hts cama, © OLLeCUIONS ©.sais ead a.oelsinui sia ote wel eee ee

Xi
 Acknowledgements
I am obliged to the Controller of Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, and
the Hydrographer of the Navy for permission to reproduce portions of
Admiralty charts and publications including The Nautical Almanac.
I am indebted to the following for photographs of their equipment and for
reproductions from their publications.

Imray Laurie Norie and Wilson Ltd. for extracts from Norie’s
Nautical Tables and Navigation Primer for Yachtsmen.
B. Cooke & Son Ltd. for its Kingston micrometer sextant.

Capt F. S. Howell

XH
 Preface to the First Edition
The object of this work is to help all fishermen secure an understanding
of the basic principles of navigation and so enhance security and win
steady success. More specifically it sets out simply and clearly with many
illustrations the basic requirements, not only in navigation, but also in
chartwork, pilotage and ship stability, for those seeking to qualify for
second hand certificate whether full, limited or special.
The author has had many years’ experience in teaching fishermen and
feels that this book will fulfil a need within the fishing industry for those
who are considering obtaining their certificates at a later date. Despite
the expansion in electronic equipment in fishing boats within the last few
years, the Department of Trade still expects candidates to be able to use
and understand the basic skills of navigation, and with this the author
agrees entirely.
Before considering taking any of the examinations applicants must be
sure that their age, and sea-going experience, is in accordance with the
examination regulations, and they should obtain a copy of these which are
entitled — Examinations for Certificates of Competency, Skippers and
Second Hands of Fishing Boats, Regulations, which can be obtained from
Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, or ordered from any bookseller. A
brief extract from the requirements of the regulations is at the beginning
of this book, but it is essential that applicants obtain the fullest details.
Another important matter is to ensure that they hold a valid eyesight
test certificate; details of these tests can be obtained at any Mercantile
Marine Office.
The contents of this primer deal with the written parts of the examina-
tions, together with some parts of the orals, but it is advisable for
applicants to have a good seamanship book, such as the Trawlermen’s
Handbook, published by Fishing News Books Ltd, to cover the remainder
of the orals.
My sincere thanks are due to Captain T. G. Nelson for his assistance
in checking the text and making a number of valuable suggestions.

CAPTAIN F. S. HoweLt, M.B.E.

Further Education Teacher's Certificate

Xill
 Preface to the Second Edition
In this, the Second Edition, the opportunity has been taken to update some
of the material contained in the First Edition, and to introduce some new
sections, including navigating in the Southern Hemisphere so that the Primer
can now be used world-wide.
Changes have been made in some of the Department of Trade Examination
Regulations for Certificates of Competancy, and others are expected to follow
within the next few years. Candidates for such Certificates are recommended
strongly to apply to the Department of Trade for an up-to-date copy of these
Regulations which can be obtained from any of Her Majesty’s Stationery
Offices, or ordered through a bookseller. Consultation with a Nautical College
is essential.
A chapter on modern electronics navigation aids, available to smaller craft
such as fishing vessels is now included.

CaPTAIN F. S. HowELL, M.B.E.

Further Education Teacher’s Certificate

XIV
 Chapter 1 The Compass
MAGNETIC COMPASS — MAGNETISM — VARIATION — DEVIATION —
Compass ERROR — FINDING DEVIATION BY TRANSIT AND SHORE
BEARINGS — DEVIATION CARD — USE OF A PELORUS — CORRECT-
ION OF COURSES AND BEARINGS.

The Magnetic Compass

The magnetic compass 1s used to indicate the direction of compass North,
and is contained within a bowl made of brass, copper, or plastic material,
which in turn is fitted into a binnacle, or attached to a bracket.
To a graduated compass card are attached parallel watertight tubular
cases containing magnetised needles—a magnetised ring is used in modern
compasses. The card and needles (or ring) are secured to a hemispherical
float, or pivot cap, which rests upon a hardened frictionless pin centred
in the bowl.
To keep the compass card horizontal and prevent it tilting the centre of
gravity of the whole weight of the card, needles (or ring), and float is kept
well below the pivoting point as shown in the following diagram.

Glass Top Filler Plug

J
,3
¢ a

(OV)
La
4) a
4
x
>
D >SY IS Wi
SE:
ro X
Compass Card Compass Needles

Fig 1 Section diagram of magnetic compass

To stop the compass card swinging violently, due to the motion of the
boat, the movement of the card is dampened by the bowl being filled with a
liquid consisting of distilled water and part pure alcohol (this is to stop
the liquid freezing in extremely cold weather). The compass bowl Is also
slung in gimbals which further aids it to remain in a more or less horizontal
position.
If the liquid in the compass bowl evaporates or leaks out a bubble will
appear beneath the glass top. To eliminate this turn the bowl on its side
with the filler plug uppermost, unscrew the plug and refill with distilled
1
water. Move the bowl gently from side to side until the bubble disappears
and then replace the plug, making sure that the rubber or leather washer
on the plug has not worn or perished, otherwise a further leakage will
occur.
A wire or painted lubber’s line inside the bowl (Fig 2) indicates the
direction of the boat’s head, and great care must be taken to ensure that
this is lined up correctly with the fore and aft line of the boat when the
compass is installed. In some cases the compass bowl is suspended in the
binnacle, and in others it is secured to a bracket.

Lubber Line

Fig 2. Lubber line

It is essential that the compass be sited so as to be easily visible to the

helmsman, but, if only one compass is carried and is used also for taking
bearings, it should be sited so that the horizon ts visible over a wide arc
(it would be expecting too much for a clear vision to be available around
the whole 360°). For a compass sited overhead within the wheelhouse it
might be necessary to head the boat at a light or shore object to obtain an
accurate bearing.

Graduation of Compass Cards

The compass card is usually graduated from 0° at the north point clockwise
in degrees to 360°; this is known as the three figure notation because, when
using this type of card, the course, or bearing, is expressed in three figures,
ege020 x15? 278" ee,
Older compass cards may be graduated in the quadrantal method which
uses the cardinal points (north, south, east and west) and degrees to
describe a direction. The four quadrants are each divided into 90°, with
zero at north and south, and 90° at east and west. For example, we would
2
express a course or bearing as N 28° E, S 72°E, or N 58° W, and so on.
The points method is rarely used now, but the compass card is divided
into 32 points each of 114°. Each point is subdivided into half and quarter
points. Points are still used to describe the direction of the wind, for
example, one would say the wind was SW and not S 45° W or 225°.
The graduated compass card (Fig 3) indicates the three different
methods of graduating a card.

asU)

i
Teale
SAT

7 SS
- S *
“4

Ox SS
Oe ig r TAS
TRS ae
Lins
l N TT es
Cr5eet

Fig 3 Graduated compass card showing methods of graduation

Magnetism
A profound knowledge of magnetism is not required by candidates for the
Second Hand Certificates, but a basic understanding of the principles
involved and the effects upon a compass are necessary.
First of all one must know that a bar magnet has two ‘magnetic poles’
near its extremities. Of these ‘poles’ the one which sets towards north
when the magnet is freely suspended is conventionally termed the ‘red
pole’, and the other the ‘blue pole’. One law of magnetism is that like
poles repel one another and unlike poles attract each other.
In the area of a magnet there is a zone of magnetic influence known as
the ‘magnetic field’ which may be represented, as in Fig 4, by lines of
magnetic force emerging from the ‘red pole’ and terminating in the ‘blue
3
pole’. Other magnets within this magnetic field will align themselves in the
direction of the lines of force.

Fig 4 Bar magnet and lines of magnetic force: North pole — red, South — blue

The Earth itself possesses a magnetic neld with the “blue pole’ towards
the north and a ‘red pole’ towards the south, and it is this magnetic field
which imparts directive force to the magnetic compass. The Earth as a
magnet may be likened to a sphere with a small but immensely strong
magnet near its centre.
The ‘red’ or north seeking end of the compass needle will be attracted
to the ‘blue pole’ of the Earth situated in the north, and which is known as
the North Magnetic Pole. Fig 5 shows how the compass needle in the
northern hemisphere is attracted to the North Magnetic Pole from
various positions.

North Magnetic Pole

North Pole
ra
Le

Fig 5 Effect of north magnetic pole on compass needles in the northern hemisphere
4
 One other important point that must be learned is that as the magnetic
poles are situated deep within the centre of the Earth, the magnetic lines of
force enter the Earth’s surface perpendicularly at these poles and are
horizontal at the magnetic equator midway between the magnetic poles.
The effect upon a compass needle (except at the magnetic equator) is to
cause it to ‘dip’ towards the magnetic pole and in the seas around the
United Kingdom the ‘dip’ is as much as 674°. Hence the need to construct
the compass card with the centre of gravity well below the pivoting point
which prevents this ‘dip’ or tilt as described previously.

Variation
The Earth rotates on its axis and the points where the axis meets the
surface of the globe are called the ‘true poles’ of the Earth, or Geographical
Poles. The north and south magnetic poles are situated at some distance
from the True poles, and their respective positions are Latitude 70° North,
Longitude 97° West, and Latitude 72° South, Longitude 154° East.
Joining the True poles are the True meridians, and between the magnetic
poles are the magnetic meridians. Variation is defined as the angle
contained between the true and magnetic meridians. As the magnetic
poles are slowly changing their positions each year, variation changes
annually, and it is important that the correct variation for the current year
should be used.
Information concerning the amount of variation at any particular place
is obtained from the chart, either from a ‘compass rose’ as shown in
Fig 6, or from ‘isogonic’ lines which are drawn on a chart joining all
places with the same variation. Special charts are printed which are called
Magnetic Variation Charts and they show the variation over large sea
areas by means of these isogonic lines.
The outer compass is true and the inner compass magnetic, so that the
angle between true north and magnetic north at that position is 9° 30’
West in that year (1964).
As a practical test study a chart in current use at sea now, and work out
the correct variation for the current year based on Fig 7 (see next page).
Remember that variation is the same no matter in which direction the
boat is heading.

Deviation
Deviation of the compass is one of the most elusive factors in the whole
practice of navigation. Iron and steel are the metals principally affected by
magnetism, and each part of the boat, fitting, or electrical equipment, can
exercise a different magnetic effect upon the compass.
If the boat had no magnetic influences, such as ferrous metals in the
5
 08

Wea

&06 éSS
es
Heatcotheer

S100
ty
UL
"0
Fiy
“iif aw
~

a duoQs
\\
iT)
tid
ili AN wy
180° Wy

Fig 6 Compass rose showing variation of 9°30’ west 1964 and decreasing about 7’ annually

Magnetic North Magnetic North

True North True North

Westerly Variation Easterly Variation

Fig 7 Westerly and easterly variation from true north

construction or fittings, the compass needle would point to magnetic
north.
The deflection of the compass needle from magnetic north is called
‘deviation’, and Fig 8 shows how it can affect the compass. Its study will
help understanding of why deviation depends upon the direction of the
ship’s head.

Compass

Engine

Fig. 8 Deviation depends on direction of ship’s head and magnetic influences of vessel
and gear

Assuming that the engine in this boat produces a total magnetic field
with a blue pole, when it is heading north or south, the compass needle is
in line with the blue pole and is not deflected. When heading east the red
point of the compass needle is attracted to the blue polarity of the engine
(remember unlike poles attract), and this gives a westerly deviation. When
heading west the compass needle is again attracted to the blue polarity of
the engine thus giving an easterly deviation.
Assume now that there is a trawl winch forward of the wheelhouse and
that this winch has a blue polarity, it will be seen that the deviation would
be opposite to the previous example. Again there would be no deflection
7
when heading north or south. And when heading east, the red point of the
compass needle would be attracted to the blue polarity thus giving an
easterly deviation. Equally when heading west, a westerly deviation is
caused. Fig 9 illustrates this point.

_—Trawl Winch

o ZZ

Compass

EZ © b
ZZ

Fig 9 Variability of deviation caused by ship’s gear

Correction for deviation is essential to be able to steer accurate courses

or take reliable bearings.

Compass Error
When variation and deviation are combined, the result is the error of the
compass, and this is the angle between true north and compass north.
For example, with a variation of 10° West and a deviation of 5° West the
compass error would be 15° West. If, on the other hand, the variation was
10° West and the deviation 5° East the compass error would be only 5°
West.

8
 The simple rule to find compass error is to add variation and deviation
when they are of the same name. When they are of different names
subtract them calling the error the same name as the larger of the two.
Error, variation and deviation are named east or west—east when the
north point of the compass is drawn to the right, west when the north
point is drawn to the left. Study Fig 10.

T ¢ ip u M
M
c Cc

15°W
VAR

5°w
DEV

Error 20°W Error 20°F

Fig 10 Calculation of Compass Error

Finding Deviation by Transit and Shore Bearings

It is essential that the compass is checked for deviation from time to time,
and the practical methods of doing this are easy to learn.
First of all, by means of a transit bearing, look for two conspicuous
objects on shore that are marked on the chart, eg church, flagstaff, light-
house, tower, beacon, etc. Draw a line through these two objects and read
off the true bearing (from seaward). To this bearing apply the variation,
adding if west and subtracting if east, and this will give the magnetic
bearing. Position the boat on this bearing and take a compass bearing of
the two objects in transit (in line). The difference between the magnetic
bearing and the compass bearing will be the deviation.
By taking a series of compass bearings with the boat on different
9
headings from north around 360° in either points, or at 10° intervals, one
will be able to make up an individual deviation card such as that described
below.
If two suitable objects in line cannot be found, look for a single
conspicuous object ashore about a mile distant, and with the boat’s own
position accurately fixed, draw a line from the shore object to the boat’s
position. This will permit finding the true bearing of the object and then
by applying variation one will have the magnetic bearing. A compass
bearing of the object taken on different headings, as in the previous
example, will give the difference between compass and magnetic bearings,
and thus the deviation. It is essential that when one swings the boat it be
done around a buoy, or at anchor, so that the relative position with the
shore object does not change.
A most useful piece of doggerel which will help to remember the
application of variation, deviation and error is:
Variation, deviation or error west compass best
Variation, deviation or error east compass /east
It is so important to remember this that it is repeated later in the chapter

True 350°
Compass 348°
Error 2°E

Variation 2°W

Deviation 4°E

True bearing 020°

Compass bearing 025°
Error 5°W

Variation 9°W
Deviation 4°E

Fig 11 Finding deviation by shore bearings

10
 Another method of finding the magnetic bearing of a single object
ashore, when not certain of one’s own position, is to take the compass
bearing of the object when the boat is heading on the eight cardinal points
(or even more if a more accurate result is desired; see Fig 11). As in the
previous case the boat must be swung within its relative position to the
shore object.
Here is a simple example of a boat taking the compass bearing of a
shore object when swung through the eight cardinal points.

Boat’s Compass Magnetic Deviation

head bearing bearing
North O23. 025° 2
INE 026° O25. 1° W
East O20; O25” 4° W
SE O51F O25" 6° W
South 028° 025° 3° W
SW 024° O25" he
West 020° O25, Ba ti
NW 019° Owe (eve

Total 8/200
025° Magnetic bearing

When the boat is new, and at regular intervals thereafter, one should have
the compass checked (or swung) for deviation. The compass adjuster
doing this will be able to remove any substantial amounts of deviation that
may exist, but any deviation remaining would be detailed on a deviation
card, which should be displayed prominently in the wheelhouse.

Deviation Cards

Deviation Cards can vary and four different types are shown here Nos. 1, 2,3
and 4 some of which will be used for exercises later in the book.
Previously Deviation Cards were shown with the Boat’s Head only in points
of the compass (North, NXE, NNE, etc.) but with 114° between each point
this led to unnecessary complications when changing from points into degrees
as shown on Cards Nos. 1 and 2 (page 12).
If one is required to find the deviation for a compass heading, which is
not given exactly in the tables, one must learn to interpolate, or in other
words, solve the problem by simple proportion. Practice in this will be
needed to enable an applicant to work confidently at the examination.
As an example, using Deviation Card No. |, what would be the deviation
for a compass heading of 131°? For 124° the deviation is 8° W, and for
135° it is 5° W, so that for a change of 11° (that is 135° minus 124°), the
change of deviation is 3° (8° W minus 5° W). What is required is the
11
 Dev. Card No. 1 Dev. Card No. 2

| Magnetic Compass Deviation Magnetic

Compass | Deviation
Heading Heading Heading
Heading

oO

Ame
°

O°

{e)
Oo
°°
OD
UW
OF
Ar

— fot
fe}
===

deviation for 131° which is 4° from 135°. The simple proportion sum now
resolves itself in the following manner:
As I1” is to 3° so is 4° to x (the difference we require). Three degrees
multiplied by four degrees divided by eleven degrees, or
234 Ie2 ;
ae equals ie equals 1° (to the nearest degree).

Therefore if the deviation for 135° is 5° W, for 131° it must be 5° plus 1°

equals 6° W.
12
 Dev. Card No. 3 Dev. Card No. 4

Ship’s Head) Deviation} Magnetic Ship’s Head} Deviation} Magnetic

by Heading by Heading
Compass Compass
--—

4° W 356° | 000° 4° W
6° W 004°
8° W O12. 020° 8° W
10° W 020°
12° W 028° 040° 12° W
13° W O37"
15° W 045° 060° 15° W
070° 17° W 053°
080° 18.5° W 061.35° 080° 1325" W
090° 19° W Ovi
100° 20° W 080° 100° 20° W
110° 18.5° W OTS:
120% LT Wy. 103° 120° 17° W
130° 15° W 1457
140° 12° W 128° 140° 12° W 128°
150° 9° W 141°
160° 77 W 153" 160° 7° W
170° 5° W fG5~
180° 2° W 178° 180° 2 aw.
190° Nil 190°
200° Phe 3) 202, 200° Pia i
ZO: a7 PAog
220° i 227° 220° ied 3
230° 10° E 240°
240° say 2 Dos 240° Dag
250° 13° B 263°
260° 14°E 274° 260° 14 E
270° PAs) 282°
280° SEE 289° 280° OE 289°
290° OE 296°
300° 4°E 304° 300° 4° E
310° i 8) 312°
320° ies BAN 320° al 2:
330° 1° W 329°
340° 3° W Sou 340° 3° W
350° 37 W. 346.5°
| al
 The modern Deviation Cards now give the deviation for every 10° as on Card
No. 3, but at the examinations for Certificates of Competency it is now
customary to give the deviation for every 20° as on Card No. 4, thereby
increasing the amounts of interpolation required, the Column ‘Magnetic Head-
ing’ is left blank and this must be completed by you when working your chart
problems.
To find the deviation for a given compass heading Card No. 3.
(a) Given a compass heading of 137° the deviation for 130° is 15° W and for
140° it is 12° W so by interpolation the sum resolves itself in the following
manner.
Between 130° and 140° is 10° and between 15° W and 12° W is 3°, and the
difference beween 140° and the compass heading of 137° is 3°. Therefore, as 10°
is to 3° so is 3° to x (the difference required) or (3° 3°)/10° equals 9°/10° equals
1° (nearly).
If the deviation for 140° is 12° then for 137° it is 12° W plus 1° equals 13° W
which would be the correct deviation to use if taking any compass bearings
while heading 137° by compass.
To find the deviation for a given magnetic heading Card No. 3.
(b) If a true course of 277° was laid off on a chart with a variation of 7° W
taken from the chart, the magnetic course would be 284°. Turning to the
column on the Deviation Card No. 3 marked ‘Magnetic Heading’ the deviation
for 282° is 12° Band. for 289° itis 9° E.
Between 282° and 289° the change is 7° and between 12° E and 9° E the
change of deviation is 3°. The difference between 282° and the magnetic
heading of 284° is 2°, therefore as 7° is to 3° so is 2° to x (the difference
required), or (3°X2°)/7° equals 6°/7° equals 1° nearly which gives a deviation of
11° E, and applied to the magnetic heading of 284° gives a compass course of
Dio
Using Card No. 4 the working would be as follows: (a) Deviation for
compass heading of 137°. Deviation for 120° is 17° W, and for 140° it is 12° W,
therefore as 20° is to 5° so is 3° to x, or (5°X3°)/20° equals 15°/20° equals 1°
(nearly). Deviation for 140° is 12° W and for 137° it would be 12° W plus 1°
equals 13° W.
(b) True course of 277°, variation 7° W equals magnetic course of 284°. For
magnetic heading of 274° the deviation is 14° E, and for 289° is 9° E, therefore
as 15° is to 5° so is 5° is to x, or (S°X5°)/15° equals 25°/15° equals 2° (nearly).
Deviation for 289° is 9° E and for 284° it would be 9° E plus 2° equals
Deviation 11° E. Applied to the magnetic course of 284°, 11° E deviation
would make a compass course of 273°.

Use of Pelorus
The pelorus (Fig 12) is usually a portable instrument additional to the
compass, but in some boats a pelorus may be fixed in a suitable position
14
 giving more or less all round visibility. It is a circular metal plate, graduated
like a compass card and mounted on a vertical axis so that it can be rotated
freely by hand and can be clamped into any position required. It has a
lubber line marked on the plate and sight vanes (front sight and back sight).
The plate is turned by hand so that the lubber line indicates the same
direction as the boat’s compass, and it is used mainly: to obtain bearings
of objects that may not be visible from the position of the boat’s compass
and it would also save turning the boat’s head to the object as described
earlier.
In taking a bearing by pelorus the sight vane is moved until the object
is visible through the back sight aperture and is in line with the Fore sight
cord. The bearing is read from a pointer at the foot of the Fore sight.
In setting up a pelorus on board one must be sure that its 0-180° line is
accurately placed in or parallel to the fore and aft line of the boat just as is
done with a compass. When taking the bearing of an object with the
pelorus it is set up with the boat’s compass course clamped to its lubber
line. The helmsman calls out when the boat is steady on the compass
course, and the bearing is then observed through the sight vanes and read
off as if taken directly from a compass. Note that it requires two men to
operate, one at the helm and the other at the pelorus.
Another method of using the pelorus is to line it up with 0° as the boat’s
head and at the moment of sighting an object through the sight vanes, the
helmsman calls out the compass heading of the boat, and the bearing of
the object would be read off the pelorus as a ‘relative’ bearing. If, for
example, the compass heading was 020° and the relative bearing was 072°
then the compass bearing of the object would be 020° plus 072° equalling
092°. If the compass heading and the relative bearing come to over 360°
then subtract 360° from it. For example, with a compass heading of 349°

Foresight

Azimuth Circle

Rear sight

Fig 12 Drawing of a pelorus

15
and a relative bearing of 320° it would equal 669° minus 360° and so
equalling 309°.
A problem sometimes given in examination is to use the pelorus to put
the boat on a pre-determined true course from a known position. To do
this one would obtain the true bearing of a conspicuous landmark from
the boat’s known position, and set and clamp the sight vane on to this
true bearing. Rotate both the dial and sight vanes until the desired course
is lined up with the lubber line. ‘Con’ the boat until the sight vane points
to the land mark when the boat will then be on her true course.
At the same time the helmsman will call out the compass heading and
the difference between this and the true course will be the compass error.
By applying variation to this compass error one will be able to find the
deviation (for that particular compass heading only).

Correction of Courses and Bearings

Having learned the meanings of variation, deviation, compass error, and
the use of the deviation card, one comes to their practical application in the
correction of courses and bearings.
The following little doggerel will help remembrance of which way to
apply compass error.

Error west, compass best.

Error east, compass /east.

After one has had practice in applying these corrections they will be found
quite simple to understand. As an example, look at the compass rose
(Fig 6) and assuming that the total error of the compass in this case is
94° W, one should lay the ruler through the centre of the compass rose to
where the outer (true) ring is marked 090°. It will be seen immediately
that it cuts the inner (magnetic) ring where it is marked 0994° (error west
compass best). This means that if one had a compass error of 94° west one
would have to steer 0994° to make good a true course of 090°.
A few worked examples of changing true courses to compass courses
will make one familiar with the procedure:

a. True course to steer 230° Variation 9° W

Error 7 W Deviation 2° E
Compass course to
steer PME Error WwW

(Error west compass best)

16
b. True course to steer 162° Variation 2° W
Error 225 Deviation 4° E
Compass course to
steer 160° Error 28

(Error east compass least)

c. True course to steer 358° Variation 7° W

Error 4° W Deviation 3° E
Compass course to
steer 002° Error 4° W
(Error west compass best)

The next problem to be dealt with is to change Compass bearings into

True bearings:

Compass bearing 062° Compass bearing 002°

Error Sate Error 6° W

True bearing 068° True bearing 356°

(Error east compass least) (Error west compass best)

In the above examples the variation has been given, and in practice one
would take this from the chart being used—(at examinations it is given in
the problem). Deviation also has been given, but in practice (and in the
examinations) one will be required to find the deviation from the deviation
card. To obtain this it is necessary to know the direction of the boat’s
head, and this will always be given in the problem.
Given a true course, and asked to find the compass course to steer, first
apply the variation to the true course and this will give the magnetic
course; then go to the deviation card and under magnetic heading take
out the corresponding deviation, which, when applied to the magnetic
course will give the compass course.
Another useful mnemonic with which to memorise how to apply these
corrections is as follows:

Compass = Cadbury’s
Deviation = Dairy
Magnetic = Milk
Variation = Very
True == Tasty
17
One must learn that in going from compass towards true one applies first
deviation, and then variation (these two are usually combined to make
compass error and are applied as one figure). In going from true towards
compass first apply the variation to the true course to obtain the magnetic
course, and under magnetic heading take out the required deviation.
If one had a true course of 068° and a variation of 7° W this would give
a magnetic heading of 075°. It will be seen from Deviation Card No. |
that the deviation for this magnetic heading is 15° W, so the compass
course would be 090° (Error west compass best).
In practice (and in the examinations) more often than not one finds the
magnetic heading comes somewhere between the figures on the deviation
card, and interpolation is required as explained previously, for example:

True Course 205-

Variation 8° W

Magnetic course 273°

From Deviation Card No. 2, for 269° the deviation is 10° E, and for 283° it
is 13° E. Therefore, 283° minus 269° equals 14°, and 13° minus 10° equals
Soe
As 273° is 4° from 269° the sum would appear as follows:

AS 14” 1916 3° 47 is to X

Bae ae 12° :
eye equals 14° equals 1° (to the nearest degree)

Deviation for 269° is 10° E, and for 273° it is 10° plus 1° equals 11° E.

Magnetic course is 273°

Deviation Sie
Compass course 262°

When one is required to correct compass bearings, and is given the boat’s
head by compass, one can go straight to the deviation card and take out
the deviation.

In an examination a problem could be given in the following manner:

From a vessel steering 315° C (which means by compass) Start Point
Light bore 022° C, and Bolt Head bore 342° C. Find the position of the
vessel.
18
Variation 10° W, and using Deviation Card No. 1.
Looking at this deviation card it is seen that the deviation for a compass
heading of 315° is 1° E, and with variation 10° W and deviation 1° E the
compass error is 9° W.
Put down the two compass bearings and apply the compass error to
them, which will give the true bearings.

Start Point Light 022° C Bolt Head 342° C

Error _9° W Error DOW.

O13" T (True) 333° T (True)

One must fix firmly in the mind the fact that deviation depends upon the
direction of the boat’s head, and as long as it remains on that heading the
deviationis the same. When one applies deviation to a compass heading
or bearing one gets the magnetic heading or bearing, and if one applies
deviation to a magnetic heading or bearing one gets the compass heading
or bearing.
Another useful term to use is the word CADET. Taking the two outside
letters of CADET and using the three middle letters you can say:

From compass to true add east

Obviously you must subtract west

19
 Chapter 2 Charts and Navigational
Publications
INTRODUCTION — DEFINITIONS — USE AND CONSTRUCTION OF
CHARTS — CHART SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS — CORRECTING
CHARTS — NOTICES TO MARINERS — PILOTS — ADMIRALTY LIST
oF LIGHTS — TIDAL INFORMATION — SET AND DRIFT OF TIDES —
MERCHANT SHIPPING NOTICES.

Introduction
Navigation is the science of finding a vessel’s position at sea, and of
navigating safely from one position to another. A knowledge of charts,
Sailing Directions (known as ‘Pilots’), Light Lists, and other publications
is required for one to navigate in coastal waters. Additional aids, such
as buoys, lighthouses, lights, fog signals, radio beacons, etc. all must be
known.
So that these aids can be used, their positions on the Earth’s surface
must be known, and it is necessary to know something about the Earth,
the methods adopted to define positions on the surface of the Earth, and
the units of measurement used.
In navigation, outstanding landmarks, soundings of the sea bottom,
etc. are used to give assistance in finding one’s position. Further one will
notice on charts that while the landward portion is usually practically
blank, except near the coastline, the seaward portion contains many
figures, letters, and lines. It is this part that is so important and about
which one must learn.

Definitions
The Earth may be represented on a small scale, as a globe with the oceans
and continents mapped on its surface. In order to find the exact position
of any place on the Earth it is covered with a network of lines, both
vertical and horizontal, from which the location of a place can be
described.

Latitude
The lines representing latitude are drawn horizontally and parallel to the
Equator, and consist of a series of small circles (a small circle is one whose
plane does not pass through the centre of the Earth). It will be seen from
the drawing below how they diminish in size (circumference) as they
approach the poles.
20
 Longitude
The lines which run from pole to pole over the surface of the
Earth are
called meridians, and they are all great circles because their plane
passes
through the centre of the Earth. The meridian passing through Greenwi
ch
is called the Prime Meridian, or Greenwich Meridian, and from it all
Longitude is measured (see Fig 13).

Meridians
Meridian of Greenwich

Parallels of Latitude
Equato r

Fig 13 Parallels of latitude and meridians

Position
The position of a place is described in terms of latitude and longitude.
For latitude it will be given as so many degrees, minutes and seconds,
north or south of the Equator. For longitude the amount in degrees,
minutes and seconds is given either east or west or the Greenwich
Meridian. For example, the Lizard lighthouse is in 49° 57’ 36” N 05°
12’ 00” W.

Angular Measurement of Latitude

This measurement is the angular distance of a parallel of latitude measured
along the arc of a meridian north or south of the Equator, and is equal
to the same angle drawn from the centre of the earth above or below the
Equator, to where a line meets the surface of the earth. For example, an
angle of 30° drawn from the centre of the earth above or below the
Equator would meet the surface of the earth in latitude 30° N or 30° S.
zh.
 NORTH POLE NORTH POLE 1,800 MILES

Ce

Ss
SOUTH POLE SOUTH POLE ‘1,800 MILES
Linear measurement of latitude Linear measurement of longitude

90° Meridian of Greenwich } Wi

90°

Angular measurement of latitude Angular measurement of Longitude

Fig 14 Linear and angular measurement of latitude and longitude

Linear Measurement of Latitude

One minute of latitude equals one nautical mile, which is taken as
6080 feet, therefore, 900’ of latitude on the globe would equal 900 miles
in whatever latitude one was situated.

Angular Measurement of Longitude

This measurement is the angular distance east or west of the prime
meridian (Greenwich) measured along the Equator to the meridian
passing through the position whose longitude it is required to know.
Also, it is equal to the angle subtended at the centre of the earth between
the two same meridians.

Linear Measurement of Longitude

It will be seen that the distance on the surface of the earth, between any
Ps
 two meridians, diminishes uniformly from the Equator until it is nothing
at the north and south poles; therefore, the linear distance of a degree
of longitude on the surface of the earth varies with its latitude and
cannot be taken as a standard measurement of length (see Fig 14). For
example, while 30° of longitude at the Equator is equal to 1,800 nautical
miles, in latitude 60° North it is just over 900 nautical miles.

Mercator’s Projection
It would be impossible to navigate accurately with the sole aid of a
globe, because all courses and bearings would have to be made on a
curved surface.
At the end of the 16th century a Dutchman, called Mercator, devised
a method whereby a specified area of the globe could be transferred to a
flat surface chart. With the object of preserving the uniformity of the
chart and keeping all the angles relatively correct, the successive parallels
of latitude are drawn at a steadily increasing distance apart, in exactly
the same ratio as a degree of longitude is increased at each parallel.
Instead of curving towards the poles, the meridians are drawn as
Straight lines at right angles to the parallels of latitude, as will be seen on
the Mercator chart. As the latitude increases towards the poles, the
parallels of latitude increase their distance apart. The distance between
two points on a chart is always measured from the latitude scale at the
sides of the chart, and as each minute of latitude gets longer towards the
poles it is most important that measurements are taken only on that part
‘of the latitude scale which lies abreast of the two points whose distance
apart is required (see Fig 15).
Never use the longitude scale to measure distance.

ee es ee ee es ee

Latitude
Scale
————__

— Longitude Scale =

Fig 15 Mercator's projection of latitude and longitude scales

ve)
 Gnomonic Projections
Some small harbour plans and charts are drawn on the gnomonic pro-
jection as are charts for the polar regions.
On a gnomonic chart meridians appear as straight lines converging to
the poles, and the parallels of latitude are shown as curves. On a large
scale chart or plan covering a small area, the curvature of the parallels
and the convergence of the meridians are so slight that the chart may be
used in exactly the same manner as any other chart.
On this type of chart distance can be measured either by using the
latitude scale or from a separate scale that is marked on the side or bottom
of the chart.
Examples of chart scales are shown in Fig 16.

|b
eae

seaest
rt

zoe
a

Feet 1000 ) 5 oi 2
eS res —— = ae 20H) Feet Metres 1000 Ti wee = 1000 Metr.

Cables 10 5 0
(cups) i — = SS = ————— = _1 Sea Mile te

i ed : } | 1 | ! | | i 1 ! | | | ! I |! | | | i ( | | | | | | | | |
10 cy Longitude 5 |s’ West from Greenwich ee

Fig 16 Examples of chart scales

Before proceeding further, study this brief summary of the terms and
definitions used so far and memorise them thoroughly.
24
 Great circle
Is a circle on a sphere whose plane passes through the sphere’s centre.
Small circle
Is a circle on a sphere whose plane does not pass through the centre.
Equator
Is a great circle on the terrestrial sphere midway between the poles.
Poles
The poles of the Earth are the points where the Earth’s axis meets the
surface.
Parallel of latitude
Is a small circle on the terrestrial sphere, parallel to the equator.
Meridian of longitude
Is a great circle on the terrestrial sphere passing through the poles and
cutting the equator at right angles.
Prime meridian
The meridian through Greenwich Observatory (Long. 0°). It is the
meridian from which all longitude is measured.
Plane
Is any flat surface.
Nautical mile
Is the length of a minute of arc measured along a meridian, in other
words, from your latitude scale.
The standard length of a nautical mile is 6080 feet.
Cable
Is one-tenth of a nautical mile. In practice it is taken as 600 feet, or 200
yards, or 100 fathoms.
Knot
Is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour.
The expression ‘knots per hour’ should never be used to denote speed,
one would say 9 knots, for example.

Chart datum
The level below which soundings are given on Admiralty charts, and
above which are given the drying heights in feet of rocks, mud or sand
banks, etc., which are periodically covered and uncovered by the tides.
It is also the level above which tidal levels and predictions are given in
the A.T.T. (Admiralty Tide table).
Chart datum level is the lowest to which the tide normally falls at that
particular point, and used to be slightly below Mean Low Water Springs,
25
but new charts are now based at a lower level called the Lowest Astro-
nomical Tide (L.A.T.) which is the lowest predictable tide under average
meteorological conditions.

Classification of Charts
Charts may be divided into four main categories.
World charts
These charts are on a very small scale showing ocean routes, magnetic
variations, telegraph cables, ocean currents, etc.

Ocean charts
These charts are on a larger scale covering wide areas of oceans, etc.
Generally they do not show much detail of the coast lines and are used
for ocean voyages, but not when making a landfall. Referred to as small
scale charts.

General charts
These charts are used over limited areas such as sections of a coastline.
Drawn on a conveniently large scale they are essentially for use in
coastal navigation. Referred to as large scale charts.
Plan charts
These charts are on the largest scale and give in great detail harbours
and narrow channels, etc.
When coasting the largest scale chart available should always be useaG.

Publication of Charts
The Hydrographic Department of the Navy Department, at the head of
which is the Hydrographer of the Navy, is responsible for the production,
printing, and issue of all Admiralty charts and books.
To obtain details about the latest charts published for a particular
area one must consult the most recent copy of the Catalogue of Admiralty
Charts, which can be seen at any Admiralty chart agent or depot for the
sale of charts and hydrographic publications, situated at most fishing
ports. When ordering a new chart, the title of the chart and also the
number should be quoted. These are printed in the bottom right hand
corner and the top left hand corner of each chart. Whenever a new chart,
or a new edition or reprint is published a notice is given in the Admiralty
Notices to Mariners, and all old copies should be cancelled and withdrawn
from chart agencies and depots upon receipt of the new copies.
To make certain one is obtaining an up to date chart with all the
latest information on it one should look at the age and the state of the
chart as follows:
26
1. Date of publication of a new chart is shown in the middle of the
outer lower margin of the chart, eg
Published, London 30th Oct. 1964 under the Superintendence of Rear
Admiral E. G. Irving, C.B., O.B.E., Hydrographer of the Navy.
2. When a chart is revised throughout, or modernised in style a new
edition is published and recorded to the right of the original date of
publication, eg
New Editions 24th Sept. 1965
3. When large corrections have to be made a reprint is issued containing
these corrections, and is recorded below the date of edition, eg
New Editions 29th July 1932. 8th Dec. 1933, 10th March 1939, 30th Dec.
1960.
Large Corrections 29th May 1964, 23rd Dec. 1966.
4. Small corrections published in the Admiralty Notices to Mariners are
made by hand either by the chart agency or depot, or the actual user of
the chart. Such small corrections are noted in the bottom left hand corner
of the chart by inserting the number of the relevant notice against the
year of issue, eg
Small corrections 1974 — 16 — 214 etc
When a chart is subsequently reprinted these small corrections are
included in the new chart.
Small corrections- 1965-21 10-2251-1966-261-1967-158-1377-1968-1935.

Chart Symbols and Abbreviations

For a full study of the details contained on charts a copy of Chart 5011
(issued in book form) entitled Symbols and Abbreviations used on Admiralty
Charts and published by the Hydrographic Department of the Navy
must be obtained.
This is a most comprehensive publication and is divided into various
sections covering The Coast-Line, Coastal Features, Topography—
Natural Features, Control Points, Units, Adjectives, efc., Ports and
Harbours, Topography—Artificial Features, Buildings, Miscellaneous
Stations, Lights, Buoys and Beacons, Radio and Radar, Fog Signals,
Dangers, Various Limits, Soundings, Depth Contours, Quality of the
Bottom, Tides and Currents, The Compass, and Abbreviations of
Principal Foreign Terms.
The International Hydrographic Organisation (IHO) publishes a standard
list of charted features. The list assigns a letter to each major category of a
charted feature (eg G denotes Ports and Harbours) and a number to each
feature within the category (eg G37—Floating Dock). Chart 5011 follows the

27
IHO system. Comparisons between symbols and abbreviations used on
Admiralty Charts and corresponding symbols and abbreviations used on the
Charts of other member states of the IHO may be made without difficulty. For
example, G37 will locate the symbols of a floating dock in this publication and
in similar publications issued by most other Hydrographic Offices.
Another most useful complementary publication to assist students in the
ability to read and understand charts is The Mariner’s Handbook NP 100 which
deals world wide with such subjects as general marine meteorology, tides and
currents, navigational hazards, traffic separation systems, etc.
Charts are now published in both metric charts and fathoms charts
and eventually all charts will become metric, so one should be familiar
with both types (see Figs 17 and 18). Metric charts are readily distinguish-
able from fathoms charts by their improved design and by the greater
use of colour. Most symbols and abbreviations used on Admiralty
charts are common to metric and fathoms charts, therefore little difficulty
will be experienced in transferring from one type to the other, especially
as in Chart 5011 the fathoms and metric symbols and abbreviations are
printed side by side.
At the examinations candidates will be asked to define certain symbols
and abbreviations and to illustrate others, so a thorough study of the
contents of Chart 5011 should be made and the introduction carefully
read.
Experience can be gained by studying the symbols and abbreviations
on any chart, checking with Chart 50// if any cannot be identified.
For exercise, determine the following abbreviations:
Ldg, Submd, Ht, Tr, Fl, OC, AL, RC, R, PA, Wk, M.H.W.S., Sn, P, E.S.,
C.G., Oy, M. Wd, bk, sm, w, St.

Illustrate the following: eddies, overfalls and tide-rips, rock awash at

chart datum, wreck showing any portion of hull at the level of chart
datum, breakers, foul, rock which covers and uncovers at 4 feet chart
datum.
Check your answers with Chart 50/1, extracts from two pages of which
follow (Figs 17, see opposite page and 18, see pages 30 and 31).
First study the ‘Title’ of the chart (Fig 19, see page 32).

Note the following points:

1. The area covered by the chart.
The date of the latest information.
3. Reference to bearings and the height above chart datum of drying
heights and all other heights expressed in feet above mean high
water springs.
28
 Coastal Features
Metric Charts Fathoms Charts

Gulf
Gulf
Zz B. Bay
Bay
Fjord
Fjord
Loch, Lough, Lake
Loch, Lough, Lake
Lagoon Lagoon
Creek
Creek
Strait Strait
Sound Sound
Pass. Passage Passage
10 Chan. Channel Channel
(Bb) Appr. Approaches Approaches
t Apprs

Ent. Entrance Entrance

t Entce
River
River
Estuary
Estuary

Mouth Mouth
Roads, Roadstead Roads, Roadstead
Anchorage Anchorage
Harbour Harbour
Haven Haven
Port Port
I Island, Islet Island, Islet
19 tit Islet Islet
20 Arch. Archipelago Archipelago
t Archo
Peninsula
2l > Pen. Peninsula
t Penla Cape
22 (cs Cape Promontory
73 Prom. Promontory Head, Headland
tPromy
Point
24 Hd. Head, Headland
Mountain, Mount
Pt; Point
Mt. Mountain, Mount

Pk. Peak Peak

Volcano Volcano

Landing place Landing place

Rock Rock

t This abbreviation is obsolescent t This abbreviation is obsolescent

Fig 17 Fathoms and metric charts

29
 g 153 Sere voles iAeu
Sdwinis padsauiqns ‘sseus fo adBLNS 0) snoJaBuep JOU 204 JaIeMJaPU/} 9
Buijid
padsawgns 9aS LL ¥
SUIELUDS YIIIAA (Ell RIK Yidap umoys <
332291 LL 905 dy) 0} a41m Aq Jdams Uae SeY YIIYM IBAA PG]
= 3204 pazejosi uo Bulpunos jeoys ¢
¥ eh,
294M 4M
m6:
(UMOUY asaYM Yldap 1sea/ YIM) Sol <4:
UareYy YSIF (80) daams
asim Aq 30u Ng ‘Bulpunos Aq paulergo uonesiAeu adepuns 0} snosasuep aq O2
uaaq sey yIdap a4} YIIYM JaA0 4224M —G] pasapisuo> s! Y/Y Inq UMOUZUN SI YIdap
“paulwiajap

suey aeos 2812] Dexa BY? YIIYM JaAO adpa]3] 4201 JO ¥ 4201 &
4201 JO
JO 'SSa{ JO Sas]aW Z

Metric Chart symbols

uaeg

‘wnjep
3g 02 uMoUy ase syIdap YIIYM UO adpaj 4204
jou
sey

11eY?

JaAO0
JO payineds Jou SI! YydIYM JO ainjeu Dexa

1e
JO

2
942 uoleBiAeU 02 Jasuep JO UO!I>NIISqQ LZ JaIeM S$aj JO SasaW Z YIIM ¥201 JaIeMJaPUT) &
uonesiaeu a2ejuns
0} snoJaSUep Palapisuo? S} YIIYM Pue ‘SS2j
(uMoUx a4a4yM JO SaiaW GZ 3q 02 1Y3NoY2 S$! Ing UMOUXUN SI
yidap sea; He Pemulics Poerenaes (PO) Jayem Jo Yidap 1eXa BY YIIYM JAAO HIFIM $|
waa

ae

Fig 18
® £o.
uMOYs Yidap ay} Ie 92UeJea/D ayes e BAeY
0} Pasapisuo? Si YIIYM Ng UMOUXUN SI Yap (winjep queYyD aaoge uoNeAga
y2exa ay] Y2IYM JaA0 42aIM padaasnsufA (PO) Yim) SJ@AOIUN PUB SIBAOI YIIYM HOYT
eg Es
SL:YM wea (ZZ) @
CS ‘sag wees
5A oe | % Tat e:
Q{QISIA ase AJUO SJSeW aY2 YIIYM JO Y2BIM TI (ISW aaoge ‘api2 ou
$1. a43Y2 24ayM JO 'AAHHW 10 SMH 2roge
dy 07 Sresti2 ice7s2375] UOI]BAa{9 YIM) 4AO2 JOU S9OP YIIYM ¥20Y |
(2) sew “oy
Jauuns,a
(Z-1) wew 2?
suey day

30
 . ain
<a pal
e9 sayemsapsaSuep
uy yim yidap pasea|>
Aq YOIAA JaAO YIIYM 93Yy2 1Dexd yidap
SI SJBAOD

sag
asim 8e1p daams UMOUYUN
3NGq 2Ysnoyi
02 aq a40W uey
QZ ‘S349
JO SJaAOIUT)
e yDaIM JaAO Y>IYMay) yidap
si 148n0y2
02 pajioday
I140}SIfY4 YIAIM aq gz SaiaW
JO ‘ssaj 3Nq YIIYM
S! JOU
aas) (a10N)
Paiapisuor SnoJasueP
0} BdBJINS SJ@SSAA
ajqeded
Jo BuIZesIAeU
ul ay? "AIUIDIA
4 I0ISIY\_/
YIAIN
7\7 aas) (@10N

(20) parrisISay
ease PunosaYyi ayS JOB }234M
Jo |29/402S1Y
puke |23130/0aeY4
40d!IJe"a2ue}
aIaYAA YIdaP UMOUH

ssabueg
/| pajseyoun
ay] Sulewas
JOB 'HI94M
JO 4J9YIO|NOJ "Base

Fig 18
OU Ja3U0] snosasuep
0} aDeJINS ‘uolqed|AeU
ing 0} aq papioae
Aq sjassaa ‘Bulsoyoue
1payers
‘Bulymes.
‘239
siaAo>)
puke (S49A02UN shemjy) Pp24aa0>
(
*%

| |210D Jas
g¢ sabueg
aul aas) (a10N

ts with Cako%e_
1 BI S|/EJJAAQ
]

Pue Sd|4-3PI)
(qo) seauy
Jo ajiqow W0}}0q
NT ROK agse7 a/e2s Sqsey>
Zuipnjzu!)
pues (Saaem
|| H2aIAA_ Bumoys
Aue UolZ40d
Jo ||NY40 -dJadns

Metric Chart symbols

aunqon4s
3e ay} jada]JO WeYD WNP 61 SaIPPJ Vd 4 (vd) UO!2/SOg aJEWIXOIGdE
aa

Bulkug :siyBiey
aas B1OUUI BY} ‘UONINPOAU} dd 4 (ad) uolIsog [NJaqnop
snosabuep-uoy
:SYO9IM Bauay} YIdap
$0e 991M SP29Bdxa
‘SAsIaW BZ
JO }! S! BSIMJ9YI0 P2JPPISUOD ai 4 (a3) a2uais!xZ |NJaqnop
‘snosabuep-uou
au} ajelsdoudde
joquiAs
s! Ajjesauab
UMOUSs
UO ay}
Jsa64e]aje9s 14eYO ‘AjUO
sabueg :aul
vy Jabuepaul sMejp uONUaye
oj e Jabuep Yyoiym Pjnom ou puelsINO Ajseajo yBnoue
$!
aas LO 38u!punos
jo jnjagnopyidap
pajuasauda
Ajajos
Aq sy! joquiAs
Ba) psiejosi‘(4904
Jo sjiwijap
ue ease Buiuleluo9 snosswinu ‘ssaBuep
yuBnoiudyoiym
yt si ayesun
0} ‘alebineu
y pjog paxoad
aul) yim Asojeuejdxa
puaba;Aewaq pasn0)
sod | usod UOIISOg
LIWI|ap
Ue esse BsayM d4ay)SI BeENbapeuU! ‘UONEWIOJU!
wexaun pwexaun| peulwexeauy,

| siyy joqwhs so/pue uonelAasgge

si luaasa/Osgo

Sl
 DODMAN POINT
INCLUDING

THE SCILLY ISLES

FROM THE LATEST ADMIRALTY SURVEYS TO 1955.

Soundings in hairline are from smaller scale surveys

The Topography is taken chiefly from the Ordnance Survey
Bearings refer to the True Compass and are given from Seaward (thus-- |26°ete.)
Underlined figures on drying banks and rocks express the Heights
ir Feet above the datum to which the soundings are reduced
AU other Heights are expressed in Feet above Mean High Water Springs
For Abbreviations see Admiralty Chart 500

SOUNDINGS in FATHOMS
(Under Eleven in Fathoms and Feet)

Natural Seale zso 555 (at Lat. 50°25'N)

Prajection — Mercator

Fig 19 Example of Chart Title in Fathoms

Soundings (always check carefully whether these are in fathoms,

feet, or metric units).
Natural scale—the scale of the chart to the actual distance. For
l
p on this chart itit is
example is e expressed d as 75,000
a °° that | inch on the
chart would represent 75,000 inches, which is 6,250 feet, or
I nautical mile of 6,080 feet, plus 170 feet at the latitude of 50° 10’ N.
The projection of the chart. It could be Mercator but may be
gnomonic, but would be clearly indicated.
Various cautions.

32
 ——t.
ee ae eet

ENGLAND — SOUTH COAST

SIDIEYESIUOUNDE IKONS
TO
BERRY HEAD
DEPTHS tn METRES
SCALE 1:75 000 at lat 50°30’

Depths are in metres and are reduced to Chart Datum, which is

approximately the level of Lowest Astronomical Tide
Heights are in metres. Underlined figures are drying heights,
in metres and decimetres, above Chart Datum; all other heights
are above MHWS
Projection: Mercator
Authorities: Mainly from Admiralty Surveys, 1950 to 1968
Soundings south of Eddystone Rocks and west of 3°52’W are
from an Admiralty Survey of 1864. The topography is taken
chiefly from the Ordnance Survey

Fig 20 Another example of Chart Title — Eddystone Rocks to Berry Head

Now study the ‘Title’ of metric chart (No. /6/3) in Fig 20 above.

In comparing this with a fathoms chart note the reference to the

depths being expressed in metres, otherwise the information given is
almost identical, except the reference to the chart datum level of approxi-
mately the lowest astronomical tide, which has already been described.

Correcting Charts
All small but important corrections affecting navigation that can be made
to charts by hand are published in the Weekly editions of the Admiralty
Notices to Mariners. Always make sure that your charts are kept up to
date, and corrections should be made in water-proof violet ink, marking
in the number and date of the correction in the bottom left hand corner.
Use the correct abbreviations, shown on Chart 50/7.
Typical examples of types of chart correction are shown in Figs 21
and 22 overleaf.
Sometimes corrections take the form of a reproduction of a portion
of a chart known as ‘blocks’. These are cut out from the relevant Admiralty
33
 — Light
EAT99: SCOTLAND, W. COAST — Upper Loch Long — Glenmallan
altered.
W. (approx.) is to be
The pier head light in position 56° 07’ 48” N.. 4° 49 03"
amended to F.G.

(plan, Approaches to Finnart)—(plan, Loch Long

Chart [Last correction|.—3739
and Loch Goil) [422 7/).
Light List Vol. A/70, 4413-7.
HM.S. Veptune Hyd. Note 9/70. (H. 6408/68.)

Fig 21. Typical example (repro type 1799)

*1319. ENGLAND, S. COAST — WEYMOUTH — The Nothe — D.G. Range

Eastward.
(1) A can light-buoy, blue and white chequers, Qk. Fl. ae is to be inserted in
position 351° 5: 1 cables from “C” Head light (50°35’ 45” N., 2°25’ 55” W. approx.).
(2) Spar buoys with spherical topmarks are to be cae ane in the following
positions :—
(a) 262° 120 feet)
(b) 352° 120 feet }from the light buoy in (1).
(c) 307° 165 feet
(3) “D.G. Range’ is to be inserted close W. of the buoys in (2) (on chart 2255
close W. of the light-buoy in (1)).

Charts [Last correction]. —2268 [313/69]—2255 (1, 3) [313/69].

Portland Notice 9/69. (H. 4340'62.)

Fig 22 Another example of chart correction (1319)

Notices to Mariners and pasted on to the chart exactly over the portion
affected by the corrections, as in Fig 23.

To accompany Admiralty Notice to Mariners No. 1789 of 1971

4, Q :
4

6
(amie Clay Huts JAC QK.FI 1030
| N°I3

NORTH
TRUE

Fig 23 A correction ‘block’ on a chart

Remember that when correcting charts only the amount of detailed

information relevant to that type of chart must be added. For example
do not add a small change of position of a harbour buoy on to an ocean
chart which showed that particular harbour on a very small scale.

Admirality Notices to Mariners

Reproduced below is the outside cover of a weekly edition of Admiralty
Notices to Mariners. Most of the information contained on the cover
is self explanatory, but NEMEDRI and CHINPACS might appear as
34
Notices
1873-1931/85.
Aus 348-376/85.
List of T & P Notices in force.
List of Corrections to Sailing Directions.

ADMIRALTY
NOTICES TO MARINERS
WEEKLY EDITION 29
27 July 1985
© Crown Copyright. Permission is not required to make copies of these Notices
but such copies are not to be sold

CONTENTS

Index

Admiralty Notices to Mariners

Radio Navigational Warnings

Corrections to Sailing Directions

Corrections to Admiralty Lists of Lights and Fog Signals

8
se2442
FWCorrections to Admiralty Lists of Radio Signals

Mariners are requested to inform the Hydrographer of the Navy, Ministry of

Defence, Taunton, Somerset TA1 2DN (Telex 46274), immediately of the discovery
of new dangers, of changes or defects in aids to navigation and of shortcomings
in Admiralty charts or publications. Copies of form H 102, which is a convenient
form on which to send in a report, may be obtained gratis from any Admiralty Chart
Agent or the reproduction at the end of section V of the weekly edition of Notices
to Mariners may be used. A copy of the form, which may be used as a pro forma,
Is also printed in The Mariner’s Handbook (NP 100).

Taunton R. O. MORRIS, Rear-Admiral.

Hydrographer of the Navy.
Fig 24 Title Page of Admiralty Notices to Mariners

35
strange terms. NEMEDRI gives details of areas dangerous due to mines,
and
swept routes, and buoyage in the North Sea, Baltic, Mediterranean,
the
Black Sea. CHINPACS gives similar details in the Far East, and
word is a combination of CHina Sea, INdian and PACific oceans.
care
Fishing boats will not normally carry a large number of charts but
d. The weekly Notices to
must be taken to ensure these are correcte
at the index will show at
Mariners should be studied closely as a glance
new
once whether any charts possessed are affected, and also whether
editions have been published (see Fig 24).
In addition the annual Summary of Admiralty Notices to Mariners
should be studied, also the monthly List of Temporary and Preliminary
Notices in force.

Pilots
In whatever area one is fishing a copy of the Sailing Directions covering
that particular portion of coastline or sea must be at hand. These amplify
the information given on charts and give other general information of
interest to the mariner. They are known generally as ‘Pilots’, and a total
of 73 volumes covers the entire world.
Channel Pilot No. 27, Dover Strait Pilot No. 28, North Sea (West) No. 54,
North Coast of Scotland Pilot No. 52, West Coast of England and Wales Pilot
No. 37, and Irish Coast Pilot No. 40, cover the U.K. coasts.
Immediately inside each volume is a diagram showing the whole area
covered by that particular volume, together with the limits and numbers
of all the charts required for that specific area.
Each volume is normally republished at intervals of about 12 years,
and between new editions it is kept corrected by publishing successive
supplements every I8 months, each new supplement cancelling the
previous edition. Small numbers of Notices to Mariners also are published
each year to correct the ‘Pilots’, and in the chart correction notices the
relevant page number of the ‘Pilot’ affect is quoted, so that a reference
to this can be made in pencil in the margin until the issue of the next
‘Pilot’ supplement.

Admiralty List of Lights and Fog Signals

These volumes give details of lights, light-structures, and fog signals
available to the mariner throughout the world. Light vessels, light floats,
and light buoys, exhibiting lights at elevations exceeding 8 metres (26 feet)
are included. Volume A covers the U.K. coasts. Volumes are republished
at intervals of about eighteen months, but should be kept corrected in
between new editions from Section 5 of the weekly editions of Notices to
Mariners.
36
Admiralty List of Radio Signals
These give details of world-wide radio information and consist of six
volumes as follows: Vol. | (Communications), Vol. 2 (Navigational Aids),
Vol. 3 (Meteorological Services), Vol. 4 (Meteorological Observation
Stations), Vol. 5 (Miscellaneous Services), Admiralty List of Port Radio
Stations and Pilot Vessels. New editions of these volumes are published
periodically, but they should be corrected from Section 6 of weekly
editions of Notices to Mariners.

Admiralty Tide Tables

These are published in three volumes annually as follows: Vol. 1 European
waters (including Mediterranean Sea), Vol. 2 Atlantic and Indian Oceans,
Vol. 3 Pacific Ocean and adjacent seas. These tide tables are subject to
constant and continual revision and information from obsolete editions
should never be used.
Other very useful and informative publications are Ocean Passages for
the World, Admiralty Distance Tables, and the Nautical Almanac.
Apart from the above Admiralty publications various almanacs, tide
tables, etc are published by several firms in a form readily acceptable to
fishermen, and one should use whatever publications are found most
suitable for individual purposes.

Tidal Information
Further important information on a chart refers to Tidal Information and
Chart Datum and to Tidal Streams’.
From Chart 5063 will be seen such information as in Fig 25.

55° 50

Tidal Information and Chart Datum

Height above datum of soundings <j
Place ;
High Water Low Water Datum to which soundings are
oansedtaiitermarks
Mean Sp. | Mean NPs | MeanSp. | Mean Nps |
Mevagissey 173 feet | 13:8 feet 1-9 feet 6:6 feet |10-00ftbelow Ordnance Datum (Newlyn)
Fowey 17:3 ,, 13-8 ,, 3 ,, 66 ,, 10-00
ft below Drdnance Datwm (Newlyn)
East Looe DHE Re I3-7 5; 17 4, 66, 10-00
ft below Ordnance Datum (Newlyn)
Whitesand Bay J6st = nde eS DEE See 53 ,
Plymouth Break? 16:0 ,, 124
Devonport 16-7 ,, 12-5 ,, 05 ,, 5-4 ,, 18-92 ft below Ordnance Datum (Newlyn)
River Yealm 16°15 12:5
U River Avon Hoe oe 12-5
Salcombe HOS ce 12-4 09 ,, 5-8 ,, |9-00ft below Ordnance Datum (Newlyn)

Tidal Streams referred to H.W. at DEVONPORT

50°10!0N. 5O125N.
50°18'3N. 50°18'3N. 50°17'0N. 50°08'0N
3388 W. | #05'2W.
£0070 #°10'8 W. | #266 W. #5230.
-+
Rate(kn) Rate(kn)
Rate(kn) Rate(kn) Rate(kn)| Rate(kn)
Hours] Dir™| Sp. Np.| Dir™| Sp. Np.|Dir™| Sp. Np. |Dir™| Sp. SinJiupEe Sn. Np. |Dir™| Sp. Np. |
H Be /6|-245° 17-3.0-7-|.266° |9:8.0-4.|297° [0-8 0-4.) 236° |.0-7..0-4.|.283° |0-8...0°4 222° 10-4 0:2
= S| 5] 243° [2-0. 1-0.| 284°
|0-8..0-4.|. 306° 1.0-7..0:-3.).264°1.0:6..0:3.].270° 10-7..0-3..|.249° 10-2 O-1-
58 4)-241? |2-7..2-0.|.294° |0-8. 0-4 |.307° 10-6 0:3.| 316° 1.0-6..0-3.|.282°}.0-5 0:2 , Slack
55 3} 2449 17-3...0-7_|. 3189 1.0 5..0-2_|.304° 10-3 0-2 |.031° 10-5 ..0-2.).382° 10-3 0-1.}.077° |0-2 0-1
Bo |2|-206° |0-3 0-2.).069° |0-4 .0-2_}.098° |0-3 0-1). 047° 10-7... 0-4.}.040° |.0-5. 0-3.|_037° 10-4 0-2
BA \1) 066° 17-0 0-5 _|087°| 0-8 0-4|-109° |0-7 0-3-|-083° [7-0 9-5. |060° 0-8 0-4 | 042° |0-5. 0-3
H.W. |-062° |1-6.-.0-8_}_098°
| 1:0..0-6-|_110°
10-9 .0-4_|_081° }.1-0..0-5 SES 0-5 -|.040° |.0-7...0°3_
: -089° |2-0..1-0_|_110°1.0-9--0-4_|. 119 |0-8..0-4 slo -0:4..|.084° |.0-9..0-4.| 036° |.0-5 .0-2_]
25 5 053° |7-8_.0-9.|_129° |9-6 0-4). 121° 1.0-6..0-3.)..129° L0-3...0-2.,)-103° 10-6 ..0°3 Stack— |
HS |3] 0609 }.1-0...0-5.f-170° |0-2 O-1.).1962 |O-3...0-2-)..238° 1.0:3...0:1-}.136° 10:4 ..0°2.)..2100 |O-2..0-1.
= § 14] 100° !0-3.0-2.| 267°] 9-2 0:1-|.265°| o-¢ 0-2.|.242° 10-8 .0-4.|-207° |0-3 0-2 219° |.0-6 0-3
32 |5) 226° 10-5 0-3-|2719 |0-6. 0-3] 294° |.0-7 ..0-4_|.236° |.0-8..0-4.| 241° 1.0-6_0-3.] 2119 1.0-7 0-4
<A \6|_248° |7-70 5-|-264° 10-8 0-4 296° |0-8 0-4..]-232° |0-905 149° 10-8 D4.) 2169 1.0-5.0-3-

ag
 On examining a chart there will be seen in certain selected positions,
diamond shapes with a letter inserted. These are called ‘Tidal Diamonds’.
At the position indicated the tide will be setting in the direction and at
the rates referred to in the tables. By referring to the time of high water at
Devonport (or any other port referred to in the tidal information) on that
day one can find the direction in which the tide is setting, and at what rate
at the position in which one may be situated relative to the nearest tidal
diamond.
Set and Drift of Tides
It cannot be emphasised strongly enough that close attention should be
paid to the set and drift of the tides. This will be dealt with in detail in the

DEPARTMENT OF TRADE MERCHANT SHIPPING Notice No. M635

AND INDUSTRY

MEDICAL TRAINING OF DECK OFFICERS IN THE MERCHANT

NAVY AND FISHING FLEET
Notice to Shipowners, Masters, Officers and Seamen of Merchant Ships and
Fishing Vessels
This Notice supersedes Notice No. M.614

1. The medical training of deck officers in the Merchant Navy and Fishing Fleet
is closely related to the Ship Captain's Medical Guide, in order to assist officers to
acquire a good working knowledge of the Guide for use in dealing, when
necessary, quickly and effectively with emergencies requiring medical treatment
which arise at sea. The requirements which are described below provide for the
issue of two grades of certificate, namely the First Aid at Sea certificate and the
Ship Captain’s Medical Training certificate.

BOARD OF TRADE MERCHANT SHIPPING No.ice NO. M.587

SPECIAL SIGNALS FOR FISHING VESSELS

Notice to Owners, Masters, ONicers and Seamen of Merchant Ships

and Owners, Skippers, Mates and Crew of Fishing Vessels

The Maritime Safety Committee of tne Inter-govertimental Maritime

Consuliative Organization have considered and approved proposals for special
signals for fishing vessels on a permissive Basis as Tollows:
General
(a) Whilst the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea
rust be obeyed as appropriate, the signels herein are intenced to prevent
damage to fishing gear or accidents in the course of fishing operations.
(b) The light signals herein apply in al! weathers from sunset to sunrise,
vhen vessels are engaged in tishing as a fleet and during such times no other
vehts shall be exhibited, except the lights prescribed in the International
Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea and such lights as cannot be
mistaken jor the prescribed lights or do not impair their vistbility or distinctive
character, or interfere with the keeping of a proper lookout. These lights may
viso be exhibited from sunrise to sunset in restricted visibiiiiy and in all other
eircumstanees when it 1s deemed necessary.

Fig 26 Two specimens of ‘M’ Notices

38
chapters covering chart work. SET means the direction in which the
tide is setting, and the DRIFT is found by multiplying the rate of the
tide by the time. For example, if the rate of the tide is given as 2 knots
over a period of 3 hours the drift would be 6 miles.
In the Tidal Streams tables it will be seen that the rate is given for springs
and neaps, and in some cases there is quite a difference, so care must be
taken to use the correct rate, or interpolate between them.

Merchant Shipping Notices

These are issued as required by the Department of Trade (previously the
Board of Trade), and information and instructions to Owners, Skippers,
Mates, and Crew of Fishing Vessels regarding such matters as safety,
training, issue of certificates, efc. Each year a summary of notices still
operative is issued, and it is necessary that one should be aware of such
contents when they are applicable to fishing vessels. Not only may a
question be put about them at the examinations but day to day work on
board requires a good working knowledge ofthe various statutory require-
ments of the Department of Trade. Brief extracts of two ‘M’ notices (as
they are known) are given in Fig 26.

39
 Chapter 3. Chartwork
Use OF INSTRUMENTS — PLOTTING POSITIONS — NOTATIONS ON THE
CHART — COURSES AND DISTANCES — BEARINGS — RUNNING
FIXES — SETTING A COURSE TO COUNTERACT THE EFFECTS OF A
TipE — To FIND THE SET AND DRIFT OF A TIDE — SPEED, TIME
AND DISTANCE — LEEWAY.

Chartwork is concerned primarily with coastal navigation, and having

learned about the use and construction of charts in the previous chapter
one should now be concerned with the practical application of chartwork.

Use of Instruments
First obtain practice in the use of instruments used in chartwork, which
include parallel rulers, dividers, a ruler, a pair of compasses, and a
protractor.

Parallel Rulers
There is a choice of types made in plastic or boxwood, amongst the best
known being Captain Field’s Improved. These are ‘walked’ across the
chart from the compass rose to lay off a bearing or a course. It needs a
little practice to do this but one will become proficient as long as it is
remembered that when ‘walking’ them across a chart they should be
pressed firmly on the fixed portion with the fingers well spread, and move
the free part. Then press on this part and move the other part up to it.
For a test of proficiency lay your parallel rulers along a parallel of latitude
and ‘walk’ them to the next parallel of latitude above or below, and if it
lies exactly along it then the use of these rulers is being mastered.
As these parallel rulers are graduated also on the top and the sides as a
protractor it is often much more convenient to lay off true courses and
bearings by using them as a protractor, rather than working from a
compass rose which might be some distance away. To do this place the
index on the lower edge of the parallel rulers on to the nearest meridian
and rotate them until the required true course or bearing on the graduated
scale coincides with the meridian. This method requires practice but
ability to lay off courses and bearings is speedily acquired.
Made of brass, boxwood or plastic the roller type of ruler is preferred by
40
 some fishermen, but although easier to use they are apt to roll away or fall
to the deck if let go when at sea in small craft. The Douglas Protractor
is
another useful device for laying off courses and bearings and is used in a
similar manner to a protractor.

Dividers
These are used for measuring distances on charts and for plotting and
taking off positions. Made of brass it is advisable to have a good pair of
about 6 ins. long. .

Compasses
These are useful pieces of navigational equipment made of brass into
which a stub of pencil can be inserted.

Protractor
This instrument is made of plastic. It is a most useful item to include in
navigational equipment as it can be used to lay off various angles, especially
those involving horizontal sextant angles.

Plotting Positions
To plot a position place one edge of your parallel rulers along a convenient
parallel of Latitude, or along the top or bottom of the chart. The parallel
rulers must be exactly parallel to the horizontal line upon which it is laid,
and the ruler is then moved until its upper edge reaches the required
latitude on the vertical latitude scale on either side margin. Draw a line
at the correct level on this scale and another line about 2 ins. long in the
vicinity of the longitude required. A quick glance at the top or bottom
margin of the chart will give the approximate longitude required. Now
take the dividers and working from either the upper or lower margin of the
chart measure the required longitude off from the nearest meridian. With
this measurement on the dividers mark off the longitude on the line
drawn already to mark the latitude. The point where the latitude is drawn
and the point marking the longitude meet is the position required.

To Take Off a Position

This is a much simpler operation because dividers are used throughout
(see Fig 27). First measure from the position to the nearest parallel of
latitude, and then transfer the dividers to the latitude scale on the margin
at either side of the chart and read the latitude. Next measure to the
nearest meridian and read off the longitude from the scale at the top or
bottom of the chart. When putting down Latitude and Longitude always
put down the Latitude first.
4]
 | =|
Parallel of Lat. | 2
a; | i=
¢ a} 3 3
9 | 2 oc i
re i 3 ¢ FA 2
° i 2 o $
c | ee jog n

a | e a & &
=o |
S
=]
= ad

2 f
Long. Scale

Fig 27 ‘Taking off’ a position

Notations on The Chart

Dead reckoning, Estimated, and Observed positions.
The dead reckoning (DR) position is that obtained by plotting on the
chart the course steered and the speed through the water. The symbol to
make on a chart for the DR position is X.
The estimated position (EP) is that obtained after allowances have been
made for current, tide, or leeway (if any). It should be marked on the
chart thus A.
The observed position (Obs) is that position on the chart where it is
known the boat to be because it has been fixed by bearings, soundings,
sextant angles, etc. and it is marked ©.
In marking any of these positions on the chart remember to place the
time by the side of the symbol, for example X 1120 or A 2250 or © 0920.
Good habits in chartwork should be developed by always putting the
correct notation and time alongside everything placed on a chart. Always
note the time against every bearing or position plotted, and with any
alterations of course. Against every course drawn on the chart its direction
should be noted thus 035° (T) for a true course, 070° (M) for a magnetic
course, and 298° (C) for a compass course.
A single bearing or position line should have a single arrow at the end
thus s

A transferred position line should be shown with a double arrow at each

end thus :Z S

The direction of a tidal stream by three arrows on the line thus

>_<
42
 Course to steer with one arrow on the line thus >
Course to make good with two arrows thus —>»

Courses and Distances

To use parallel rules for laying off a course (Fig 31, page 46) place the
bevelled edge ofthe ruler on each ofthe two positions and join them with a
pencilled line. If the course has to be laid to pass a certain distance off a
lighthouse or point of land, erc. first draw a circle with the compasses,
using the distance off as a radius, using the lighthouse, efc. as the centre.
Then draw the course line so that it just touches the outside edge of the
circle, or as a tangent to it (see Fig 28).

SS

a
el

ae a
hy ty
“Dodman Pt j
BEA 13

Bg
pe7 Lath baeh, RX 14

21% - 8 18
pee OES

Fig 28 Marking course and distance

Once the course line is drawn move the parallel rulers to the centre of
the nearest compass rose and read off the true course from the outer ring.
Remember that the parallel rulers can be used as a protractor and read off
the true course from the nearest meridian as described earlier in this chapter.
To measure the distance use the dividers and by measuring the length
of the course line transfer the dividers to the latitude scale on either side
of the chart, remembering to use this scale in the same latitude as one is
working.
Note that if the distance to be measured is greater than the maximum
spread of the dividers put a convenient measurement on them from the
latitude scale such as 10, 15 or 20 miles, and measure off these units along
the course line. The final short leg can be measured separately and added
43
 to the distance already measured. Study the following chart examples
(Figs 29 and 30) of a course and distance between two points.

Radio o (ges)
asts “e ‘SR
ico

t
000'ST

%
000'0T
32
A-B 318° true
Distance 6miles
34

3S

36

Fig 29 Example of marking of course and distance

Bearings and Cross Bearings

One can fix a position on a chart by various means, and in order to main-
tain the course laid down on the chart a check should be made on position
frequently by observations of terrestrial objects.
A ‘position line’ is any line drawn on a chart on which one’s position is
known to be, but a ‘fix’ is the interception of two or more position lines
which have been obtained at approximately the same time.
44
 37 '

38

A 2 ASB OO the
oe Distance 31 miles ill
so”

Fig 30 Further example of marking course and distance

The methods of obtaining a position line can be summarised as follows

and is demonstrated in Fig 32 (see following pages for Figs 31 and 32).

The visual bearing of a terrestrial object.

A transit bearing (that is two objects in a line).
The radio bearing of a radio beacon.
oo A circle of position obtained from the vertical sextant angle or from
‘oo
horizontal sextant angles.
Horizontal angles obtained by taking compass bearings, whether the
compass error 1s known or not.
A circle of position obtained by the range of a light seen to rise above,
or dip below the horizon.
7
A sounding, or a line of soundings.

To obtain a fix one must:

l Obtain two or more visual bearings (that is cross bearings preferably

with 90° angle between them).
pi A transit bearing and the visual bearing of another object.
3 Two or more radio bearings.
Horizontal angles between three terrestrial objects (either by the
use of a sextant or the use of compass bearings).
45
 z cJ ca
a } s 23)
a = 2 wv ze

au a
J Rd
oe Sz wer vo sis
2 f
| 2
\ 7] ae!
uy §
yee onro
ca 5
Y 3 rine um e =

au 2 Bw 111150
P s\ (\ Pye) 32 S
. 7 }
Bo
~
J. &. Vs
Sips 3
se ae
Sia: ad
ra ex geateeloatettaa gm Be wile“
ASS
38N FIRS
wr [osPeg og
e as a as
AA CIRO : C 35 ae
=Sr <n
Se : LCase
eB Z
a ie oes . Sa Se ; xz AEE “ a I
= 3 $ =) Ses 3s &
= => Eee =
7 ae 2 8
= = = 38

a a:

4ss

c$

Gr

True course 065° or 245°

Fig 31. Use of parallel rulers in laying a course

5 The bearing of a light, just dipping, together with the maximum

range of the light at eye level.
6 The visual bearing of a terrestrial object and the distance off by a
vertical sextant angle.
7 A sounding and the bearing of an object.
For demonstration see Fig 33, page 48.

Running Fixes
When only one suitable landmark or light is visible a bearing of this will
give a position line. Take this first bearing and lay it off on the chart. The
46
 é

Sextant Angle

Lighthouse
of
Ht.
|

Church 05 pee

Transit Bearing

(2)

(5)

RC Non Directional
(3) Radio Beacon (6)

Fig 32. Checking by bearings and cross bearings

boat must be somewhere on this bearing. Proceeding on the course

another bearing is taken of the same landmark or light (or another object
if the first object is lost to sight). By this means a ‘running fix’ is obtained
which simply means transferring the first position line (or bearing) to cut
the second position line or bearing.
An accurate fix can be obtained by this means provided it is known
within reasonable limits, the estimated track and distance made good
between the two bearings (see Fig 34). It is advisable to try and make the
distance run between the bearings as short as possible provided the angle
of the cut is as near as possible to 90°.
The order of work is as follows:
1 Lay off the two bearings obtained A P and B P.
2 Mark where the first bearing cuts the course line (one must be
somewhere on this line which is a single position line, and call it K).
(Continued on page 49)
47
 Charted Range 12M.
Fimor EVE Sirt,

(1)
(5)

Transit Bg.

Tower 150 Ft. IN HEIGHT

(2)

Sextant
Anale

(6)

(3)

10 FM LINE -
\

SOUNDING OF\
Windmill

10 FATHOMS

Fig 33 To obtain a ‘fix’

48
 3 From K lay off along the course line the distance steamed K Y.
4 Through Y lay off the first bearing as a transferred position line and
where it cuts BP at O is the boat’s position.

Fig 34 Securing a ‘running fix’

If, between the two bearings it is known that the boat’s course and
speed through the water is being affected by a tide or current one must
lay off the tidal stream from position Y, and draw a transferred position
line through the end of the tidal stream.
The order of work at the commencement would follow that of above,
but after laying off the course and distance steamed K Y one must lay off
the tidal stream from Y in the direction and at the rate it is known to be
flowing Y T. When transferring the first bearing A P it must pass through
the point T and where it cuts the second bearing B P at O is the boat’s
position as shown in Fig 35.

Fig 35 Allowing for tidal stream in fixing position

49
 Setting a Course to Counteract the Effects of a Tide
To navigate correctly and efficiently one should not allow the boat to be
set off the course line laid on the chart. Provided the direction and rate of
a tidal stream, or tidal streams, is known at the commencement of the
passage (and throughout the passage) a course, or courses, must be set
to counteract such tidal streams (see Fig 36).
By the simple method of counteracting the tide the boat should remain
more or less on the course line throughout the passage, but circumstances
do arise when the strength and direction of these tidal streams may not be
exactly as predicted, in which case it may be found that the boat is slightly
‘off course,’ but as tides are only predicted and are not exact this is a risk
which must be foreseen. By checking regularly the position of the boat
when on a coastal passage it can always be seen whether the correct
allowance for the tidal streams have been made and course adjustments
made as necessary. Order of work. See diagram below.

1 Lay off the course it is required to make good A B and mark with
two arrows 275°.
2 From A lay off the direction of the tidal stream 025° A T and mark
it with three arrows. Along this line mark the tide for a period of
one hour, or two hours, whichever is convenient (in the example
one hour is used at an appropriate scale) and mark the position T.
3 From T using compass or dividers set a radius equal to the distance
the boat would steam within the period of time used, that is one
hour, or two hours, etc as long as it is for the period of the tide.
Draw a small arc where this cuts the course line to be made good A B,
and make a mark C.
4 Draw a line from T to C, marking it with one arrow, and the
direction of this line T C is the true course required to steer from A
to counteract the effect of the tidal stream setting in the direction
ae
5 From A to C is the actual distance the boat will make good within
the period of time.

Course to Steer

Fig 36 Setting a course to counteract tidal stream

50
 To Find the Set and Drift of the Tide
This is a simple problem which involves ‘dead reckoning’ position
by
plotting the course and distance steamed from a given position in a
certain time. Then cross bearings are given to find the ‘observed position.’
When this has been plotted draw a line from the DR position to the Obs
position, and this line will give the direction (or set) in which the tide has
flowed, and the drift will be the distance between the two positions. If
asked also to find the rate of the tide divide the amount of the drift by the
time interval that has elapsed between leaving the first departure position
and the time of the observed position (Fig 37 shows the process). A drift
ay ae in 2 hours would be $ which equals 2 knots (2 nautical miles per
our).

Course steered

Fig 37 Finding set and drift of the tide experienced

A Departure position
B- DR position at the end of the period steamed.
C Observed position.
BC True direction (set) of the tide and the drift is the distance in nautical
miles measured from the latitude scale.

Speed, Time and Distance

In chartwork ability to work out speed is essential, as well as the distance
covered, and the time it takes to cover a given distance. The formula to
find these three factors is quite simple.
To find speed divide the distance made good by the time taken, eg if 12
miles is travelled in 2 hours the speed would be 12 divided by 2, which
equals 6 knots.
To find the time taken to cover a given distance divide the speed into
the distance, eg if it is required to know how long it would take to cover
15 miles at 5 knots divide 15 by 5 which would equal 3 hours.
“ 51
 Distance covered is found by multiplying speed by the time taken, eg
if a boat steamed for 4 hours at 7 knots it would mean 4 multiplied by 7
equals 28 miles covered.
Summarised it would look like this:
Distance
Speed equals —————
P q Time

: Distance
Time > =
Speed
Distance ,, Speed xX time
In the above examples round figures are used, but in practice at sea all or
any of the three factors in parts of a knot, hour, or nautical mile may be
involved. Decimals are required in solving problems that do not involve a
round figure, eg if a boat had a speed of 5-5 knots and sailed for 24 hours
it would bess x72 S.equals 13-75 -mules:
In changing time into decimals work to the nearest 6 minutes which is
one-tenth or -1 of an hour. In slow speed boats it is quite accurate enough
to work to one place of decimal, but for examination purposes it is
advisable to work to two places of decimals. For example if a boat sailed
22 miles in 4 hours 12 minutes and one wished to know its speed it would
be 5:24 knots to the nearest decimal.
Try some worked examples:
What is the Speed
1. Distance 18 miles in 3 hours 36 mins. Answer 5 knots
2. Distance 22 miles in 2 hours 48 mins. Answer 7:9 knots

What Time would it take to travel the following distances

3. Distance 31 miles at 5 knots Answer 6:2 hours or 6 hours 12 minutes
4. Distance 19 miles at 6°5 knots Answer 2°92 hours or 2 hours 55
minutes

What Distance would be covered at the following speeds and time

5. Speed 4:5 knots in 4 hours 48 minutes Answer 21:6 miles
6. Speed 6°7 knots in 3 hours 18 minutes Answer 22°11 miles

Leeway
A fishing boat can be pushed sideways by the pressure of the wind upon
the hull and superstructure. Such pressure can be exerted when the wind
is in any direction, relative to a fishing boat except when it is directly ahead
or astern.
This sideways movement is known as leeway, and is expressed as an
2
 angle in degrees, and is the angle between the course the boat is steering
and the actual track being made good through the water. Leeway depends
so much upon the direction and strength of the wind, the draft and trim
of the boat and the amount of freeboard and superstructure, that no
specific set of rules can be laid down as to how much leeway would be
made in any given set of circumstances.
Only by observation, and that only approximately, can one determine
the amount of leeway a boat is making (see Fig 38). By observing the
farthest visible part of the wake (and a towing log iine if carried) and
comparing this with the fore and aft line of the boat, one can estimate the
degree of leeway. Another method is to take a compass bearing of the
wake and reverse it to estimate the course being made good through the
water.
For example, steering 090° by compass, wind north, estimated leeway
10°, estimated compass course being made good 100°.

Wind

Course steered

Fig 38 Checking leeway

Wake would have had a compass bearing of 280° which reversed makes
100°, or by allowing 10° away from the wind 90° plus 10° equals 100°.
A good navigator, once having estimated leeway wouid normally
counteract it by steering a course, equivalent to the amount of leeway, to
windward. In the above example, a compass course of 080° would counter-
act the wind to the extent of the 10° leeway.
It must be remembered however that when counteracting for leeway
always apply this to the true course and not to the compass course, because
an alteration for leeway made to the compass course could alter the
deviation, and the compass heading might be changed.
For example. with a true course of 270° wind north and 10° leeway it
would be necessary to steer a course of 280° and with variation of 8° west
would make a magnetic course of 288°. To obtain the correct deviation for
this magnetic course refer to the deviation card. If the variation had been
applied to 270° it would make a magnetic course of 278° which would
produce a different deviation, so always remember to apply leeway to the
true course, followed by the variation and the deviation.
53
 ‘Chapter 4 The Sextant

DESCRIPTION OF THE SEXTANT —- PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION —

INDEX ERR OR S — MEASUREMENT AND CORRECTION
— ADJUSTMENT
oF ALTITUDES — HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL SEXTANT ANGLES.

Description of the Sextant

The following is a technical description of the sextant (shown in Fig 39).
The index bar which is free to rotate on a central axis under the
mirror D.
Micrometer vernier for quick and accurate reading.
Graduated arc of the sextant.
Is a mirror called the index glass.
Is a mirror called the horizon glass.
Telescope.
Tangent screw for making the finer readings on the micrometer
vernier.
Coloured shades for index and horizon mirrors.
Collar for holding telescope.
Small screw for adjusting index glass to make it exactly perpendicular
to the plane (surface) of the sextant.
Screw (small) to adjust the horizon glass to make it exactly per-
pendicular to the plane of the sextant.
Small screw to adjust the horizon glass to make it exactly parallel to
the index glass when the vernier is set at zero on the scale.
m Screw to adjust height of telescope collar.
Index bar clamp which holds the bar into position when it is released
by locking it into the grooved rack behind the arc.

Principles of Construction
The sextant is used for measuring the angle, at the observer’s eye between:
54
 Fig 39 The sextant

| The top of some object such as a lighthouse, tower, efc., and the water
line when the sextant is held vertically.
2 Two objects on different bearings on shore, with the sextant held
horizontally.
3. A celestial object (sun, moon, stars, or planets) and the horizon.
The sextant is an instrument of double reflection, the angle measured by
it being double the angle between the two reflecting mirrors. As the
index glass is fixed to the index bar, the angle measured is double the
distance which the index is moved along the graduated arc from 0°. It
will be seen that the sextant is normally graduated on the arc to read
120°, although the actual angle between the mirrors does not exceed 60°.
Fig 40 shows how the double reflection and the measurement of the
angle take place, although a knowledge of the optical principles involved
is not normally required for examination purposes.
35)
 1
1
i}
|
1
H 1
1
y i
\ |

\ |

eae
\
I
cat
\I
Se
Vena
een

Fia 40 Diagram showing double reflection of sextant to secure measurement of angle

X is the sun
I is the index glass (mirror)
H is the horizon glass (mirror)
Z 1s the observer’s eye
Y is the angle measured on the arc of the sextant
The altitude of the sun is angle YZH, which is twice the angle 7YH on
the arc of the sextant. Because it is an instrument of double reflection,
the angle measured by it is double the angle between the reflecting
mirrors. As the index glass is fixed on the index bar, the angle is double
the distance which the index is moved along the arc from 0°. When the
index is set at 0° the index glass and horizon glass are narallel to each other.

Index Error
There are a number of instrumental errors which can occur in a sextant
but of these only index error is required to be known by candidates for
the Second Hand Certificates, although a brief mention of two other
important errors ts made.
The first is called ‘error of perpendicularity’ and is caused by the
index glass not being perpendicular to the plane (surface) of the instru-
ment.
The second is called ‘side error’ and would be caused by the horizon
glass not being perpendicular to the plane (surface) of the instrument.
The third is known as ‘index error’ and is caused by the index glass
not being parallel to the horizon glass when the index is at zero, and is
the error with which an examinee is concerned.
From these three errors it will be seen that if a sextant is to measure
angles accurately the index and horizon glasses (mirrors) must be per-
pendicular to the plane (surface) of the sextant, and when the index is at
zero the two glasses (or mirrors) must be parallel to each other.
56
 To find and correct these three errors use is made of what are called
the first, second and third adjustments respectively. It is the ‘third’
adjustment—to find and correct index error—which is now explained.
To make the ‘third’ adjustment clamp the index of the sextant at zero
and holding the sextant vertically look through the telescope and horizon
glass at the horizon. Should the true and reflected horizons appear in one
continuous line the horizon glass is parallel to the index glass and no
Madex cerrorsexists:
If the true horizon appears above or below the reflected one the
horizon glass is not parallel to the index glass.
Study the drawings below and you will see how “index error” is shown.

Reflected Horizon

he 2] fe be is (35 PERSE RO ATIEEE FRESE ERE SO

sy
on es
Wy
Ay
|
| a
- ie
ie
tee
eR
at
Wa Z x
Hal ra
3 Ba)
eee bs
x Ms
Et
sty
ORE
Men
Tare
ASaas
TG 3
Bt
SREY ER DY ES Se OE 44
bs DERE
RO
BCT
RS aS
SAUTE 3

True Horizon

Fig 41 Illustration of ‘index error’

To make the necessary adjustment to correct ‘index error’ turn the

small screw gently at the back of the horizon glass (the screw nearest to
the plane of the instrument ‘I’ in the illustration of the sextant shown at
the beginning of this chapter) until the true and reflected horizons are
in one line. .
If the sextant is not fitted with a screw for making this adjustment,
hold the sextant vertically, as described previously, and move the tangent
screw (‘g’ in the illustration) until the true and reflected horizon appears
as one straight line. The reading will be the amount of index error which
must be added if the reading was off the arc and subtracted if on the arc.
For example, if the reading was 2’ 30" off the are add that amount to
all future angles taken with the sextant, because it means that every
angle measured is reading that much too low. If it was 3° 30” on the arc
subtract that amount from any future angles measured.
a7
 The sextant should be checked frequently for ‘index error’.
Should a clear horizon be unobtainable to check for ‘index error’ two
other methods can be used. First, at night sighting on a star clamp the
index at zero, hold the sextant vertically and look through the telescope
and horizon glass at the star. If the star and its reflection exactly coincide
no ‘index error’ exists, but if one star appears above the other (or below
it) then there is an ‘index error’. Adjustment can be made as described
above until the true and reflected star coincides and when only one star
can be seen, or, sighting on the horizon, move the tangent screw until the
same effect is obtained, reading the amount of ‘index error’ on or off the
arc.
No index error * True * Reflected
- * Reflected * True
A straight horizontal line must never be used such as the roof of a house
or shed, etc, instead of the sea horizon, because it would introduce a
factor called ‘parallax’, which is caused by the index glass and the horizon
glass not being on exactly the same plane when the sextant is held vertically
to look at the horizon. It has no visible effect when the sea horizon is
used because it is so far distant.
If the horizon or a star is not visible the ‘index error’ can be found by
using the sun as shown in Fig 42. Clamp the index about 32’ off the arc,
hold the sextant vertically and look through the telescope and horizon
glass at the sun. Two suns will appear, one above the other, one of which
is the true sun and the other the reflected image. Turn the tangent screw
until the limbs of the two suns are in exact contact and note the reading.
Next clamp the index about 32’ on the arc and carry out the same
procedure.
With the two readings subtract the lesser from the greater and divide
the difference by two. The result will be the ‘index error’, to be subtracted
if the greater reading is on the arc, but added if the greater reading is off
the arc.
An example of this would be as follows:
Sextant reading 35’ 30” off the arc
9 : 30’ 30” on the are

Divided by 2. 5’ 00" difference

= 2’ 30" equals index error to be added because
the greater reading is off the arc.

The sextant is set to about 32’ on and off the arc because that is the
approximate diameter of the sun as seen from the earth.
It is not advisable to try and find ‘index error’ by using the sun when the
58
 REFLECTED SUN

OFF THE ARC

TRUE SUN

REFLECTED SUN

ON THE ARC

Fig 42 Using the sun to find ‘index error’

altitude is very small because of excessive refraction, so try and await a

favourable time when the sun has reached a moderate altitude, say
about 20°.

Measurement and Correction of Altitudes

At this stage candidates are advised to obtain the use of a sextant, to
study its details in conjunction with the contents of this chapter, and to
learn to handle and read it.
When picking up a sextant, either from its box or from the wheelhouse
or chartroom table, always graps it first with the left hand by putting
three or four fingers firmly into the framework of the plane of the sextant,
lifting it up and transferring it to the right hand which should grasp the
handle which is situated beneath the plane of the instrument, or on the
right hand side when it is held vertically.
When taking a ‘sight’ make sure the correct shades cover the index
and horizon mirrors. Darker ones if the sun and horizon are brightest,
and lesser shades if the sun and the horizon are fainter. To bring the sun
down to the horizon set the index at zero and look directly at the sun,
moving the index bar slowly away so as to bring the sun downwards until
the lower limb touches the horizon. If the approximate altitude of the
sun is known, this can be set on the arc of the sextant and then look at
the horizon directly beneath the sun. This, when observed, in the horizon
glass can be adjusted by means of the tangent screw until its lower limb
touches the horizon. To make certain of an accurate reading of the sun’s
lower limb on the horizon move the sextant slightly with a pendulum
motion which will cause the sun to move from side to side like a pendulum,
and at its lowest point it should just touch the horizon.
To read the sextant, first note the index mark which indicates the
number of degrees on the graduated arc (‘c’ in the illustration) and the
arrow on the vernier scale indicates the number of minutes on the revolv-
ing vernier, while the seconds (to the nearest 10) are read on the smaller
vernier scale at the side.
ay)
 Some specimen micrometer vernier readings are shown in Fig. 43.

20°30"

45’ 10”

Fig 43. Specimen micrometer vernier readings

When taking the altitude of the sun (or a ‘sight’ as it is called) by using
the sextant the angle observed is between the lower limb of the sun (or
in exceptional cases the upper limb if the lower limb is obscured by
cloud) and the horizon, that is the visible horizon, the one seen from the
bridge of the vessel (see Fig 44).

SUN

HORIZON

Fig 44 Sighting the sun

Before the angle thus obtained can be used it must be corrected for
various factors because what is required finally is the true altitude, which
is the true angular height of the sun’s centre at the centre of the earth.
60
 Study Fig 45 and learn the definitions as listed here:

Fig 45 Finding true altitude

.C the centre of the earth

O an observer
Z; the zenith
xX the sun
VH visible horizon
SOH - sensible horizon
RCH rational horizon
SOV dip
XOV observed altitude
XOS apparent altitude
XCR - true altitude
OXC parallax

The Visible Horizon

This is the circle bounding the observer’s view at sea. VH is the horizon
as seen by the observer at O.

The Sensible Horizon

SOH is a circle whose plane passes horizontally through the observer
at O, and is at right angles to the vertical. COZ is the vertical and SOH
the plane of the sensible horizon.

The Rational Horizon

RCH is the circle whose plane passes through the centre of the earth
parallel with the sensible horizon. RCH is the plane of the rational
horizon.
61
Dip
This is the angular depression of the visible horizon below the sensible
horizon and the sketch (Fig 46) shows how dip is defined. It will be seen
from this that dip (Fig 46) depends upon the height of the eye above sea
level, and the greater the height the larger the angle of dip.

Fig 46 How ‘Dip’ is defined

The sea, or visible horizon, is the only one that can be seen, and the
sensible and rational horizons are imaginary ones introduced for astrono-
mical convenience to assist in the correction of altitudes, the centre of
the earth being the common point of reference to which all observed
altitudes must be reduced before the working of the sight can be used.

Sextant Altitude
This is the angular height of an object above the visible horizon as read
from the arc of a sextant before correction for index error (if any).

Observed Altitude
This is the angular height of an object above the visible horizon as read
from the arc of a sextant and corrected for index error.

Apparent Altitude
This is the angular height of an object above the sensible horizon after
correcting the observed altitude for dip.

True Altitude
This is the angular height of an object’s ceritre above the rational horizon
at the centre of the earth.

Zenith Distance
This is the angular distance of a heavenly body from the zenith of the
62
observer, and is found by subtracting the true altitude from 90° (90° minus
the true altitude equals zenith distance ZD)

Parallax in Altitude
This is due to the fact that the heavenly body is observed from the surface
of the earth whilst it is necessary to find its angle from the centre of the
earth. It is the angle at the object between a line drawn from the centre
of the earth and one drawn from the observer. The nearer an object is to
the earth the greater the parallax. The sun’s parallax is very small and
mever exceeds 9” Of arc.

Semi-diameter
This is half the angular diameter of the sun as viewed from the earth. As
it is necessary to find the angular height (altitude) of the centre of the
sun the semi-diameter SD must be applied as a correction. If the lower
limb is observed then the SD must be added but if the upper limb then
subtract the SD. The sun’s semi-diameter is obtained daily from the
Nautical Almanac, or any other nautical publications that may be in use.

Refraction
This is the bending of the sun’s rays as they enter the atmosphere of the
earth and make the sun appear higher than it really is. Refraction is at
its maximum when the sun first rises, and nil when it is overhead (see
Fig 47, next page).
In practice the whole of the corrections to apply to an observed altitude
are contained in the Sun’s Total Correction Table, the factors required
being the observed altitude, height of eye (given in either feet or metres
above sea level) and the month of the year. The reason for including the
month is that during the winter months the sun is closer than during the
summer months, and the SD is therefore slightly larger during the winter.
In the Nautical Almanac the correction for dip is given in a separate
table, and the total of the remaining corrections is given in an adjoining
table, that is, parallax, refraction and semi-diameter. A careful check
must be made of the month of the year in which the ‘sight’ is taken, and
whether the lower or upper limb of the sun is observed.

Horizontal and Vertical Sextant Angles

In addition to measuring the angular height of heavenly bodies the sextant
can be used to measure horizontal and vertical angles of terrestrial objects,
and very quick and accurate results can be obtained by the use of such
angles.
63
 ANGLE TOX = REFRACTION

REFRACTION

ANGLE OXC
SUN = PARALLAX IN
ALTITUDE

OBSERVER
O

SEMI DIAMETER

Cc

CENTRE OF EARTH

Fig 47 Detail to illustrate refraction etc.

To take a horizontal angle between two shore objects (or floating

objects), hold the sextant horizontally and always work from right to left,
that is observe the right hand object first, and move it sideways to the
left towards the second object (see Fig 48). When holding it horizontally
the right hand holding the handle is underneath the instrument.

STATION POINTER

FIXED ARM

Fig 48 Diagram of a station pointer

64
 If three identifiable shore objects are selected which are nearly in a
line, then by measuring the horizontal angles between them, a very
accurate fix of one’s position can be obtained. Use either a station pointer,
tracing paper, or by laying off the angles geometrically by the use of a
protractor to fix a position.
A station pointer is made of brass or plastic and has three arms attached
to a circular graduated plate. The centre arm is fixed and the two other
arms rotate so that the angles between the centre objects and the objects
to the right and left can be set on the graduated plate and clamped into
position. The station pointer is moved around on the chart until the
bevelled edge of each arm coincides with each selected object (there is
only one position in which this can occur). When the station pointer is
so placed make a mark on the chart through a hole in the centre of the
graduated plate, and that is the position.
By using tracing paper it is possible to plot similar angles and adjust
the tracing paper over the three selected objects until they all coincide,
and by making a mark on the chart through the tracing paper it will
indicate position (see Fig 49).

Fig 49 Using a station pointer to obtain a fix

In using a protractor instead of a station pointer join the three selected

positions by straight lines, and lay off from each position an angle which
is equal to the complement of the horizontal angle between the two post-
tions. The complement is obtained by subtracting the angle from 90%.
Where these two lines intercept is the centre of a circle passing through
both points of land and the ship. As the ship is on both these circles it
must be at their point of interception as shown in Fig 50.
If lines are drawn from this point of interception to the points of land
they will be found to contain the angle measured (horizontally) with the
65
 Fig 50 Using a protractor to obtain afix (angles not drawn to scale)

sextant between the points. From the above drawing the horizontal angle
measured with the sextant between A and B was 55°, therefore the angle
to lay off from these points is 90°-55° equals 35°. Between B and C the
angle was 62° therefore the angles would be 90° minus 62° equals 28”.
X and Y are the centres of the circles to be drawn and as D is the point
where they meet (intersect) that is the boat’s position. If the angles at D
are drawn between A and B, and B and C, they would be the horizontal
angles measured by the sextant.
It will be noted that the angles from the points on land have been drawn
on the seaward side, but if the angles between them had been over 90°
it would be necessary to subtract this from the horizontal sextant angle
and draw the resultant angles on the opposite side of the line. For example,
if the angle between the points had been 110° the angle drawn would be
110° minus 90° equals 20°.
The best results are obtained when the three chosen objects are in or
near the same straight line, or the boat ts inside a triangle formed by the
three objects. It is also advisable that the centre object be nearer than the
other two.
To take a vertical sextant angle of a shore object hold the sextant
vertically, and looking at the top of the object move the index bar slowly
as it is brought down to the water-line immediately below (or by using the
tangent screw if the angie is very small). Always be careful when measuring
the vertical height of a lighthouse that the centre of the lens of the light
is taken (which would normally be clearly visible through the sextant
telescope). It is always the height of the light that is given above sea
level and not the top of the lighthouse. The height of the object above
sea level must be known before the distance off can be found.
In a right angled triangle given the length of one side and one of the
lesser angles, one can calculate the length of the other side, but tables are
66
available in various nautical publications giving an immediate answer.
Usually they are headed ‘Distance by Vertical Angle’ or ‘Distance
by
Vertical Sextant Angle’. Take from the tables with the height of the object
in feet or metres and the angle obtained with the sextant, corrected for
index error if any (see Fig 51).

1.3 MILES

Fig 51 Securing distance by vertical angle

As an example, the sextant angle of an object 105 feet high was found to
be 0° 46’. By looking at the table under 105 feet for height and 0° 46’ as the
angle it will be seen that the distance off was | mile 3 cables, or 1.3 miles.
In a further example when an object 80 feet high has a vertical angle
of 1° 5’, the tables show a distance off of 7 cables, or 0.7 miles.
The height of shore objects such as lighthouses, efc. are given above
mean high water springs, so that from the vertical angle at low water the
object may be as much as 30 or 40 feet higher above the water-line than
indicated by the height given on the chart. For accurate fixing add the
amount the tide has fallen below mean high water springs to obtain the
correct height of the object above the water-line, but if this is ignored
and the charted height used, then a distance off will be obtained nearer to
the shore object than it is in fact—which is, of course, a safety factor.
For example, if the vertical sextant angle of an object measured is
charted as 115 feet high and the angle obtained was 1° 21’ the distance
off by the tables would be 8 cables, or 0.8 miles, but if it was low water and
the object was in fact 145 feet above the water line the correct distance
off would be | mile, so one would be plotting one’s vessel’s position
0.2 miles nearer the object than it really was.
In problems involving vertical sextant angles an examinee might be
asked how to proceed if required to pass, or round, a lighthouse, head-
land, or known object at a defined distance. This applies particularly if a
reef or ledge of rocks runs out from a headland. It is essential that it 1s
passed at a safe distance.
The procedure is to turn to the “Distance by Vertical Angle Tables’
67
and, with the height of the object at the top of the table, look down the
left hand column until the figure giving the distance off it is wished to
pass is found. Where these two factors meet in the columns giving the
angles is the angle to set on the sextant.
As the object is approached, observe it through the sextant telescope
and as soon as it is level with the water line immediately below the object
one will have arrived at the distance off, pre-determined from the tables.
Remember that where there is a very large rise and fall of the tide this
should be allowed for in calculating the true height of the object above
the water line.
As long as the object remains at this water line level the correct distance
is being maintained, but if it falls below the water line then one is moving
farther off. If it rises above the water line level one is moving closer to
the shore. Study Fig 52.

LIGHTHOUSE LENS WATER LINE

CORRECT DISTANCE TOO NEAR. FURTHER OFF.

Fig 52 Checking correct distance by sextant

68
 Chapter 5 Use of Traverse Tables
Plane and Mercator Sailing
DIFFERENCE OF LATITUDE — DIFFERENCE OF LONGITUDE —
DEPARTURE — FINDING POSITION BY THE USE OF Traverse Tables —
PLANE SAILING — PARALLEL SAILING — MERCATOR SAILING —
MERIDIONAL PARTS.

It is essential to become thoroughly familiar with the definitions and

the diagrams that follow (see Fig 53).

Fig 53 Definitions diagram (see text for detail)

Definitions

PR “ihe poles
QR_ The equator
P GP The prime meridian
PBP A meridian

KT A parallel of latitude
|b Ah i s
GB Longitude of P B P (Long).
GC Bs PCeP
BC __ Difference of longitude (D. Long.)
DF Departure (Dep.)
BE Latitudeot E(Vat.)
CFE 5 F
ED _ Difference of latitude (D. Lat.)
69
Difference of Latitude (D. Lat.)
This is the number of degrees and/or minutes of latitude between two
positions or places situated in different latitudes. For example, the D. Lat.
from 49° 50’ N to 48° 45’ N is 1° 05’ which equals 65’ (1° equals 60’) S.
This is equal to 65 nautical miles because one minute of latitude equals
one nautical mile. From 48° 00’ N to 51° 00’ N the D. Lat. would be
180’ N.
When finding the D. Lat. between two positions be very careful to
name it correctly. It is named according to the direction from one place
to another, north if more northerly, and south if more southerly. Note how
the two above examples have been named.

Difference of Longitude (D. Long.)

This is the number of degrees and/or minutes of longitude between two
points or positions situated in different longitudes. The D. Long. expressed
in arc remains the same in whatever latitude one may be. For example,
from 10° W to 11° 45’ W is 105’ W (1° equals 60’). From 9° W to 7° W
equals 120’ E (1° equals 60’). These figures would be expressed in exactly
the same manner in whatever latitude one may be situated.
D. Long. is named according to the direction from one position to
another. East if more easterly and west if more westerly. Care must be
taken when the change is from a westerly longitude to an easterly longitude,
and vice versa. For example, from longitude 2° W to longitude 2° E the
D. Long. would be 240’ E, whereas from Long. 2° E to Long. 2° W it
would be named 240’ W. It will be noted that the longitudes are added in
these cases.

Departure (Dep.)
This is the east-west distance between two meridians on the surface of the
earth measured along a parallel of latitude and expressed in nautical miles.
On the equator only, departure (which is always expressed in nautical
miles) is equal to the difference of longitude (D. Long.) expressed in
minutes of arc, but immediately one leaves the equator and moves into
higher latitudes (that is travelling north in the northern hemisphere, and
south in the southern hemisphere) the meridians of longitude begin to
converge until they meet at the poles.
The actual distance, expressed in nautical miles, begins to get less, and
this distance is called departure (Dep.). It can be defined as the distance
made good in nautical miles east or west of the point from the point sailed.
The distinction between D. Long. and Dep. must be clearly understood,
and the conversion of one factor into the other is an essential part of the
use of the Traverse Tables, and of the solution of the problems to follow.

70
 Study Fig 54 and the explanatory text which together give a clear idea
of the relationship between the three factors involved.

Fig 54 Diagram of factors involved in ‘Departure’

P is the pole of the earth.

C is the centre of the earth.
P A and P B are two meridians.
Arc A B is the D. Long. at the equator.
Arc D Eis the arc of a parallel of latitude between the two meridians,
and is also the departure or actual distance between them in that
latitude.

Using the Traverse Table

Instead of plotting courses and distances on a chart one can obtain DR
positions by the use of the Traverse Tables, given the compass courses
steered, variation and deviation (thence the true course) and the distance
run recorded by log or calculated by estimated speed. Also, it is possible to
calculate the allowance for tides and leeway, if any.
The departure position must be known either as a given Lat. and Long.
or by the bearing and distance from a point of land. In addition, by-using
the tables one can calculate the course and distance between two points
by plane sailing.
These tables give a quick solution to right-angled plane triangles for
every degree from 0°-90°, and for units of distance up to 600 miles. A few
simple diagrams (Fig 55 and others) explains how the Traverse Tables
are used to make the working simple and easy.
How Traverse Tables are used
It will be seen clearly from the drawings B and C that the greater the
latitude the smaller the departure relative to the D. Long.
71
 Fig 55 Diagram showing how traverse tables are used

Turn to the extract from the Traverse Tables at the back of this book
and it will be seen that the various neadings given in these tables consist of
the terms just explained and shown In the drawings.
Dist., D. Lat. Dep. and D. Long. The degrees at the top and bottom of
the page, 28° and 62°, respectively show either the course or the mean
latitude according to what particular problem one is solving.
If a true course of 028° is steered, distance 72 miles, using the tables
from the top of the page, it will be seen that D. Lat. would be 63.6’, and
the Dep. 33.8’. If the true course was 062° distance 46 miles, working from
the dottom of the page, the D. Lat. would be 21.6’ and Dep. 40.6’. (Fig. 56.)

Fig 56 Further diagram showing how traverse tables are used

Although the tables are tabulated from 0° to 90° it will be observed that
at the top and bottom of each page the three figure notation is given on
each side of arrows pointing upwards. Easterly courses are on the right
MZ
hand side of the arrow, and westerly courses on the left. For example,
using 28° can indicate a true course of either 028° or 152°, or a
course of either 332° or 208° according to which direction one is heading.
Some problems could give the course in quadrantal graduations, or the
three figure notation, but whatever method one is called upon to use be
very careful to get the courses named correctly. For example, if the
course is 282° look in the Traverse Tables above that figure, or N 78° W,
or for 189° look under S 9° W or 189°.
Give the D. Lat. and Dep. for the following courses and distances.

Answers
Course 075 — Diste 50M Do Lat-44l7 N. «Dep. 923578
oul oD. Oni ee 0085 a oue Ome
ce el Ls ,» 160M eis ees ay ey als,
eG son SOUL i ne IN BU GW.

To complete the use of the Traverse Tables one must learn how to find the
difference of longitude (D. Long.). The relationship between Dep. and
D. Long. depends upon latitude. In changing Dep. into D. Long., or vice
versa, use the middle latitude (M. Lat.) which is the latitude midway
between the two positions. For example, if one position was in Lat. 54° N
and the other was in Lat. 56° N the M. Lat. would be 55° N. Having
found, or been given, the D. Long, it can be changed into Dep., and vice
versa, by the use of the tables. It will be seen that at the top and bottom of
the page Dep. and D. Long. are printed in italics and bracketed, so that by
using the degrees at the top or bottom of the page as the M. Lat. one can
change D. Long. into Dep. and Dep. into D. Long.
For example, with an M. Lat. of 28° taken from the top of the page (it
does not matter whether it is north or south) a D. Long. of 50’ would have

Fig 57 Another diagram showing how traverse tables are used

as
a corresponding Dep. of In the same M. Lat. a Dep of 57.4’ would
44.1’.
have a corresponding D. of 65’. Now turning to the bottom of the
Long.
page with an M. Lat. of Dep. of 23.5’ would have a corresponding
62° a
D. Long of 50’, and a D. of 113’ would have a Dep. of 53.1’,
Long
If the M. Lat. does not come to an exact figure one must learn to inter-
polate by getting the bigger factor, ie D. Lat., Dep., or D. Long. as close
as possible in its column, and, if the smaller factor alongside it is not
exactly the same as is required, but a little bigger or smaller, interpolate
mentally between the quantities on two successive pages. One must try to
get answers to the nearest half degree in the course and a half mile in
distance.

Plane sailing
When a vessel steers a true course, except north, south, east, or west, the
course and distance can be represented on the plane surface of a chart as
shown in Fig 58.

Fig 58 Principle of plane sailing

This is covered up to about 600 miles (the limits of the Traverse Tables)
but beyond this the curvature of the Earth makes this method inaccurate,
and one must use Mercator sailing (which see). Having learned that given a
course and distance one can find the D. Lat. and Dep. from the Traverse
Tables, and if given the D. Lat. and Dep. one could find the course and
distance made good. For example, given D. Lat. 79.5’ N and Dep. 42.3’ E
the true course and distance made good would be 028° 90 M. With D. Lat.
50.7’ N and Dep. 95.4’ W the true course and distance made good would
be 298° 108 M.
Given the following D. Lat. and Dep. what is the course and distance
made good?
Answers
D> Lat. 21.2°N Dep. 113-E Course 028° Ni282E. Diste24 Miles
136:0° 8 dea OWN, saecUS 4a 28 We Oana: a
as 79.8’ N sen LSOne Ww: 32 2298) N62 WW ml O s
ss 45,5 8 ine 285,60 \V ow 24235. 62 WwW eno F ss
74
 Note very carefully that the course made good (given as a quadrantal
reading) are always indicated from the naming of the D. Lat. and Dep.,
and to avoid making any mistakes it is advisable to name the course in this
manner before quoting it in the three figure notation from the figures
given at the top and bottom of the page.

Parallel Sailing
This is merely the term used to find the actual distance sailed east and west
(or vice versa) between two meridians, or to find the departure. It relates
to the problem of changing D. Long. into Dep. using the M. Lat. (see Fig
52),
For example, if in Lat. 62° one left Long. 8° W and sailed to a position
in Long. 10° W the D. Long. would be 2° « 60 equals 120’ W. In Lat. 2,
120’ D. Long. equals 56.3’ Dep. which will be seen at the bottom of the
page in the extract from the tables given later.

DEP. 56.3

Fig 59 Principle of parallel sailing

Mercator Sailing
In using the Traverse Tables it will be seen that the maximum distance
given is 600 miles, so that in working problems involving a greater distance
than 600 miles one must work to a different formula as illustrated in Fig 60.
The method used is known as Mercator sailing. This is done by using
meridional parts. On a Mercator chart the distance between parallels of
latitude increase proportionately from the equator towards the poles, and
the meridians instead of meeting at the poles are represented by straight
lines in a true north and south direction; lying parallel with each other at a
constant distance apart. As one leaves the equator |’ of latitude equals L
of longitude, but on reaching Lat. 60° the measure of 1’ of latitude is
double the length of |’ of latitude at the equator.
WD
 Meridional parts (MP) simply tabulate the change so that in any latitude
one can find exactly the length of a meridian on a Mercator chart, from
the equator to the latitude required expressed in minutes of the longitude
scale.

Fig 60 Principle of Mercator sailing

Meridional Parts
The MP for any iatitude is the length of the meridian on a Mercator
chart measured from the equator to the parallei of latitude and expressed
in minutes of the longitude scale. Tables of Meridional Parts are given
in Norie’s Tables, and others, and an extract is given at the back of this
book.
Difference of meridional parts (DMP) is the number of minutes of
longitude measured along a meridian on a Mercator chart, between any
two parallels of latitude. For example, between Lat. 0° (tne Equator) and
Lat. 0° O1’ the DMP is .99’ which is to all intents 1’, but between Lat.
60° 00’ and Lat. 60° OL’ the DMP is 1.99’, that is aluiost double. Between
Lat: 50° @nds0" Ol" the DMP is-4476.
Using the extract from the table find the D. Lat. and the Difference of
Meridional parts (DMP) between Lat. 52° 53’ N and Lat. 51° 13’ N.

Eat 5233) NeMEP S76 a

Lat) Sts 13" N MP 357 i235

L405 DMP 162.2278

< 60

D. Lat. 100’°S
76
 Again between
Lat. 60° 00’ N and Lat. 59° 05’ N
Lat. 60° 00’ N MP_ 4507.08’
Lat. 59°05’ N MP 4398.76’

Darat. 55'S DMP 108.32’S

Note how the difference of Meridional parts (DMP) is almost

double
the Dy Lat. in the latitude of 60° as mentioned in the earlier
paragraph of
this section.
Study the following diagram (Fig 61) and the relationship between
the
various factors in the solution of Mercator sailing problem
s.

Fig 61 Relation between various factors in solving Mercator sailing problems

The solution can be learned by the use of two simple formulae:

ong.
———___" equals log. tangent of course.

or Log. D. Long. minus Log. DMP equals Log. tan. co.

Dist.
and equals log. secant of course.
ID), (bei.

or Log. dist. equals log. D. Lat. plus log. sec. co.

The reader may be familiar already with the use of logarithms, and
logarithms of trigonometric functions, but if not, extracts from Norie’s
Tables are at the back of the book, which will cover the solution of the
following two problems, and a brief explanation is given of their use.
77
Logarithms
The logarithm of a number is the power to which the base must be raised to
produce that number.

This is difficult for a beginner to understand but easier if it is kept firmly

in mind that logarithms used in navigation are calculated to base 10, and
consist of a whole number called the ‘index’, and that the index of the
logarithm (or log. as it will be called in the future) of any given number is
one /ess than the number of figures before the decimal point in the given
number.

If 10 is multiplied by 10 it equals 100, or it could be put as 107, the small

2 indicating the number of 10’s multiplied together. 2 is the ‘log.’ of
10 x 10, or the log. of 100. If one multiplies 10 x 10 « 10 x 10 it would
equal 10,000, or 104, and the log. of 10,000 is 4. The 100, or 10,000, or
whatever figure is used is called the natural number, and the index number
of a log. is always one less in value than the total number of figures in the
whole natural number, or in other words, those figures which are placed
before a decimal point. The figures after the decimal point are a fraction of
the natural number. Do remember that the index depends entirely upon
the place occupied by the decimal point. For example:

1892.00 would have an index of 3 because there are 4 figures

before the decimal point.
189.20 or) > > > > D3 ” > ” 3

18.92 3° 35 ory 5) > i > 29 5) 2

1.89 3° * pr) ” > 0 > ’ ” l oe

Turning to the extract from Norie’s Tables at the back of this book headed
Logarithms, find the log. for 1892.0. First put down the index which would
be 3 (there are four figures before the decimal point) and then look down
the column No. (for number) and one will come to 189. Along the top or
bottom ofthe page will be seen the figure 2 and the log. would be expressed
as 3.27692.

Now find the log. of

161.4 equals 2.20790
20.96 gb 2132139
2186.0 ee ee 03)
2.07 53, 2.030535
78
The next exercise to work is to find the natural number of a given log.
2.24080 equals 174.1
G2 OB Ay. 17.92
Seiioo, 4 v894.0
US23887. 2.108
In using logs. the work of multiplying and dividing is made very easy in
that instead of multiplying two numbers together one takes out the log.
of each number and add the logs. together, and for dividing subtract them.
From the log. obtained convert this to a natural number which will give
the answer.

Functions of Angles
The term ‘functions of angles’ relates to the ratio between the three sides
of a triangle taken in pairs.
In a right angled plane triangle the relation between any two sides and
one of the acute angles (that is any one less than 90°) is called the trigono-
metrical ratio of that angle as shown in Fig 62. The three sides of a
triangle can be arranged in six different pairs, so with six ratios each has a
different name. They are sine, tangent, secant, cosine, cotangent and
cosecant, and abbreviated they are set down in the following manner
which will be used in future: sin, tan, sec, cos, cot, cosec.

iS ADJ. (b) e

Fig 62 Trigonometrical ratios of triangle

In triangle ABC where we are using angle A then

BC is opposite to the angle (opp.) (a)
AC is adjacent to the angle (adj.) (b)
AB is the hypotenuse (hyp.) (c)

Siin. A equalsl 7p
Be OF
Gee&

79
 Taniy “As” %, 3 -

DECH MEAT “ais a z 5

Cos, SAM fs. a :

Cot, =A. = = vy :

Cosee 2 yy, _ a -

When using the Traverse Tables one is solving right-angled plane triangles
by inspection, and the hypotenuse is the Dist., the adjacent side is the
D. Lat., and the opposite side is the Dep., and the angles, the course.
One must learn to find and use logarithmic values of these sines, cose-
cants, tangents, etc from the extract from Norie’s Tables at the back of
this book. The page is headed Logs. of Trig. Functions, and is headed in
the order (from left to right) sine, cosec, tan, cotan, secant, and cosine.
The degrees are marked in the top left hand corner, and the minutes are in
the column immediately below the figure of degrees (46° in this case).
When using decimals of a minute the columns headed ‘Parts’ give the
figure either to add to or subtract from the value obtained for that particular
minute (one must look at the next greater minute to see whether to add or
subtract).
For example, if one requires the log. sine of 46° 10.0’ look down the sine
column and opposite 10.0’ will be found the figure of 9.85815. For the
cotan. of 46° 59.0’ the figure would be 9.96991. Now, if the secant is
required for 46° 29.4’ one would get 10.16206 plus the parts for .4 which is
5, so the complete answer would be 10.16206 plus 5 equals 10.16211.
Find the following functions of angles from the tables.

Cosine of 46° 3.8’ equals 9.84138 minus I1 gives 9.84127

Tans. 2. 46° 29.0) F 10:02250
Sine ,, 46° 48.2’ » 9.86271 plus 2 gives 9.86273

For angles of less than 4° the changes are so large that the minute column
under the degrees is divided into .2’ for each minute.
Examinees may be required to convert functions to angles, and to do
this the above process is reversed. First you find the appropriate column
80
in the tables for the function nearest to the one you require, looking
carefully at the index number of the log.
To find the angle of which 10.15875 is the secant the answer would be
46° 04.0’, or of which 9.86060 is the sine, it would be 46° 30.0’ (9.86056)
plus 4 for which the decimal part would be .3, so the answer would be
46° 30.3’.

Find the angles of the following.

Cosec. 10.13980 equals 46° 27.0’

Cotan. 9.97350 ,, 46° 44.0’ plus .8 gives 46° 44.8’
pccant 10164929 = 146 50,0" ) de 46%50.4"

Having now learned to use these tables the solution of two Mercator
sailing problems can be given.

1. To find the course and distance from A in Lat. 41° 36’ N Long. 5° 01’ W
to B in Lat. 60° 39’ N long. 38° 00’ W.

Remember the formula ie

Dyboe equals tangent of course.
or

Log. D. Long. minus log. DMP equals log. tan. co.

and
Dist.
equals secant of course
[Dee baite
or

BogaDct-equals doe. Dat: plus log; sec. co.

Set work out as follows:
Pato’ 414360 N MP 2733.97 Long. A 5° 01’ W
Lat-B- 602539’ N MP 4585.72 Long. B 38° 00’ W

De Eatlo> 030 N DMP 1851.75 D, Bong 32" 59° W

x 60 x 60
1143’N 1979’W

D. Long. 1979’ Log. 3.29645 D. Lat. 1143’ Log. 3.05805

DMP 1852’ Log. 3.26764 +Co. N 46° 54’ W pec, 10.16541

Log. tan. co. 10.02881 Log. Dist. 3.22346

Answers: Course N 46° 54’ W Distance 1673 miles. (See Fig 63)
81
 D. LONG 1979

1143
LAT
D.
\
\©

——
D.M.P.
1852

Fig 63 Diagrammatic solution of course and distance problem

2. A vessel steered 046° T for 1560 miles. If it sailed from Lat. 42° 10° N
Long. 37° 50’ W what was its position at the end of the run?
at.
To find D. Lat. Dee equals cos. co.

or
Log D. Lat. equals Log. Dist. + log cos. co.
D. Long.
To find D. Long. DMP equals tan. co.

or
Log. D. Long. equals Log. DMP + log tan. co.
Dist 1560" M Logs 3719313 hat. lett 42> 10° N’ MEP" 2779-49
Co. Ne 046° E Cos. 9.84177 «Do Lat. 18047 N
Dy lat. log” 3.03490" Latvin “60° 14° No IMP® “4535.13
DMP 1755.66
D. Lat. 1084’ N
equals 18° 04’ N
DMP 1756 Log. 3.24452 Long. left 37° 50’ W
Cop N46 Elan, JO01ISIO “Di Long, 30° 1878
D: Long. Log. 3.25968 Longin 7° 32> W
D; Long, 1313 E
equals 30° 18’ E

It will be seen that when adding together the log. of a number and the log.
of a trigonometrical function discard the 10 because the index of a log.
82
sine, tangent, etc. is increased by 10 to avoid a negative index. Similarly,
when subtracting two logs. to obtain the log. sine, tangent, etc. add 10 to
the index of the log. of the number from that which one is subtracting
(Fig 64). For example:
Log. sec. 46° 24.00’ 10.16139
Plus log. 110 2.04139
equals log. 2.20278
Answer: 159.5 (The 10 is discarded from the index
which otherwise would have been 12)
and by subtracting from the log. of 114.0 2.05691
the log. of LOODA 2.03522

one obtains the log. tan. 10.01869

which equals 46° 14.0’
(10 is added to the index)

D. LONG 1818

dwa
9st
1V1'd0
vs0l

Fig 64 Diagram showing solution of calculation of position at end of run

 Chapter 6 Nautical Astronomy
INTRODUCTION — DEFINITIONS — FIGURE DRAWING — USE OF
CHRONOMETER — SUN’S MERIDIAN PASSAGE — GREENWICH
MEAN TIME — USE OF THE NAUTICAL ALMANAC — FINDING
DEVIATION BY A BEARING OF THE POLE STAR, SUN ON THE MERIDIAN,
AMPLITUDE OR TRUE AZIMUTH.

Introduction
When out of sight of land a ship’s position can be found by means of
taking observations of the sun. As described in Chapter 4, which deals
with the use of the sextant, it is possible by measuring the vertical angle
of the sun to find a position at sea to a high degree of accuracy. By taking
bearings of the sun the deviation of the compass can be found at any time.

Definitions
A number of terms and definitions have been given already in Chapters 2
and 4 which apply to the work involved in nautical astronomy. The
remaining definitions that an examinee may be required to know are
given in this chapter. They must be memorised and their exact meaning
known for use in working various problems that may be set.

Apparent Time
This is measured by the true (or apparent) sun. Owing to the earth’s
varying distance from the sun as it progresses on its orbit around the sun,
the time at which the sun’s centre crosses the meridian of a fixed observer
between two successive transits (that is at apparent noon on two successive
days) alters slightly at each day, either earlier or later. It amounts to only
a few seconds each day but accumulates as the days pass until it amounts
to nearly 165 minutes.

Mean Time
As it would be impossible to construct a mechanical timepiece to keep
pace with the true (or apparent) sun during those periods throughout the
year when it slowed down or speeded up, the astronomers have devised a
mean sun, which moves along the equinoctial at a uniform rate equal to
the average rate of the true sun on the ecliptic. This is the time in general
use for all civil purposes, and a day is considered to last exactly 24 hours.
The equinoctal is the celestial equator.
84
Equation of Time
This is the difference in minutes and seconds between mean time and
apparent time. As mentioned above it changes very slowly from day
to
day, and the equation of time is given for 0000 hours and 1200 hours each
day in the Nautical Almanac. The reader should look at the extract of this
publication at the back of the book where it will be seen in the bottom
right hand corner of the page.

Prime Vertical
The vertical great circle (Fig 65) is that which passes through the observer’s
zenith and cuts the horizon at its true east and west points.

Fig 65 Prime vertical. NESW shows the rational horizon. Z is the observer's zenith. WZE
is the prime vertical NZS is the observer's meridian

Azimuth
This is the angle at the observer’s zenith between a celestial meridian drawn
through the observer’s position and a vertical circle through the centre
of the sun, measured from the elevated pole as illustrated in Fig 66.

NORTHERN HEMISPHERE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE

N

jee

To sun Ss
Fig 66 This illustrates the azimuth (see text for definition)

85
Celestial Concave
To understand nautical astronomy imagine an observer on the earth
looking outward into space and seeing the celestial bodies (sun, moon,
stars, planets, e/c) projected on the interior concave surface of the celestial
sphere. If a line is drawn outwards from the centre of the earth (Fig 67)
to the celestial body the point where the line passes through the surface
of the earth is the body’s geographical position Y at that moment oftime.

Fig 67 This figure explains the concept of the celestial concave in relation to the earth
and a celestial body (see text). X marks the celestial position of the body. WE is the earth's
equator. Y is the geographical position. WE marks the celestial equator and C indicates the
centre of the earth

Celestial Equator
The equator is a great circle drawn around the earth, midway between
the poles. If this great circle is extended to the celestial sphere it becomes
the celestial equator, or equinoctial as it is called.

Ecliptic
It has been shown already that the axis of the earth is not at right angles
to the path of its oribit around the sun, but that it is tilted about 234°
from the vertical. The orbit it makes is not a true circle but is slightly
elliptical in shape, and as a result of this the length of each day varies.
The varying seasons of the year are caused by the changing declination
of the sun.
To an observer on the earth the sun appears to rotate in an orbit about
the earth. This orbit, when projected on to the celestial sphere is known
as the ecliptic (Fig 68).
86
 CELESTIAL NORTH POLE

WINTER SOLSTICE
DECL 23'5°S
\ First point
‘ot Anes

CELESTIAL SOUTH POLE

Fig 68 Explains the ecliptic showing the apparent orbit of the sun round the earth as
projected on the celestial sphere

Local Hour Angle of the Sun (LHA)

This is the angle at the pole between the meridian of the observer and a
meridian through the geographical position of the sun’s centre, and it is
always measured westward from the observer’s meridian as in Fig 69.

~)@
Fig 69 Shows the local hour angle of the sun normally recorded as LHA

P. pole. PG Greenwich meridian, PO observer's meridian

PS meridian of the sun’s geographical position. Angle GPS equals GHA
and Angle OPS equals LHA.
87
 NORTH POLE

Suns Geographical
Position EQUATOR

Suns Declination
(North)

Fig 70 Sun’s geographical position

SOUTH POLE

Remember two simple formulae:

Long. W, Greenwich hour angle best
Long.E, Greenwich hour angle least
therefore LHA equals GHA minus west long
therefore LHA equals GHA plus east long.

Geographical Position of a Heavenly Body

This is the point on the surface of the earth over which it would be
directly overhead, and the latitude would correspond to its declination,
and its longitude would equal the Greenwich hour angle at that instant
(see drawing of celestial concave on page 86).

Position Line
In nautical astronomy the position line is a small portion of an are of a
small circle the centre of which is the geographical position of the sun
the radius being equal to the zenith distance of the sun. As the portion of
the arc is so small it can be drawn as a straight line at right angles to the
sun’s true bearing.

Fig 71 Records the position line (PL) of the observer in relation to the sun's true bearing

88
 As described previously the visual bearing of a shore light, or point of
land, is a position line at some point on which is the observer’s position
(Fig 71).

Declination
Due to the earth tilting at an angle of approximately 234° as it progresses
on its orbit around the sun the ‘latitude’ of the sun varies from day to
day, moving from a maximum of 23° 26.6’ N on June 21, to a maximum of
23° 26.6’S on December 21. The correct name given to this ‘latitude’ is
the Sun’s declination. If, for instance, one were in Lat. 18° 20’ N and on
that day the sun’s declination was given as 18° 20’ N it would be directly
over head at NOON. Declination is given for every hour (GMT) of each
day in the Nautical Almanac. Later is given the definition of a celestial
meridian and the celestial equator, so that in astronomical terms declina-
tion can be described as the arc of a celestial meridian between the
celestial equator and a small circle drawn parallel to this equator through
the sun. If the word ‘celestial’ is removed from this definition it will be
seen that it corresponds exactly to the definition of latitude, and therefore,
the declination of the sun corresponds to terrestrial latitude (Fig 72).

Ss Declination Ss

Fig 72 Demonstrates the declination of the sun. Z is the observer's zenith, WQE is the
equinoctial. O is the sun on the meridian. P is the elevated pole. QO is the sun's declination
north. NESW is the rational horizon. PO is the polar distance

Polar Distance (PD)

This is the arc of a celestial meridian between a small circle drawn
through a celestial body (such as the sun) and if the Decl. is north and one
is in a North Lat. the PD equals 90°—Decl., but if the Decl. is South the
PD equals 90° plus the Decl.
89
Greenwich Hour Angle of the Sun (GHA)
This is the angle between the meridian of Greenwich and a meridian
drawn through the geographical position of the sun’s centre at any
specific instant of time. It is always measured westward from Greenwich
and is given for every hour of GMT in the Nautical Almanac.
Such is the precise degree of accuracy of the passage of the earth around
the sun that it takes exactly 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes 46 seconds to
complete its orbit.

Fig 73. These twofigures demonstrate finding the Greenwich hour angle of the sun (GHA).
P is the north poles. O is the sun. PG is the Greenwich meridian. PS is the meridian of the
sun. The angle GPS or the arc GS equals the Greenwich hour angle (GHA)

Figure Drawing ;
To understand the actual working of the problems in nautical astronomy
it is always of great assistance to draw a figure to show how one arrives
at the answer. The method used is called the stereographic projection of
the celestial sphere on the plane of the rational horizon (see Fig 74a). A circle is
drawn which represents the rational horizon as a great circle on the celestial
concave, every point of which is 90° from the zenith of the observer. In other
words, if one were able to project oneself into the celestial sphere, rather like
an astronaut who has travelled beyond the sun, one would reach a position
directly above (the zenith) and would be looking down upon the earth from this
tremendous height, so that all the details of the celestial sphere and the sun
could be drawn within this circle to represent the data required in solving
problems in nautical astronomy.

To draw a sketch when the sun is not on the meridian would appear as
Fig 74b opposite (sun west of meridian).
X is the position of the sun on its daily path d’ O d from east to west
equal to its declination (north).
The positions of d d’ can be found by taking out the amplitude of the
sun which we shall work out later in this chapter.
90
 S
Fig 74a Stereographic projection to check working problems in nautical astronomy. In
Figure a the circle NESW represents the rational horizon. Z is the observer's zenith. NZS
is the observer's meridian. WZE is the prime vertical. P the elevated pole —/e the pole
visible from your latitude, north in this case. X is the sun on your meridian. WQE is the
equinoctial. QX is the sun's declination (north). QZ latitude. PX polar distance. SX true
altitude. ZX zenith distance

Fig74b This sketch illustrates the position when the sun is not on the meridian and the sun
is west of the meridian and east of the meridan

Angle ZPX is the sun’s hour angle.

Angle PZX is the azimuth of the sun.
When drawing these figures use a radius of 9/10 ins. so that every 10°
of arc can be plotted as 1/10 ins. For example if you wished to plot an
altitude of the sun on the meridian as 50° S you would measure 5/10 ins.
from S on the meridian.
To find the centre of the circle joining PX, first find by trial the position
on the meridian NZS whereby a circle can be drawn passing through the
points WPE and call it Y. From this point extend a line at right angles to
ZS which line is called a ‘locus’, and the centre of all meridians through P
91
 Locus

Fig 75a This illustrates further stage in the exercise fixing the centre of the meridian
somewhere on the locus

will be somewhere on the locus. By trial find the point on the locus where
the part of the great circle PX can be drawn.
If the sun was to the east of the observer’s meridian the locus would be
drawn to the westward using exactly the same methods. This is illustrated
below with the declination shown as south.

Ww ne E
d ‘
Qo
Eocus ay XI

Fig 75b Illustrates the position with the sun to the east of the meridian (see text)

Use of Chronometer
GMT (which is essential for position finding when out of sight of land)
is kept on board by a chronometer, which is an extremely accurately
constructed clock, specially designed and compensated for changes in
temperature. A chronometer is slung in gimbals like a compass and kept in
a box with a glass lid which is opened only when the chronometer has to
be wound, which should be daily, and at the same time each day.
92
 If a chronometer is not on board an accurate deck watch, or chrono-
meter watch, will be sufficient, provided its accuracy is checked daily by
means of time signals received by radio. A chronometer watch is wound by
means of the winding stem, like an ordinary watch.
To wind a chronometer turn the instrument gently upside down on its
gimbals and push aside a small dust cap beneath which is the aperture to
take the winding key. It is wound by turning in an anti-clockwise direction
of between 7 and 8 turns. A small hand on the dial of the chronometer
indicates when it is fully wound.
Never alter the hands of a chronometer. Any error should be noted in a
chronometer rate book each time the chronometer is checked with a
broadcast time signal. The error is found by comparing the chronometer
reading with the time signal. These radio time signals can be obtained
from all over the world, the details of such transmissions being obtained
from Vol 5 of the Admiralty List of Radio Signals. If the BBC time signals
are used remember it is the last dot which indicates the exact hour.
From the time signals received it is possible to calculate the daily rate
to find whether the chronometer is losing or gaining, and by multiplying
the number of days by the daily rate one can calculate the accumulated
rate to apply to the last error obtained by a time signal. For example, if on
October 3 the chronometer was 2 mins. 6 sec. slow of GMT and the daily
rate was 2 seconds losing, what would be the error on October 10?

Daily rate 2 sec. losing Error Oct. 3 2m 6s slow

No. of days 7 Accum. rate
Accum. rate 14 secs. losing losing plus 14s
Error Oct. 10 2m 20s slow

If it is found that the error is becoming too large the chronometer should
be returned to the maker’s agent for it to be re-set and corrected.

Sun’s Meridian Passage

On the bottom right hand side of the page from the Nautical Almanac
covering May 3, 4, 5, will be seen the time of the sun’s meridian passage
headed Mer. Pass. This is the Greenwich mean time at which the sun will
cross the Greenwich meridian on that day, and is also the local or ship’s
mean time in longitude east or west of Greenwich.

Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)

This is taken as standard all over the world, each day being divided into
24 hours, and the length of the hour never alters. It relates to the mean
time kept at the meridian of Greenwich 0° and is the time kept by the
93
chronometer as described earlier. All data in the Nautical Almanac
relates to GMT and will be used in the problems candidates will have to
solve. The GMT must always be obtained to enable one to go to the
Nautical Almanac and extract the data required.

In order to find the GMT one must learn to convert arc into time.
Longitude is expressed in arc, that is in degrees, minutes and seconds,
and at the back of this book is an extract from the Nautical Almanac
which shows how to convert arc into time. For example, in longitude
15° 30’ West is equal to | hour 2 minutes in time. From the conversion of
arc to time table it will be seen that 15° equals | hour 00 minutes, and on
the right hand side of the page 30’ equals 2 minutes.

Longitude west Greenwich time best

Longitude east Greenwich time least

Always remember that as the earth revolves from west to east a place
situated east of the Greenwich meridian 0° would be ahead in time of
Greenwich, and the GMT would be less. If west of Greenwich then the
GMT would be greater.
A chronometer will give the GMT without any calculations being
required, but in most examination problems in nautical astronomy it is
necessary to calculate what the GMT will be in order to take out the
necessary data from the Nautical Almanac.
Before proceeding further work a few more examples of conversion of
arc to time (work to the nearest minute).
I. bongs 8) 3)" West 2... Long. 12°48" W: 3, Long, 6° 22’ Bast
4. Long. 10° 55’ W. 5. Long. 9°41" E. 26, Long. 23750 Wr
> Longel0: 020 W. 8, Longs > 56° E:
Answers
Hours Minutes Hours Minutes Hours Minutes
l 0 36 an 0 51 ae 25
4 0 44 5 a) 39 Ciel 36
6 0 40 Se 10 24

GMT is necessary to observe a meridian altitude of the sun to find latitude,

that is when the sun is on the observer’s meridian and bearing exactly
south; that is when it has reached its maximum altitude. GMT is also
required at the time the sun is rising or setting in order to work an
amplitude.
On the bottom right hand side of the page from the Nautical Almanac
dated May 3, 4 and 5, will be seen the time of the sun’s meridian passage,
as indicated already. This is the GMT at which the sun crosses the
94
 Greenwich meridian. If one is on that meridian at that instant of time a
chronometer which is keeping GMT, would show the mean time that the
sun was on the meridian. If east or west of Greenwich the sun would be
on the observer’s meridian at the same Jocal or ship’s mean time, but it
would be necessary to apply the longitude in time to obtain the GMT
(see Fig 76).
Below are some examples showing local mean time of the Mer. Pass.
and the longitude, with the resultant GMT of Mer. Pass.

1. Longitude 12° W LMT Mer. Pass 1210

2 * IN 3058 - 5 Set ASS
3. u, 4° 45’ W a eel 200
4 ys ea booa if wee 14S.

Answers
I GMT 1258 =22GMTT1IG 3°GMT 12199 4°GMT 1136
No. I Illustrated
PG Greenwich Meridian
PO Observer’s Meridian
OG Arc. Long. 12° West equals 48 min. in Time
xX Sun on Observer’s Meridian
Mer. Pass. 1210 plus 48 min. equals 1258 GMT.

eo Xe

Fig 76 Securing local or ship’s mean time.

Use of Nautical Almanac

Extracts from the Nautical Almanac are given at the back of this book
sufficient to enable the reader to work the examples given in this, and the
following chapter. Remember that all times in the almanac relate to
GMT.
95
 Similar data can be obtained from various nautical publications which
are published annually.
For the purpose of the Department of Trade Examinations candidates
are required to know how to use the data contained in the Nautical
Almanac, and this includes altitude correction tables, daily ephemerides of
the sun (Greenwich hour angle, declination, Meridian passage, equation
of time, sunrise, sunset, twilight), conversion of arc to time, increments
and corrections, tables for interpolating sunrise, efc.
Practice being able to find the correct declination which is required for
working the various problems in nautical astronomy.
On the left hand side of the page for May 3, 4 and 5, is the column
headed sun, and a sub-heading of Dec. which is an abbreviation of
declination. If the Dec. for May 4 at 1800 hours is required (always use
the four figure notation in describing time, the first two figures relating
to the hours, and the last two are minutes) it would give 16° 08.9’ N.
This means that the sun is 16° 08.9’N of the equinoctial (or celestial
equator) and correspondingly the equator, so that in that latitude the
sun would be directly overhead at noon.
Look out the Dec. for the following dates and times:
1. May 4 2200 GMT equals 16° 11.8’ N
2. May 30600 _,, ee 8142S,
3. May50100 _,, go» .l6r TS9oN
4 May 31200. 4, Se Oy a aN
These have been taken for an even number of hours, but obviously this
would happen only on very rare occasions, and normally the GMT
would be in between the exact hour.
At the foot of the Dec. column will be seen a small ‘d’ with 0.7 beside
it. That shows by how much the Dec. changes each hour on the average
for that page. There are tables (increments and corrections) which can
give quickly and easily the change that takes place between the exact
hours for so many minutes. An extract is shown at the back of the book
for 44 mins. and 45 mins. and if, for example, it is required to know the
correction to apply to the Dec. on May 4 for 16 hrs. 44 mins. (1644) it
would be 16° 07.5’ N, and with the hourly change of 0.7’ the table gives
a correction of 0.5’. When applying this correction always look at the
next hour to see whether the Dec. is increasing or decreasing, and as in
this case it is increasing the 0.5’ is added, making the correct Dec. for
1644 GMT as 16° 08.0’ N.

Finding Deviation of the Compass by a Bearing of the Pole Star, Sun on

the Meridian, Amplitude.

The Pole star is situated close to the true north pole of the heavens, and a
96
bearing of it can be taken at any time during the hours of darkness to
check deviation on any heading. Although at certain periods of the night
it might be approximately 1° from the true north it gives a good approxi-
mate check on deviation.

The procedure is simple, because the bearing of the pole star is always
taken as 000° (or 360°) so that when a compass bearing is taken of it the
difference will be the error of the compass, and by applying the variation
to this the deviation can be obtained.
For example:

True bearing of pole star 000° True bearing of pole star 000°
Compass bearing 010° Compass bearing RPlom
Error 10°W Error 4°E
Var. 8° W Var. 2°W
Dev, 2°W Dev. 6°E

Always remember that error W. compass is best, and error E. compass is

least. Having found the error be very careful to name the Dev. correctly
when applying the Var. As an independent check apply the sum of the Var.
and Dev. to make sure that it comes to the same sum as the error (same
names add, different names subtract). If the Dev. is named incorrectly it
will show immediately.
The pole star can be found by looking towards the north at an elevation
equal to the observer’s latitude. The following sketch of the Great Bear
will assist (Fig 77).

oe Great Bear ~

Fig 77 Finding the Pole Star

97.
 Sun on the Meridian
When the sun is on the observer’s meridian at noon in northern latitudes
it will always bear true south, or 180°. If a bearing is taken of it at this
moment the difference between the true bearing and the bearing observed
by compass would give the compass error. As in the previous problem by
applying the Var. to the error the Dev. can be found (Fig. 78).
For example:
True bearing of the sun 180° True bearing of the Sun 180°
Compass bearing 188° Compass bearing 174°
Error 8°W Error GE
Var. 7°W Var. 1°W
Dev. 1°W Dev. ea

\
OT 7 0

Fig 78 Naming the error when the Sun is on the meridian

Sun on Observer's Meridian

Reaches Maximum Altitude.

Fig 79 Sun on the meridian, maximum altitude

98
 Sunon Meridian
(Maximum Altitude)
Sun dipping after reaching
Maximum Altitude
Fig 80 Sun dipping

Amplitude
When a bearing is taken of the sun rising or setting it is called an ampli-
tude, and it is actually the angle between the east point and the body when
rising, and the west point and the body when setting. As the refraction
of the sun is considerable at these times, to take a bearing of the sun’s
centre as it rises or sets it must be taken when the lower limb of the sun is
half its diameter above the horizon as in Fig 81.

Horizon

Fig 81 Amplitude—setting or rising sun—must register half a diameter above the

horizon

When working an amplitude problem examinees are given the latitude

and longitude, both of which are required to complete the solving of the
problem. Sometimes candidates are given the GMT or the LMT at the
time of the sunrise or sunset, but if not, one can obtain the local mean
time of sunrise or sunset for the relative latitude from the Nautical
Almanac. \t will be seen from the page at the back of the book covering
May 3, 4, 5, that the times given differ according to latitude. If the
latitude does not correspond exactly to that given in the tables it must be
interpolated to get the correct time of the sunrise or sunset. It is quite a
simple exercise to do this, but if any difficulty is encountered there is a
table in the Nautical Almanac to assist in the interpolation.
Having found GMT by applying the longitude in time to the LMT
of sunrise or sunset (given in the problem or found from the Nautical
Almanac) then enter the almanac to find the correct declination.
With the latitude and the correct Dec. turn to the true amplitude
table, given at the back of this book, and using the Dec. at the top of the
page and the Lat. at the side, read the figure where these two factors meet
in the relevant column. This figure gives the true amplitude of the sun
99
when it is rising or setting, and if this is converted to the true bearing and
compared with the compass bearing taken at that time, the difference
will be the error of the compass. By applying the Var. to this the Dev.
will be found as in the previous problems.
The most important point to remember in the working of an amplitude
problem is the actual naming of the true amplitude obtained from the
tables. The rule is to name it east if rising, and west if setting, followed by
the same name as the Declination. For example, if it is found that the
Sun’s True Amplitude from the table was 24° when rising, and the Dec.
was North for that day, the bearing would be given as E 24° N. Again,
if the true amplitude of the sun’s setting was 14° and the Dec. was south,
it would be given as W 14° S (Fig 82).
In order to compare the True bearing with the Compass bearing it is
necessary to change the figure obtained from the amplitude table into the
three figure notation. For example, E 24° N would be that number of
degrees to the north of east, and as east is 090° it would be 090°-24°
equals 066° which is expressed in the correct three figure notation.
Study the following examples:
W 10° N equals 270° plus 10° equals 280°
W 20°S ~ AINE saan 20)" ie 250°
E-10°S =» O90? splus: 10" Be 100°
Ee 1 52N ~~ 090° minus 15> az 075°

5
Ww ie E
E 24°N

S
A

Ww 7 a E
Gr | W14°S

S
Fig 82 Diagram to name true amplitude (see text)

100
Candidates will be required to work these problems to decimal points,
and the two following examples are given to show how this is done.
On May 4 in Estimated position 50° N 5° W at 0600 GMT the sun
rose bearing 072° by compass. Find the compass error and deviation for
the direction of the ship’s head, the Var. being 4° W
May 4 1972
G.M.T. 0600 True bearing from amplitude table 25.4
Dec. 16° 00.3’ N. Named east because rising and north because
Lat. 50° N the declination is north
True Amp. E 25.4°N_ Subtract from
90°
Brg. 064.6° True
Var. 4°W

068.6° Mag.
072.0 Comp.

Dev. es AW

Variation is added because it is west, and as the compass bearing is

greater (best) than the Magnetic bearing, the Deviation must be west
(error west, compass best).
Now for an example where the GMT is not given and has to be found.
On May 4 in E.P. 52° N 10° W the sun set bearing 291° by compass.
Find the compass error and the deviation for the direction of the ship’s
head, the variation being 9° W.
May 4 1972
Mean time sunset Lat. 52° N 1930 True ampl. W 26.6°N West because
Long. in Time 10° W plus 40. 2702 setting and

GMT 2010 Brg. 296.6°T North as declina-

Dec. 16° 10.4 N Var. 9.0°W tion
Iban, SOY INE Mag. bear. 305.6°M
Compsbears 291 €

Deviation 14.6°E

In the examination candidates are required to work to the nearest U.5 of

a degree, and it needs interpolation between the degrees of /atitude and
declination to attain this. By careful working, one can obtain an answer
to the nearest decimal point, and this degree of accuracy should be
attempted (Fig. 83).
For example, in lat. 49° N dec. 164 N the correct figure required would
be between 16° and 17°, or 24.9° and 26.5°, as will be seen from the tables.
To interpolate here one would subtract one from the other and divide
by two, adding the result to the /esser figure.
101
 Divide by 2 1.6°

249° plus 8 “equals 2577

S
Fig 83. Test diagram for amplitude (see detail in following text)

Diagram showing the sun rising in Lat. 50° N with Dec. 10° N.
NESW Rational horizon
V4 Observer’s zenith
NS Meridian through this point
P Elevated pole
WQE Equinoctial
dd’ Circle of declination
O Sun rising
Angle EZO_ True amplitude
Finding Deviation of the Compass by True Azimuth of the Sun
The azimuth of the sun is the angle at the observer’s zenith between the
observer’s meridian and a vertical circle through the centre of the sun
measured from the elevated pole, and to find this the value of the following
three factors are required.

1. Latitude 2. Declination of the sun 3. The local hour angle of the

sun
NESW Rational horizon
Zi Observer’s zenith
NS Meridian through this point
P Elevated pole
WQE Equinoctial
x Sun’s position on its circle of declination dd’
RT Vertical circle through X
Angle PZX is the azimuth of X
Angle ZPX is the hour angle
102
 Fig 84 Finding compass deviation by the sun’s true azimuth (for detail see text)

The Lat. would be given in an examination problem, but in practice

one’s own latitude would be known. The Dec. would be obtained from
the Nautical Almanac as learned previously.
Candidates are required to know their GMT which could be given in
the problem, or obtained from their chronometer at the moment of time a
compass bearing of the sun is taken. If LMT is given then by applying
the Long. (in time) to this the GMT can be found.
Having obtained GMT by any of the above methods turn to the
Nautical Almanac and find the Greenwich hour angle (GHA) of the sun
for that GMT. Look at the page covering May 3, 4 and 5, and under the
column headed SUN will be seen the GHA given for every hour. In the
tables increments and corrections are given for the change in the GHA
for every minute and second between each hour, so that if it is required
to know the GHA for May 3 at 19 hr. 45 min. 30 sec. GMT it would be
taken out for 19 hrs. which equals 105° 48.1’. For 45 min. 30 sec. the
change is 11° 22.5’ which is always added to the GHA for the hour.
GHA for 19 hrs. 105° 48.1’
Correction for 45 m 30s 11° 22.5'
Correct GHA for 19-45-30 117° 10.6’

Having found the correct GHA for the GMT apply to it the Long. (in
arc) to obtain the local hour angle (LHA). How this is done is explained
in the definition of LHA earlier in this chapter, but to make sure the
formula is firmly in mind it is repeated here.
LHA equals GHA minus west long.
LHAS,. ,», lus east long.
Two examples are given here:
GHA 315° 47.5’ in longitude 8° 42’ W the LHA would be 315° 47.5’
minus 8° 42’ equals 307° 5.5’.
103
GHA 60° 47.9’ in longitude 5° 10’ E the LHA would be 60° 47.9’ plus
> 10sequals 65° 57,9".
With the three factors Lat. Dec. and LHA turn now to the ABC tables
which are published in Norie’s, an extract of which is at the back of this
book.
Table A is entered with the LHA at the top or bottom of the page, and
the Lat. at the sides. The rules for naming the figure obtained from this
table are set out in each margin of the page. For example, in Lat. 50° N
LHA 46° W from Table A a figure of 1.15, would be obtained and it
would be named south (opposite to the Lat.). From Table B with the
same LHA and a Dec. of 15° N would give .37, which is named north,
the same name as the Dec.
Set these figures out as follows: A. 1.158
B. —.37 N
C.- 0313.5
The rule is: same names add, different names subtract, to find the value of
C. If in any doubt about how to name C instructions are given clearly at
the bottom of the page in Table C.
With C in our example equalling 0.78 S taken from either the top or the
bottom of the page, and with Lat. 50° N we obtain the figure of 63.4°
(in using the ABC Tables if the exact Lat. Dec. and LHA, or factor C
are not given, one must interpolate).
The true azimuth takes the combined names of C and the hour angle
so that 63.4° would become S 63.4° W, because C is named south and the
hour angle is west. Changing this into the three figure notation it becomes
243.4°. If, in this case, the compass bearing of the sun had been 255°
and the Var. 9° W the error of the compass and the Dev. would have
been found as follows.
True bearing 243.4°
Compass bearing 255°
Error 11.6° W
Var. 9.0° W
Dev. 2.6° W
In naming the hour angle remember that if it exceeds 180° it should be
subtracted from 360° and named east to obtain the correct naming of the
azimuth.
Another way to remember this is as follows: the hour angle is west if
between 0° and 180°, and east between 180° and 360°. Another important
point to remember is that the figure taken from the ABC tables called the
azimuth is really a true bearing in quadrantal notation.
104
 Chapter 7 Nautical Astronomy (continued)

FINDING LATITUDE BY MERIDIAN ALTITUDE OF THE SUN —

POSITION LINES (CELESTIAL AND TERRESTRIAL) — USE OF POSITION
LINES.

Finding Latitude by Meridian Altitude of the Sun

Having studied in previous chapters the terms and definitions required to
solve this problem, one must now learn how to apply them. Using the data
from the Nautical Almanac at the back of this book find the latitude given
the following details:
On May 4 1972 in DR position 49° 10’ N 8° 00’ W the sextant altitude
of the sun’s lower limb, when on the meridian, was 56° 48’ bearing south.
Height of eye 17 feet, index error 1’ on the arc.
Set work out in the following order and get into the habit of putting
down all the necessary details in a methodical manner so that at the
examinations the examiner can follow the working, in order to see how
the answer was obtained.

May 4 1972

LMT Mer. Pass 1157 Sextant alt. 56° 48’ South

Long. in time W plus oy Index error —1.0

GMT 1229 Observed alt. 56° 47.0

ae : Corr. for dip. — 4.0
Declination 1200 | 16° 04.6N Apparent alt. 56° 43.0
d’ 0.7 correction plus 0.3 Correction plus 15.3

Correct declination 16° 04.9N True alt. 56° 58.3’ S

90°
Zenith distance Ba Olea
Declination 16° 04.9 N

Latitude 49° 6.6’°N

Notes on the working.

(a) Mer. Pass. was 1157, and adding Long. in time (Long. west Greenwich
time best) gives GMT 1229.
105
(b) Dec. for 1200 hours GMT is 16° 04.6’ N and for the odd 29 minutes
as little ‘d’ was 0.7, and as 29 min. equals 0.5 of an hour, 0.7 x 0.5
equals 0.35 (say 0.3) added as the Dec. is increasing.

(Cc) As the index error was 1’ on the arc subtract this from the sextant
altitude. For the Dip correction look in the column headed DIP and
with height of eye 17’ the correction is minus 4.0’ (be very careful to
take this from the correct column because height of eye is given in
both metres ‘m’ and feet ‘ft’).

(d) After applying Dip look for the correction under SUN. Be sure you
look at the correct column for the month in which you take the
observation, also, whether you have taken the lower limb of the sun
or the upper limb, because the first correction is plus, and the second
is minus.

(e) Having found the true altitude subtract it from 90° and obtain the
zenith distance, not forgetting it is named the opposite to the bearing
of the sun.

(f) To the ZD apply the Dec., same names add, different names subtract,
and the result will be the /atitude; named N or S the same as the
greater of the two.
A simple problem to work provided careful attention is given to detail and
the rules about adding and subtracting is remembered.
Note. In some problems the DR latitude is not always given.
On May 4 1972 in DR Long. 2° 00’ E the sextant altitude of the sun’s
lower limb, when on the meridian, was 57° 10’ bearing south. Height of
eye 1S feet, widex error 1° on the arc.

May 4 1972
LMT Mer. Pass 1157 Sextant alt. 57° 10’ South
Long. in time E minus —8& Index error =]

GMT 1149 Observed alt. 57° 09’

Declination 1100 16° 03.9'N Corr. for dip. —4,|
‘df 0.7 correction plus 0.6 Apparent alt. 57° 04.9
Correct declination 16° 04.5'N Correction plus 15.4

True alt. Oe 2ORBES

90°
Zenith dist. 82 SORTIN
Declination 16° 04.5 N

Latitude 48° 44.2'N

106
Notes on the working

(a) Mer. Pass. was 1157 and subtracting Long. in time (Long. east,
Greenwich time least) gives GMT 1149.
(b) Dec. for 1100 GMT was 16° 03.9’ N and for the odd 49 minutes as
little “d* was 0.7 for the change in one hour, and 49 minutes equals
0.8 of an hour, 0.7 x 8 equals 0.56 (say 0.6), added as the Dec. is
increasing.
(c) As the IE was |’ on the arc, it is to be subtracted from the Sextant
Angle. For the Dip correction, in the column headed DIP it will be
seen that 18 ft. lies between 17.4 ft and 18.3 ft. the correction, therefore,
is minus 4.1’.
(d) With an apparent altitude of 57 degrees 04.9’ look at the correction
for the lower limb in the column headed April-Sept., and it will be
seen that it lies between 57° 02’ and 61° 51’, giving a correction of
plus 15.4’,
(e) With the true altitude subtracted from 90° obtain the ZD 32° 39.7’ N
(named north, opposite to the sun’s bearing south).
(f) To the ZD apply the Dec. (same names add) which gives the latitude.
Fig 85 illustrates the working of these two problems. S© = Alt. ZO =
Zenith distance. OO) = Decl. OZ = Lat.

If the same problem had been worked in the Southern Hemisphere with the
sun bearing North of the observer the working would show as follows

Sextant alt. 57° 10’ North

Index error =|

Observed alt. 57° 09'

Corr. for dip. =ahil

Apparent alt. 57° 04.9

Correction plus 15.4

True alt. SP HOLS IN|

90°

Zenith dist. Bye ST

Declination 16° 04.5 N

Latitude iG? 25.24 8

A simple problem sometimes given in the examination is to find the

clock or chronometer time (GMT) of the sun’s meridian passage. First,
take the time of the Mer. Pass. from the Nautical Almanac for that day,
and then apply the Long. in time. For example, if one was in Long. 12° W
and the Mer. pass. was given as 1210, the GMT at the time of the sun’s
107
 S
Fig 85 Finding latitude by meridian altitude of the sun NESW is the rational horizon;
Z is observer's zenith, WQE is the equinoctial; WZE is the prime vertical; O is the Sun on
the meridian; NZS is the observer's meridian; P the elevated pole; SO is the altitude of the
sun; OZ is the zenith distance; OQ is the sun’s declination; ZQ is the latitude of the
observer; OP is the polar distance

Mer. pass. at that position would be 1210 plus 48 mins. (Long. 12° W in
time) equals 1258 GMT.

Position Lines (Celestial and Terrestrial)

CELESTIAL
Having learned to find latitude by means of an observation of the sun
when it is on the meridian, one must now learn how to find one’s position
by observations of the sun when it is out of the meridian.
The previous chapter explained how to use the ABC tables to find the
true bearing of the sun (or azimuth) and aposition line of the sun is drawn
at right angles to the bearing (Fig. 86).

Les

Fig 86 Shows the sun's true bearin in relati

g on to the positio
n
line. O is the sun. PL is
the position line; and the sun's true bearing is at right angles to that line

108
 When taking the meridian altitude of the sun at noon to find Lat. the
position line would run east and west, at right angles to the sun’s true
bearing, which is 180° when it is on the meridian south. Although this
would give latitude, longitude would not be known unless another position
line was available to cross with it, taken from an earlier observation (or
later) and transferred as in a ‘running fix.’
To work this type of problem we use what is called the Intercept Method.
The formula is named after the navigator who devised it, Marc St Hilaire.
The observed altitude is corrected to obtain the true altitude, which,
subtracted from 90°, gives the zenith distance, which is known as the true
zenith distance (TZD). Using an assumed (or DR or estimated position)
position, and by means of the Marc St Hilaire formula (see page 110)
work out the calculated zenith distance (CZD). The difference between
these two is the intercept.
1. The DR position is given for a problem.
2. With the GMT given find the correct Dec. and GHA.
3. Using the DR long. apply it to the GHA to find the LHA.
4. Correct the observed altitude to obtain the true altitude, and thence
the true ZD(TZD).
With the LHA and Dec find the true azimuth from the ABC tables.
SS Using the Marc St Hilaire formula described below, find the calculated
zenith distance (CZD) and thence the intercept.
7. To the DR position given in the problem apply the D. Lat. and the
D. Long. using Traverse Tables with the bearing and intercept as the
course and distance to find the position through which the position
line is drawn. When the TZD and the CZD have been found learn
that if the TZD is greater than the CZD the intercept is away from the
Sun (A), and if the TZD is smaller (or tinier) than the CZD the
intercept is towards the Sun (T), Think of TTT TRUE TINIER
TOWARDS.
Study the drawing (Fig. 87) and it will be seen why this is so, and why it is
important to name the bearing in reverse if the intercept is away.
PA

x| Intercept EP
away =)

’
L
Fig 87 Use of the intercept method is illustrated (see text) O is the sun. EP the estimated
position. EP—O the true bearing of the sun; EP—X is the intercept away. PXL is the
position line

109
 O Sun
EP Estimated position (DR position)
EP—O True bearing of sun
EP—xX Intercept away
PXL Position line
To work the problem of finding the calculated zenith distance (CZD) use
the following mathematical formula. Learn the formula thoroughly which
conforms to a set of rules based on the solution of spherical triangles.
Marc St Hilaire formula to find the CZ D
What is required is the LHA, latitude and declination, then the value of
the difference between the Lat. and Dec. (when of the same name the
difference is found by subtraction (SS) and when of different names by
addition).
LHA Log. haversine
Lat. Log. cosine
Dec. Log. cosine
Total of sum equals Log. haversine
Change to Natural haversine
(Difference) Lat. and Dec. (Natural haversine___|
Add the two: equals (Natural haversine of CZD
Now follow the working of the actual sum given the following factors:
LHA 60° 20’ W DR Lat. 46° 52’ N Long. 41° 50’ W Dec. 10° 09’ N 62° 35’.
LHA 60° 20’ W_ Log. hav. 9.40230
Lat. 46° 52’N Log. cos. 9.83487
Dec, 10°. 09° N, Log.cos/9.99315
Log. havy..9:23032
Change to Nat. hav. 0.16996
(Lat. minus Dec.) 36° 43’ Nat. hav. 0.09920 Lat. and Dec. same
names subtract
CZD Nat. hav. 0.26916

C7) 62° 30.

TZD 62°35"

Intercept 4.8 Away

Using the tables A, B and C from Norie’s Tables we calculate C to be .41 S.
From table C at the back of this book will be found the true bearing to be
S 74.4° W. South because C is named south and west because the LHA is
west.
Having obtained the true bearing now lay this off through the
DR
Position 46° 52’ N, 41° 50’ W, and from this position away from the sun
110
measure off 4.8 miles, and through this position draw a position line at
right angles to the true bearing. Normally, this would be laid off on the
chart, but at the examination candidates may be required to lay it off
on squared paper. Plot the DR position, and along the bearing (or the
reverse if the intercept is away) of the sun, measure off the distance by
counting the number of squares as miles. From this position count the
number of squares vertically which will be equal to the D. Lat, and the
number of squares horizontally will be the Dep. which must be changed
into D. Long. by use of the Traverse Tables.
Below are some examples of plotting position lines by use of a chart
(Fig 88) and on squared paper (Fig. 89 overleaf).

3B
>Sb

40
Intercept Intercept
towards (T) away (A)
4

Fig 88 An example of plotting position lines by using a chart

The type of problem involving two separate observations of the sun

with a run in between means that from the first estimated position (or DR
position) lay off the intercept and through this position draw the first
position line. From this lay off the course and distance steamed, at the
end of which will be the second estimated position. The second bearing of
the sun, with the intercept, is then plotted through this estimated position.
The first position line is then transferred (as in a running fix) through the
second estimated position. Where it cuts the second position line is the
ship’s position.
111
 No intercept

Towards

Fig 89 Positions plotted on squared paper

TERRESTRIAL POSITION LINES

In some problems a celestial position line is worked out as previously
described, and a terrestrial position line is given by means of the bearing
of a lighthouse, or a point of land, and the plotting of this on the chart is
done in exactly the same way as a ‘running fix’, examples of which are
next shown. In all these examples ‘F’ is the final position.

Intercept
towards

Fig 90 Plotting position lines

112
 1s
BIGBURY BAY
‘
‘ 17
ay 2r - 20
= os! 16
18
19
20 46

Ig
17
9 19 =
18 GSh
16
14
9 20 R

16
R 17
14 = 15
(76 7
1s
yarn a 13
East eg NR a- 1s < =
24 Pe \ 14
Sone, R
5 my: 413
MY" nn} lyoz QR AR : 13 Col ur s&
i 120°
yy
~ x 18 --\
R oe
aes =
27 fi 110; y;
Tp SIS age
"ly us
vi

XA Run between bearings 4 -

awe \ 17 1
a F Observed position \I6 ds e
lin Wn, ae F M Feed
ete dl L Pp’! Transferred position line Ny :
BC Bearing of Bolt Tail i Pee a Q
Sans
S 26 i
Seis 6G
=O bh
21 { 16%, 26 a
=e We DERN, 22

= ae af of.
6 Z wa NE

Fig 91 Terrestrial position lines crossed with a celestial position line

Fig 92 Celestial positions applied to squared paper

113
 Chapter 8 Ship Stability
DEFINITIONS AND TERMS USED—UNDERSTANDING OF GENERAL
PRINCIPLES.

The stability of a ship depends upon the factors which tend to return it to
its normal position of flotation, whenever it is moved from that position
by forces such as wind and sea. With a floating object such as a ship the
volume of water it displaces is equal to the immersed part of the ship, and
the weight of the whole ship is equal to the weight of the amount of water
displaced.
However well a fishing boat may be designed and constructed, it is the
skipper’s responsibility to ensure that she is always in a stable and sea-
worthy condition.
The chapter is designed to give a practical outlook concerning stability,
but calculations and theory must be left to larger and more sophisticated
text books on the subject. This advanced knowledge is normally only
required for higher fishing certificates.

Definitions
Centre of Buoyancy (B). This is the geometrical centre of the underwater
part of a ship. The force of buoyancy acts vertically upwards through the
centre of buoyancy. When a ship heels, B moves to the low side in a line
parallel to the lines joining the centres of gravity of the emerged and
immersed wedge portions of the huli as illustrated below.

W.L. water line B-—B' movement of

centre of buoyancy
C.L. centre line

Fig 93 Illustrating movement of centre of buoyancy

114
 Centre of Gravity (G). This is the centre of the total weight of a ship and
every item on board, and it is the point about which the ship would
balance (see Fig 94). Also, it can be defined as the point through
which all
the weight of a ship is considered to act vertically downwards. G moves
directly towards the centre of gravity of any weight added to a ship,
and
directly away from the centre of gravity of any weight removed from
a ship. It is essential to learn this basic principle as it will help to understand
the measures required in dealing with the stability of a fishing boat.
G also moves parallel to any weights moved on board, such as from the
centre line to the sides of a boat.

Fig 94 Centre of gravity of a vessel

Displacement. This is the actual weight of the ship and all its contents at
any time, and as a floating body displaces its own weight of water it means
that displacement is equal to the weight of water actually displaced by the
ship (Fig 95).

Displacement

Fig 95 Illustrating displacement and draft

Draft. This is the depth of the bottom of the ship’s keel below the surface
of the water. Draft measurements must be read at the extreme ends of a
fishing boat. If the draft is the same at each end the boat is on an even
5 IVS:
keel but if one reading differs from the other the boat is ‘trimmed’ either
by the head or the stern according to the readings. In reading the draft
remember that the lower edge of the figure represents the reading in feet
(or in the future metres).
Metacentre (M). The point at which a vertical line drawn upwards
through the centre of buoyancy at a small angle of heel (up to about 15°)
meets the ship’s centre line is the metacentre.
Metacentric height (GM). This is the distance between the centre of
gravity G and the metacentre M. It is called ‘positive’ when G is below M,
and ‘negative’ if G is above M. If negative the boat would be in a state of
unstable equilibrium (see Fig. 96).

Fig 96 Showing metacentric height

Freeboard. This is the distance from tne deck line to the water line.
The continuous deck from which it is measured is called the freeboard
deck.

Inertia. This is the resistance of a body to motion or to a change of

direction. It requires a certain amount of force to overcome inertia as a
stationary body will resist any attempt to move it, or if it is moving to
change its speed or direction.
Initial Stability. This is the statical stability of a ship at a small angle of
heel, and is indicated by GM (Metacentric height). If the GM is large the
ship could be ‘stiff’ and if small the ship could be ‘tender’. Normally
it would not give any real indication as to how a fishing boat would
behave at angles of heel beyond that used to find the Metacentre (M).
A ‘stiff ship returns quickly to its upright position and creates an
uncomfortable motion for those living on board, and also places a
strain on gear and fittings such as the mast, etc. A ‘tender’ ship is slow
to return to an upright position and if subjected to excessive outside
116
pressures, such as wind or seas, could develop a serious list. or even cap-
size. Without calculations to find the GM one can only ‘feel’ statical
Stability of a boat. Whether one considers a boat to be ‘stiff’ or ‘tender’
must depend upon experience. Each new fishing boat is supplied with
stability details by the builders. These should be understood and one
should find out what can or cannot be carried on board and where it should
be stowed.
Range of Stability. This is defined as the angular range over which a
boat will have positive statical stability. It indicates the angle to which a
boat could heel before she would capsize. It is not possible to relate
initial stability with the range of stability and the two cannot be connected.
The range of stability can be increased considerably by an added amount
of freeboard.
Reserve Buoyancy. This is the volume of a ship’s hull, between the water
line and the freeboard deck, illustrated in Fig 97.

Reserve |buoyancy
Va ees Be | ET od NA fs ot
Freeboard

Draft

Fig 97 Showing reserve buoyancy

Righting lever. This is measured by the length of a horizontal line

between the centre of gravity G and the vertical line through the centre of
buoyancy B. It will be seen from Fig 98 how the amount of GM affects the
righting lever GZ, or how the movement of G can increase or decrease the
size of GZ (see Fig 98 overleaf).

Stable equilibrium. A fishing boat is said to be in stable equilibrium

when, if heeled over by some external force, it would try to return to an
upright position. In effect, it means that for small angles of heel she has a
positive GM, and for any angle of heel the righting lever GZ is on the
low side of the boat. Fig 99 shows varying angles A B and C affecting
equilibrium.
ly)
 Fig 98 Righting lever

Neutral equilibrium. If a fishing boat, heeled by some external force,

had no tendency to return to the upright or to heel still further, she is
said to be in neutral equilibrium. This would occur when G and M
coincide. (B).
Unstable equilibrium. A fishing boat would be in a state of unstable
equilibrium when, if inclined by some external force, she would heel over
still further, and may possibly capsize. For small angles of heel a boat
would have to have a negative GM, and the righting lever GZ would be
on the high side (see sketch C). For larger angles of heel this is not
necessarily so as B could move further outward and eventually become
vertically under G. At the larger angle of heel a boat may once again
become stable but would be in the condition known as ‘loll’, that is she
would oscillate (swing like a pendulum) about this new position when
affected by external forces.
Free surface liquids. \f a compartment or tank on a fishing boat is filled
completely with water or oil the effect upon stability is the same as that of
a solid, and would have the same effect upon the centre of gravity G as any
other weight added. However, if the compartment or tank is only partially
filled with liquid the surface of that liquid is free to move when the boat
heels over. A partially filled tank is described as being ‘slack’ and if the
boat is heeled the liquid will move to the low side. Free surface water or
oil can build up in tanks, fishrooms, fish pounds, bilges, accommodation,
and on deck when scuppers and wash ports have become blocked. The
effect of free surface liquid is virtually to move the centre of gravity of a
boat upwards to a dangerous extent. The centre of gravity of the liquid is
transferred to the low side of the boat G' which reduces the righting
lever GZ and has the same effect as if G had moved up to G? in the
figure below.
118
 (A) (B)

(C)
Fig 99 Showing stable equilibrium in (A) neutral equilibrium in (B) and unstable
equilibrium in (C) of diagram

As stated earlier if G moves upwards it reduces the GM and thence

initial stability. The effect of free surface liquids does not depend so much
upon the quantity of liquid in the tank or compartment as upon the
actual area of the free surface liquid, or the waterplane as it is called. The
free surface effect of a few inches of liquid could be the same as if there
were several feet of liquid in the same tank or compartment (see Fig 100).

Fig 100 Effect of free surface liquids is shown here

19
 The smaller the tank or area the less effect free surface liquids will have
upon stability, and by dividing a tank in half with a fore and aft bulkhead
it will reduce the effect to one quarter, and if the tank is sub-divided by
two fore and aft bulkheads it will reduce the effect to one ninth, as
compared with that of an open undivided tank or compartment.
Tanks should be either empty or full, but obviously, this is not always
practicable, and the fitting of one or more fore and aft bulkheads will
always reduce the effect of free surface liquids.
In stability calculations the height of the metacentre (nor the metacentric
height which is indicated by GM) and the centre of gravity is indicated by
their height above the keel K. KM and KG are used to indicate these
heights.
It will have been seen from the diagrams in this chapter that in a stable
ship the metacentre is above the centre of gravity, and the centre of
buoyancy is below it. Remember MGB which can stand for

Motor
Gun
Boat in this order.

The initial GM in a boat’s light condition will be given in the plans and
details handed over by the builders when a boat is completed. M will
remain constant but G can move up or down or sideways according to
the distribution of weights around the boat. While the GM varies accord-
ing to the design of each fishing boat, about |.5—2.0 feet can be taken as the
normal when a boat is in a stable condition.
If too much weight is placed high up in a fishing boat G will move
upwards towards M and GM will be reduced. If weight is removed from
below G it will again move upwards. A number of fishing boats have
been lost in the past because of a lack of knowledge of what happens
when weights are added or removed on board, and the effect of the shift
of G.
To summarise the causes of instability:

1 Weights may be placed too high in a fishing boat when fish or shell-
fish is being handled, and eventually cause a negative GM to appear.
2 Fuel, water, oil and stores used at sea may be taken from positions
low down in the ship below G, causing G to rise with the result a
negative GM is formed.
3 Unexpected weights may be added high up, such as ice accretion on
the masts, rigging, bridge and upper works.
4 The effect of free surface liquids in slack tanks, or compartments, or
on deck.
Instability can lead to a negative GM and the cure for this always must be
120
to lower the centre of gravity, but in doing this care must be taken not to
make a dangerous situation even worse. Adding weight as low as possible
and removing it from as high as possible should be the guiding rule.
Taking the following actions can assist in eliminating or rectifying the
above causes of instability:

| Filling a tank is one practical method (some larger fishing boats are
fitted with double bottom tanks for the carriage of water ballast or
oil). If this tank is subdivided at the centre line commence filling the
low side first, and when this is about two thirds full commence filling
the high side. The boat might list slightly more at the beginning but
the overall effect will be to lower G, whereas if the tank was filled
the high side first, the boat might heel over suddenly and
violently from one side to the other, with the possibility of capsizing.
2 Never pump out a lower tank or double bottom tank to correct a
boat heeling because this could cause G to rise still further.
3 Any fish, or shellfish stowed on deck should be put below into the
fish holds as quickly as possible, or if the situation is urgent and
dangerous it should be jettisoned.
4 Remove ice accretions, always starting at the highest point.
5 Clear all free surface water from accommodation, decks, fish pounds,
fish rooms and bilges.
6 All loose gear or drums of lubricating oil, stores, efc., should be
stowed below decks, and as low down as possible.

Fig 101 illustrates some of the measures to be taken (see next page).
If a fishing boat is initially stable and develops a ‘List’ because of the
distribution of weights on board this can be corrected in three different
ways:

1 Move weight from the low side towards the high side.
2 Add the equivalent weight on the high side.
3 Remove the weight from the low side (or from the off centre position).

If, on the other hand, a fishing boat is initially unstable and heels over
this must be corrected by entirely different means. A boat is said to be in
a state of ‘loll’ when this happens but some examiners dislike the use of
this term and prefer ‘in a state of unstable equilibrium’, a definition given
previously.

1 Move weight from high up to low down in the boat.

2 Add additional weight low down in the boat.
3 Remove weights which are high (eg ice on rigging, fish or shellfish
piled high on deck).
4 Reduce the amount of free surface water.
121
 /F Empty water
from fish pounds

Fitted subdivided tanks

fill lower side first

Clear scuppers
and wash ports

Get weight
(W) below

Empty water
from fish hold

Fill tank

Get fish below

Remove free
surface water

Fill tank

Fig 101 Measures to be taken to secure stability (a) top, (b) centre and (c) bottom, (see
text on previous page)

taps
Finally, consider some examples of how the stability of a fishing boat can
be affected adversely:
1 Heavy seas entering the accommodation or engine room, penetrating
into stores or fish holds and creating a free surface effect.
3 Water accumulating on deck due to blocked scuppers and wash-
ports.
3 Ice accumulating on the upper works and rigging, leading to G being
raised sufficiently to give a negative GM.
4 Gear becoming fast upon an obstruction. The pull of the warps at the
gallows head (if it had not been possible to reverse the winch or cut
the warps), producing an off centre loading effect, and possibily
listing the boat towards heavy seas which might come aboard in
great force and create the situation described in No. 1.
5 Overloading fish or shellfish on deck which could slide quickly to the
low side if the boat heels over, thus creating almost the same effect as
free surface water.
When weights are suspended at a height such as when the cod end is
hoisted inboard, the effect is the same as if the weight had been transferred
to that height, and G would rise accordingly. It can be a crucial moment
when the full weight of the cod end is suspended from a block high up the
mast, and it must be appreciated that the stability of a boat is considerably
lessened at that moment (Fig 102).

Fig 102 Effect of hoisting trawl on stability— W shows weight effect, G weight moves to
G’ and reduces GM

123
 Chapter 9 Miscellaneous

Use AND READING OF THE ANEROID BAROMETER — UNIFORM

SYSTEM OF BUOYAGE AND WRECK MARKING — NAVIGATIONAL
MARKS.

Use and Reading of the Aneroid Barometer

An ability to read the aneroid barometer should be allied to an under-
standing of its practical use and some basic knowledge of meteorology.
The aneroid barometer is used for measuring atmospheric pressure, and
depends upon the slight movements of the top of a disc-shaped metal
box. This is made of a very thin corrugated metal from which air is
partially exhausted, and changes in the atmospheric pressure causes the
top of this metal box to move. By a system of springs and levers this
movement is transmitted to a pointer on the face of the barometer. The
atmospheric pressure existing at that time and in that place can be read
from the graduated dial marked on the face of the barometer.
A typical aneroid barometer ts illustrated in Fig 99. It will be seen that
the face 1s graduated in millibars, some barometers being graduated in
both millibars and inches.

Fig 103 The Aneroid barometer

124
 The accuracy of a boat’s aneroid barometer can be checked by contact-
ing the local Port Meteorological Officer, situated at the principa
l sea
ports, or with other authorities such as the local Harbour
Master
Coastguards, etc.
The only correction needed is for height. The higher one is above sea
level the less is the density of the air, and the barometer would fall. The
correction amounts to 0.37 millibars for every 10 feet of height, which
must be added to the barometer reading to obtain the correct reading at
sea level.
For example, if an aneroid barometer situated in a Coastguard Station
200 feet above sea level was required to be corrected for a sea level
reading, it would mean 20 x 0.37 equals 7.4 millibars. This amount
would have to be added to the readings as in Fig 104.

Bar. reading Correction

1003: 6MB +7-4 MB

Bar.reading 1011 MB

Fig 104 Checking barometer with coastguard station above sea level

Normally, in fishing boats the aneroid barometer can be accepted as

being at sea level and no correction is necessary.
If, when comparing a barometer reading with an official reading given
by one of the previously mentioned authorities, a difference is found, the
pointer on the face of your barometer can be adjusted as follows. At the
back a small hole will be found in which is situated a screwhead. By
gently turning this screwhead with the aid of a small screwdriver the
pointer can be moved to the correct reading, but turn the screw only by
a very small amount.
The normal atmospheric pressure in waters around Great Britain is
shown as a barometer reading of 1014 millibars, or 29.94 inches, so that
any readings above or below these figures indicate a change of atmos-
pheric pressure from the normal.
The pressure in certain places in the World is semi-permanently above the
mean, while in other places it is semi-permanently below the mean. These
places are referred to as regions of high and low pressure respectively. There
are also temporary areas of high or low pressure.
125
 Because of the rotation of the Earth, air which is drawn towards a centre of
low pressure is deflected to the right in the northern hemisphere, and to the left
in the southern hemisphere. The result is an anti-clockwise circulation of wind
around and area of low pressure in the northern hemisphere and a clockwise
circulation in the southern hemisphere. Circulation around areas of low pres-
sures are termed cyclonic. Conversely the wind circulates in a clockwise
direction around an area of high pressure in the northern hemisphere and in an
anti-clockwise direction in the southern hemispheres, such circulation being
term anticyclonic.
By reading an aneroid barometer at regular intervals (more frequently
in bad weather) it is possible to understand certain basic principles of
what the weather is likely to do.
1 Low pressure shows unstable and changing conditions.
High pressure shows stable and continuing good conditions.
Steady rise shows good weather approaching.
Steady fall shows bad weather approaching.
Rapid rise shows better weather may be only temporary.
Rapid fall shows stormy weather approaching quickly.
NnBWN

It is important to have an idea of what weather to expect on passage to

or from fishing grounds and when actually fishing.
Try to avoid being caught out by bad weather at sea, but if it is un-
avoidable then a knowledge of how the weather is likely to act is essential
to decide whether to ride it out or try to make for shelter. One’s own local
weather knowledge will help, aided by the official weather forecast
through the radio broadcasts and gale warnings, and in conjunction with
barometer readings. A study of the sky is also required and a careful
watch on the direction of the shift of the wind. Bear in mind that single
weather observer forecasting cannot expect too much success beyond a
period of about 6 hours, so that regular listening to weather forecasts is
essential.
Surface friction has two effects on the wind. Firstly, it causes a reduction in
the strength of the wind at the surface, and secondly it causes the wind to be
deflected some 10° to 20° across the isobars, inwards towards the centre of low
pressure, or outwards away from the centre of high pressure. Buys Ballot’s Law
sums this up as follows: ‘If you face the wind the centre of low pressure will be
approximately 90° on your right hand in the northern hemisphere, and 90° on
your left hand in the southern hemispheres. See Fig 109 showing a depression
in the northern hemisphere.
Fig 105 shows how Buys Ballot’s law operates. In a depression the wind
revolves anti-clockwise around the centre, so that in whatever position one
is situated relative to the centre the direction of the centre remains the
same. In the southern hemisphere the reverse is the case.
Depressions or low pressure areas always move in certain directions,
126
 Fig 105 Illustrating Buys Ballot’s law for finding the centre of a depression
(Observer arrowed O)

and it is important to know whether a depression is going to pass over

or to the north or south of one. An understanding of Buys Ballot’s law
helps to determine this, apart from the knowledge of future wind directions
received from weather forecasts.
It must be appreciated that weather forecasting is not an exact science
despite the high standards reached, because weather changes can be
unpredictable, as due to unknown factors a depression can change its
speed and direction suddenly and unexpectedly.
Generally speaking depressions approach Great Britain from the
Atlantic travelling in an easterly direction, but on occasions depressions
have moved in quite unforeseen directions, such as westerly, due north,
or south, etc. This is where sudden changes of wind, allied to barometer
readings, can be of assistance in determining the possible change in
weather conditions (see Fig 106).

Fig 106 Diagram illustrates wind direction in surroundings of a depression (see text)
(Northern hemisphere)

127
Fig 107 Diagram illustrating wind direction in surrounding areas of a depression (Southern
hemisphere)

From Fig 106 it will be seen that a fishing boat situated at A. can
expect the wind to veer from south east through south to south west and
west. Whereas a fishing boat situated at B. would expect the wind to back
from south easterly through north east and north to north west.
Isobars are lines of equal barometric pressure and join up all those
positions which have the same atmospheric pressure and are shown on
weather charts. The closer the isobars are drawn together the greater the
rise or fall in the atmospheric pressure in that area, and therefore, the
stronger the winds (see Fig 108).

HIGH LOW

Fig 108 Inclination of isobars — high and low

128
 Wind speed is indicated by the Beaufort Scale. This should be memorised in
order to understand the details given out in the weather forecasts.

Beaufort Windspeed Descriptive

number in knots terms
0 Less than | Calm
It 1-3 Light air
2 4-6 Light breeze
3 7-10 Gentle breeze
4 1116 Moderate breeze
2) 17-21 Fresh breeze
6 22-21 Strong breeze
7, 28-33 Near gale
8 34-40 Gale
9 41-47 Strong gale
10 48-55 Storm
11 56-63 Violent storm
12 64 plus Hurricane

When determining the wind direction and speed remember to eliminate

the effect of speed of the boat. For example, if heading into a 20 knot
wind and the speed was 10 knots the effect would be 20 plus 10 and the
effect of a 30 knot wind would be felt on board or, in other words, a
near gale; whereas if running before a wind of this strength the effect
would be 20-10 equals 10 knots, or a gentle breeze.
The opposite to a low pressure area is a high pressure area and the wind
revolves round a high pressure area in a clock-wise direction in the northern
hemisphere as shown and in the southern hemisphere the winds will revolve
anticlockwise (see Fig 109).

Fig 109 High pressure winds revolve clockwise in the northern hemisphere as shown and
in the southern hemisphere the winds will revolve anticlockwise

129
 When using the terms ‘veering’ and ‘backing’ understand that the
wind is named from the direction it blows. When reference is made to a
south west wind it means that it is blowing from the south west in a
north east direction. A wind is said to be ‘veering’ when it changes
direction from SE to S and SW, or W to NW. ‘Backing’ means the wind
changing from SW to S, or NE to N, etc.

An understanding of a few of the most important technical terms used

in meteorology will assist in understanding weather forecasts. These are:
A cold front. The line between the advancing cold air at the rear of a
depression and the warm frontal sector.
2 Depression. An area associated in the barometric pressure field by a
system of close isobars, having the lowest pressure on the inside of
the area.
Front. The line of separation at or near the earth’s surface between
warm and cold air masses.
Further outlook. Generally added to a detailed forecast and giving
conditions likely to be experienced within the next 24 hours or more,
following the period covered by the actual forecast.
Secondary depression or ‘secondary’. The isobars around a depression
are not always even and sometimes they show bulges or distortions
and may enclose separate centres of low pressure areas, and have
quite separate wind circulations (Fig 110).

Fig 110 Illustrating a secondary low

6 Squall. A very strong wind which increases (and decreases) suddenly.

Usually, it indicates a change of wind direction.
7 Tendency of the barometer. The amount of change in barometric
pressure in the 3 hours preceding the time of the observation. It is
given in such terms as ‘rising’, ‘falling’, ‘steady’, etc.
130
Depression
A more detailed explanation of depressions can be obtained by a
study of the
section “Through a depression’, in both the Northern and Souther
n
Hemispheres.
The ‘warm front’ is indicated by the symbols@ @_@_@ and the ‘cold front’
by AA A_A (think oficicles). In the section through the depression the type
of weather to be expected in the warm front and the cold front is shown.

HEMISPHERE
NORTHERN Q
HEMISPHERE

SAS WARM
(WARM SECTOR) ON
AAR con
FRONT

J PRECIPITATION
(a) Plan of a Depression.
(b) Plan of a Depression.

COLD AIR

—_— ——— 500 MILES ————_>

Fig 111 Section through depression at XY

Occlusion
In some circumstances the cold front moves faster than the warm front and
gradually overtakes it, causing the warm air to be lifted up from the surface.
When this happens the depression is said to be ‘occluded’ and the front have
merged into an ‘occlusion’.
P 131
 NORTHERN SOUTHERN
HEMISPHERE HEMISPHERE

WARM
FRONT

COLD
FRONT

OCCLUSION

(a) Plan of an Occlusion. Sj

Yj PRECIPITATION
(b) Plan of an Occlusion.

WARM AIR

COLDER
AIR =

x OCCLUSION y,
Fig 112 Section through occlusion at XY

Precipitation
This is another term for rain, dew, etc.

Clouds

A knowledge of the types of clouds can give a much better indication of

possible changes in weather. There are publications available which give
photographs of the various cloud formations but they can be summarised
as follows:
132
Upper clouds (above 18,000 feet), cirrus (Ci.), cirro-cumulus
(Ci—Cu.)
and cirro-stratus (Ci.-St.) middle clouds (8 000 to 18,000
feet), alto—
cumulus (A.-Cu.), alto-stratus (A.-St.), nimbo-stratus (N.-St.)
, low
cloud (below 8,000 feet), cumulo—nimbus (Cu.—Nb.), stratus (St.)
cumulus
a strato—cumulus (St.—Cu.), nimbus (Nb.) fracto-nimbus, often called
scud’.
Two major dangers facing fishing boats are ice and fog.
In certain weather conditions ice accumulating on the hull, super-
structure, and rigging of a fishing boat can be a serious danger to stability
The accumulation can occur from three causes:
| Fog, with freezing conditions, including frost ‘smoke.’
2 Freezing drizzle or freezing rain.
3 Sea spray or sea water breaking over a ship when the air
temperature is below the freezing point of sea water (about
minus 2° C),
The weight of ice accumulating in rough weather with very low tempera-
ture and large amounts of spray and heavy seas breaking over a ship
can be rapid. The speed with which ice accumulates increases progressively
as the force of the wind increases and as the sea temperature decreases.
When these conditions occur speed must be reduced and, if necessary, one
should heave to so as to avoid heavy spray and seas breaking on board.
Alternatively, seek shelter or steer towards warmer water if the direction
of the wind and sea will allow this.
Fog is caused at sea by changes in the air temperature relative to the
temperature of the sea. It is described in technical terms as the cooling
of the air in contact with the surface of the sea to a temperature at which
it can no longer maintain, in an invisible state, the water vapour which is
present in it. Condensation of this vapour into minute droplets produces
fog. If warm, moist air, flows over a cold sea surface it will produce what
is called ‘sea fog’, or ‘advection fog’. Again, if very cold air flows over a
much warmer sea surface a fog is produced which gives the appearance
of the sea steaming.
Warnings are obtained from weather forecasts about conditions
likely to cause fog, but one must observe rapid changes in temperature
and visibility.

IALA Maritime buoyage System ‘A’

Implementation of the new system ‘A’, which is a combination of the Cardinal
and Lateral Systems, see L70 shown on page 138, began in April 1977 and will
take about four years to complete. Work began in the eastern part of the
English Channel area, and southern part of the North Sea, eventually extend-
ing to all coasts of the British Isles, the North Sea, and the Baltic.
133
IALA Buoyage System A
LATERAL MARKS
Used generally to mark the sides of well defined navigable channels

PORT HAND
MARKS
Light: Colour — red
Far.
A TARBOARD
Spite
HAND

Light: Colour — Green

Rhythm — any
Rhythm — any Direction of Buoyage

OTHER MARKS

ISOLATED DANGER MARKS SAFE WATER MARKS

Use: to mark a small isolated danger Use: Mid-channel or landfall
with navigable water all around Light: Colour — white

éh,
Light: Colour — white Rhythm — isophase, occulting or
Rhythm — group flashing (2) 1 long flash every 10 secs.

aA
SPECIAL MARKS Any shape permissible
Use: of no navigational significance
Light: Colour — yellow
Rhythm — different from any white lights used on buoys

CARDINAL MARKS
Used to indicate the direction from the mark in which the best navigable water lies, or to draw attention
to a bend, junction or fork in a channel, or to mark the end of a shoal.

LIGHTS: ALWAYS WHITE

Light:

Light:
V Qk FI (9)
I Light:
V Qk FI(3)
every 10 secs every 5 secs
or Qk FI (9) of or Qk FI (3)
every 15 secs. Interest every
: 10 secs.

Light: V Qk Fl (6) + L Fl every 10 secs

or Qk FI (6) + L Fl every 15 secs.

FG) Ws) .A.L.A. buoys

 Buoys and Beacons
IALA Buoyage System ‘A’
The combined Cardinal and Lateral System (Red to Port)
Fathoms and Metric Charts
Where in force. System’A’ applies to all fixed and floating marks other than
hi ghthouses, sector lights and leading marks lightships and lanbys
(large navigational buoys) There are no special characteristics reserved for marking wrecks

UNLIT MARKS LIGHTED MARKS

Lateral, generally marking the limits of well defined channels
a red ar Port Hand
opmark (if any): can 2 rd 4 { FIA § OR 4 Red light (any rhythm)

(e)
Symbol used to Indicate buoyage direction where {eo}
not obvious; size and orientation varied to suit its
oO situation.

All green or black

| °
Topmark (if any): cone Starboard Hand
a iG 2 0G Green light (any rhythm)
4 4 4 etc
y» ~~

Cardinal, indicating navigable water to the d

Topmarks; 2 black cones w 2 iSong Easel Time (seconds)
White light t) 5 a 10
rere eee,
1S
North Mark
NW Black above yellow

de, East VQ(3)S8 f VORFN/3)Ss

t Period
Deh
West Mark East Mark Mark ple) gO emaerreriod -
/ : Point of © i / t (9
4 uf
ri L -interest : / oe ove
South freee tnion VORF6)+00 105 beer Seemetreexx—
Mark or O(6) +L FI ISs 0 OAF6)+LF/ 15s ARES Cy
“Ne ‘i Period
Yellow with black Black with yellow
band band
/ West V.0/9)108 t 100
VOKFI(9) tansPeriod OT
x Mark or (9) 15a or OkF1(9) 18s GPRS|
vor re Period

South Mark SE The same abbreviations are used for lights on

Ww, spar buoys and beacons.
° Yellow above black
he periods, 5s, 10s and 1Ss, may not always be
charted.

'solated danger, stationed over a danger with navigable water around it

; t
Body: black with red horizontal band(s ) 2, 2 Gorna
Topmarks: 2 black spheres | f ) i= d ideo White light
or, on™

Safe water, such as mid-channel and landfall marks

Body: red and white vertical stripes t
Topmark (if any): red sphere o d if ee pee jiehey Cad White light
aw ae aw aR a rey

Special, not primarily to assist navigation but to indicate special features

Body (shape optional): yellow
Topmark (if any): yellow X ifcre fry A fi / “iy ee Yellow light
~ ™ ™
t Abbreviations under this sign are obsolescent, see section ®)

NOTES
STANDARD BUOY SHAPES are can, conical 4, spherical QO, pillar (including high focal plane and spar HH, but variations may occur,
for example: light Noats ver +ad 3B, For features not covered by IALA rules (fog signals, tome types of fixed marks, moorings etc }see the page
opposite
COLOUR ABBREVIATIONS under buoy symbols, especially spar buoys, may tometimet be omitted.
PERIODS of lights, where charted, are shown thus: 10s (for 10 seconds),
RADAR REFLECTORS are not charted, I
BEACONS with System ‘A’ topmarks are charted by upright symbols @.g:
Beacon towers (where unlit) are charted 9 8 b atc,

Fig114 1|.A.L.A. buoys and beacons on charts. Reproduced from B.A. publication No. 5011
with the permission of the Controller, H.M. Stationery Office and the Hydrographer of the
Navy

135
 Admiralty hydrographical publication NP 735 contains full details of the
new system.
System ‘A’ applies to all fixed and floating marks, other than lighthouses,
sector lights, leading lights and marks, and lightships, and will indicate the sides
and centre lines of navigable channels, natural dangers, and other obstructions
such as wrecks, etc.
The system provides five types of marks which may be used in any
combination.
Lateral marks incidate the port and starboard hand sides of channels.
Cardinal marks will indicate the navigable water which lies to the named side
of the mark used in conjunction with the compass.
Isolated Danger marks will be erected on, or moored on or over dangers of a
limited extent,
Safe Water marks such as mid-channel buoys, or as a land fall buoy, indicat-
ing safe water all round.
Special Marks will indicate special areas which will be clearly indicated on
charts and will include spoil ground marks, traffic separation marks, military
exercise areas, cable, pipeline or outfall pipes, and recreation zones areas.
The characteristics of these marks will depend upon colour, shape, and top-
marks by day, and light colour and rhythm by night.
The five basic buoy shapes are can, conical, spherical, pillar, and spar, with
colours red and green for the port and starboard hand Lateral Marks, and
yellow for the Special Marks.
Other types will have horizontal bands or vertical stripes as shown on the
following pages.
For top marks can, conical, spherical, X shaped will be used.
The colour of lights, where used, will be red for port and green for starboard
on Lateral Marks, and yellow for Special Marks. Other types will have a white
light, distinguished by its rhythm.
A port hand mark 1s coloured red and its basic shape is can, for either buoy
body or topmark, or both.
A starboard hand mark is normally coloured green and its basic shape is
conical, for either buoy body or topmark (point up), or both.
By night a port hand buoy is identifiable by its red light and a starboard hand
buoy by its green light; any rhythm (flashing, occulting, isophase, etc.) may be
used.
The lateral colours of red or green will frequently be used for minor shore
lights, such as those marking pierheads and the extremities of jetties. In British
waters, to avoid confusion with the navigation lights of ships, minor lights, if
fixed, will be shown in pairs, disposed vertically. Alternatively, single red or
green lights will be flashing of occulting.
Throughout the many areas in which System ‘A’ is being introduced there
are variations in the design of equipment in use. It is emphasised, therefore,
that the illustrative diagrams are in general conformity with the approved

136
shapes, colouring and topmarks, but are not intended to convey the detailed
configuration, the exact colour disposition and the topmark size of the buoys in
use; these features will vary somewhat, depending on the individual design of
the buoys in use.
It should be noted that in particular instances starboard hand buoys may be
exceptionally coloured black instead of green, but not in the United Kingdom.
The local direction of buoyage will be taken as approaching a harbour, river
estuary, or other waterway from seaward. The general direction of the buoyage
system around the British Isles will run northward along the west coast and
through the Irish Sea, eastward through the English Channel, and northward
through the North Sea.
If, in some places a strait is open at both ends the local direction of the
buoyage may be over-ridden by the general direction.
If any doubt exists as to the direction of the buoyage system the following
mark will be shown on the chart.

Ly
yp

Fig 115 Symbol to indicate buoyage direction

In future, on charts, the light star symbol inserted above buoy symbols will
be discontinued, and this will enable top mark symbols to stand out more
clearly. The magenta light flares will now be inserted with their points adjacent
to the position circles at the base of the buoy, and this will avoid obscuring the
top marks symbols.

i FN
FIR Oc.R

Fig 116 Buoyage symbols

The colours of buoys are indiciated by the following abbreviations: W.

white, B. black, R. red, Y. yellow or amber, G. green, Gy. grey, Bu. blue.
The following illustrations of the System ‘A’ buoys show clearly the types,
colours, top marks, and light characteristics.

New Dangers
Definition. A newly discovered hazard to navigation not yet shown on charts,
or included in sailing directions, or sufficiently promulgated by notices to
mariners, is termed a New Danger. The term covers naturally occurring
obstructions such as sandbanks or rocks, or man-made dangers such as wrecks.
17
Marking. A New Danger is marked by one or more Cardinal or Lateral marks
in accordance with the System ‘A’ rules. If the danger is especially grave, at
least one of the marks will be duplicated as soon as practicable by an identical
mark until the danger has been sufficiently promulgated.
Lights. If a lighted mark is used for a New Danger, it must exhibit a quick
flashing or very quick flashing light: if it is a Cardinal mark, it must exhibit a
white light; if a Lateral mark, a red or green light.

Racons. The duplicate mark may carry a racon, coded W (-——), showing a
signal length of one nautical mile on a radar display.

Vig Hs
we HE oy f
WAZ AD

Fig 117 New dangers — Buoyage

A special mark may be used to indicate to the mariner a special area or

feature, the nature of which is apparent from reference to a chart, sailing
directions or notices to mariners.

Uses include:
Ocean Data Acquisition Systems (ODAS), ie buoys carrying oceanographic or
meterological sensors;
Traffic separation marks;
Spoil ground marks;
Military exercise zone marks;
Cable or pipeline marks, including outfall pipes;
Recreation zone marks.
Another function of a Special mark is to define a channel within a channel.
For example, a channel for deep draught vessels in a wide estuary, where the
limits of the channel for normal navigation are marked by red and green
Lateral buoys, may have the boundaries of the deep channel indicated by
yellow buoys of the appropriate Lateral shapes, or its centreline marked by
yellow spherical buoys.

138
 Navigational Marks
Full details of all navigational lights are given in the
Admiralty List of Lights,
and in Chart 5011 (Symbols and Abbreviations used on
Admiralty Charts) a full
description is given of details of the various types of lights
shown from light-
houses, light vessels, and beacons.
The position of a lighthouse or light beacon is indicated
on the chart by a star
* and is further emphasised on the chart by overprinting with
a magenta splash
mark.

A light is described in the following terms:

1. Its distinguishing appearance or characteristic.
Colour.
. Time required for one complete cycle (or period).
. Elevation.
AAW
Range

The characteristics used to describe lights are as follows, the abbreviation being
given first: (turn also to the heading ‘Lights’ for a fuller description).

F Fixed.
Oc. Occulting.
Oc (2) Group Occulting.
Fl. Flashing.
LP: Long Flashing.
Iso Isophase.
Q). Quick Flashing.
VQ. Very Quick Flashing.
UQ. Ultra Quick Flashing.
[©: Interrupted Quick Flashing.
Alt. Alternating.
Al.WR Group Flashing.
F.FI. Fixed and Flashing.
Mo. (A) Morse code light (with flashes grouped as in letter A).
Dir. A directional light showing a narrow sector in one direction only
as a single leading light.

Lights
These are:
Fixed A continuous steady light (white or coloured).
Occulting A steady light with at regular intervals, a sudden and total eclipse,
the duration of darkness always being Jess than the duration of
light.
Flashing A light showing a single flash (white or coloured) at regular
intervals, the duration of light being Jess than that of darkness.
Isophase A light with a duration of light and darkness equal.
Quick flashing Flashing continuously at more than 60 times a minute.
Interrupted quick Flashing at a rate of more than 60 times a minute with, at regular
flashing intervals, a total eclipse.

139
Alternating A light which alters in colour, in successive flashes or eclipses.
Group occulting At regular intervals two or more sudden eclipses in a group.
Group flashing At regular intervals two or more brilliant flashes in a group.
Ultra quick flashing Flashing continuously at 160 or more times a minute.
Long-flashing Flash of 2 seconds or longer.
Fixed and A steady light with, at regular intervals, one flash of increased
flashing brilliance.
Fixed and group A steady light with two or more brilliant flashes in a group.
flashing
A morse code light The characteristics of these lights are shown by the appropriate
letter or figure in brackets, eg. MO (A).

The period of a light is the time shown against the light, eg Gp. FI.(2) ev. 10 sec.
indicates that the period of that light is 10 sec. and is the time occupied in the
exhibition of the whole of the changes (flashes and darkness added together).
For a light showing a single flash it would be from the commencement of one
flash to the commencement of the next, eg FI. ev. 15 sec. (a period of 15 sec.).

Fog Signals
Fog signals made by buoys, light vessels, lighthouses, efc, are defined as
follows:
Explos. Explosive fog signal. Signals explode in mid-air.
Dia. Diaphone. Powerful low note terminating in a kind of grunt.
Siren Fog siren. As medium powered high or low note, or a combina-
tion of both.
Horn Fog horn. Powerful medium pitched note.
Bell Fog bell. Varying note and power. May be operated mechanically
or by wave action in which case operates irregularly.
Whis. Fog whistle. Lower power and low note.
Reed Reed. Low powered high ‘piping’ note.
Gong Fog gong. As for bell.
Mo. Morse code fog signal. Sounds one or more morse code letters or
figures.

The colour of lights is white unless otherwise stated.

Elevation. This of a light is measured in feet (or metres) between the focal
plane of the light and the level of mean high water springs.
Range. The range of lights is given in sea miles calculated as seen from a height
of 15 feet above sea level (5 metres in the case of countries using the metric
system). Two ranges are now quoted in official publications—1. The
geographical range which is computed from the height of the light, the height of
the observer, and the curvature of the earth; 2. The luminous range which is
computed from the intensity or candle power of the light. Another term given
to this is nominal range, which is the same as the luminous range when the
140
visibility is 10 sea miles. These ranges will be changed gradual
ly as information
Is received to conform to the new system of showing the nominal
(luminous)
range of the new metric charts and in the Admiralty Light
Lists.
Sector Lights. These show various colours or characteristics
in different direc-
tions, and the arc of each portion of the 360° circle that shows such
a colour is
called a Sector (see Fig. 118).
Leading Lights. These may be of any colour, and either fixed, flashing
or
occulting. Their object is to indicate a safe course into a harbour or through
a
channel. The rear light is always higher than the front light (see Fig. 118).

WW
as ee Higher

Sector light Leading lights Beacon

Fig 118 Leading lights and sector lights

Unwatched Lights. These are shown as (U) and indicate that no special watch is
kept on this light and, therefore, cannot be relied upon implicitly. This term is
now obsolescent and is being omitted from all future charts.
All bearings of lights are given as true from seaward (ie from the ship), and in
the 0-360° notation.

Lightvessels
A lightvessel is indicated on the chart by the symbol shown in Fig 119, and a
small circle in the base indicates its exact position.
A white riding light is exhibited from the fore-stay of each lightvessel at a
height of 6 feet above the rail which shows in which direction the vessel is
riding. If, from any cause a light vessel is unable to exhibit her usual charac-
teristic lights whilst at her station, the riding light only will be shown. However,
when a lightvessel is driven from her proper station to one where she is of no
use as a guide to shipping she will display the following signals. The characteris-
tic light will not be exhibited and a fixed red light will be exhibited at each end
of the vessel. Red and white flares will be shown simultaneously every 15
minutes or at more frequent intervals on the near approach of any vessel.
14]
 Fig 119 Symbol of a lightvessel

’ O;0O te)
Lan aoe anePane
ACLS
Fig 120 Lightvessel with watch buoy

Daymarks of Lightvessels. Lightvessels are painted red with their name on each
side in large white letters. When a lightvessel is driven from her proper station
by day two large black balls will be exhibited, one forward and one aft, and the
international code flags LO, indicating ‘a lightvessel out of position’ will be
hoisted where they can best be seen.
Fog Signals of Lightvessels. All lightvessels exhibit their lights in foggy weather,
in conditions of poor visibility and sound their fog signals. If, during fog or low
visibility, a vessel is heard approaching too close to a lightvessel so as to involve
risk of collision a bell will be rung rapidly during the silent intervals between
successive soundings of the fog signal until all risk of collision is past.

Danger Signals from Lightvessels. A lightvessel will give warning to a ship

running into danger by hoisting the flag U of the international code ‘you are
running into danger’. In addition, a gun or rocket may be fired or a sound signal
given at short intervals, the letter U in morse or given by light or sound. The
signal PS ‘you should not come any closer’ may be used also if a vessel is seen to
be coming dangerously close to the lightship.

Lanby Buoys
A Lanby buoy (Large Automatic Navigation Buoy) is about 80 tons in weight
and 40 feet in diameter, with a built up super-structure of about 12 feet,
142
surmounted by a lattice mast carrying the main light beacon 40 feet above the
sea. These buoys are gradually replacing some of the lightvessels on the British
coast, and are named on both sides with the name of the station. They carry
a
light and fog signal just as the lightvessel they have replaced, but they are
unmanned and automatic.

Fig 121 A Lanby buoy

143
 Chapter 10 Use Of Electronic
Navigation Instruments
INTRODUCTION — ECHO SOUNDERS AND FISH FINDERS — RADIO
NAVIGATION SYSTEMS — AUTOPILOTS — RADAR — SATELLITE
NAVIGATION — Decca NAVIGATIOR — LORAN ‘C’ OMEGA

No up-to-date navigation primer would be complete without reference to the

wide range of modern electronic instruments now available for fishermen.
While coastal and ocean navigation must depend ultimately upon the basic
knowledge acquired, an understanding of electronic navigational aids will
enable an appreciation of the safety factors inherent in their use. The UK
Department of Trade always consider these as AIDS to navigation and this is
emphasised in their examination syllabus whereby basic navigation skills
predominate.
Like all equipment dependent upon electrical or battery power, breakdowns
can occur, but, as long as you are aware of this and the fact that the reliability of
these modern instruments is improving steadily, it is acceptable that they
should be used to the greatest extent of their capabilities.
Photographs and brief technical details are given on the following pages of
some of the products of the leading manufactures.

Echo Sounders and Fish Finders

There are comprehensive ranges of echo sounders, suitable for all types of
small craft and methods of fishing. It is important to obtain professional advice
in selecting a suitable model, bearing in mind the performance and depth
sounding facilities required.
Some echo sounders use the LED (light emitting diod) display, and others
use chart recording modes, while some use both systems including colour
displays.
The model illustrated on page 145 is designed to give readings with extreme
shallow water accuracy, and is designed for coastal wasters. The compact size
makes it the ideal choice for the smaller vessel where space is limited. It
provides accurate, non-distorted straight line recordings on 4 inch wide paper,
displaying fish and bottom information as to conditions under the hull.
Radio Navigational Systems
A radio navigational receiver gives precise and continuous position fixing in all
kinds of weather, thereby rendering it possible always to have safe and efficient
navigation. Positional data is given every 10 seconds, with an accuracy down to
50 metres.
144
 Fig 122 Echo sounder and fish finder
By courtesy of Kelvin Hughes Ltd.

Twenty-five transmitter chains cover the waters around Western Europe

(except the Mediterranean) and the other chains cover the Indian Ocean,
Canada, Japan, the Persian Gulf, NW Australia, and South Africa.
The system constantly receives the analyses beacon signals emitted from
land based transmitters. Signals are picked up by the fully automatic receiver
via the antenna.
Computations are based on continuous crossbearings which are computed at
high speed on two built-in microprocessors, and the results appear in an alpha
numeric display. Latitude and longitude are constantly available, expressed in
degrees, minutes, and hundredths of a minute.

Autopilots
These may be controlled by gyro or magnetic compass and the main steering
compass may be used for autopilot control.
Electronically controlled and reliable they can be fitted with minimal or
without structural alterations, and can be changed quickly from auto to manual
steering.
A wide range of autopilots are available, the more sophisticated systems
have a control unit, course selector, drive unit, distribution unit, rudder
145
 pei 4000
1 NAVE Br
SHIPMATE
a oneonnense

Fig 123 Radio navigator By courtesy of Shipmate Navigator Ltd.

reference unit, together with several options and alternatives. One should
always seek expert assistance in selecting the appropriate system for the type of
vessel and in the installation.
Illustrated below is an autopilot specifically designed for fishing boats up to
50 feet.

=
AWacner.
none
S50 AntoPilot
FNONEERING LTO)
North Vancou ver, B.C. Canada
Va n e
sat ee

Fig 124 Autopilot

By courtesy of Wagner Engineering Ltd.
46
 A very important factor in the use of autopilots is that the lookout must
never be neglected. Unfortunately, in the past, quite a few collisions have
taken place due to the neglect of keeping a proper lookout when the vessel is
under auto-pilot. A warning system is fitted, which sounds off if a button is not
pressed at specified intervals, but, on occasions fishermen have switched off
this system and the specified intervals ignored.

Radar
The fitting of radar, and a proper understanding of its uses and capabilities will
bring safety and navigational advantages to you. The range of a radar set
depends upon the type of set, the height of the scanner aerial, and the
atmospheric conditions existing at the time.
Illustrated below is the Racal-Decca 370 set, a high power radar designed
specifically for small vessels of every type. It gives a performance on 8 ranges
from 0.25 nautical miles up to 48 nautical miles. The aerial is 4 feet wide, and
rotates at 25 RPM.

147
 Fig 126 Radar
By courtesy of Kelvin Hughes Ltd.

Another set is the 500 series by Kelvin Hughes is shown here with full details
of the controls. It has a similar range, 0.25 to 48 nautical miles, and again is
designed specifically for the smaller vessels.

Satellite Navigation
The development of satellite navigation has brought about a major revolution
in marine electronic navigational aids. In any part of the World, or in any
weather you can now obtain accurate positional fixtures.
Using signals from the US Navy Navigation Satellite System (TRANSIT)
satellites which are in transpolar orbits circling the earth every 107 minutes at a
height of about 668 miles. Whenever a satellite passes above the horizon of the
receiver there exists the opportunity to obtain a postitional fix. Up to 16 good
fixes occur in every 24 hour period, and between passes continuous naviga-
tional information, such as dead reckoning positions are available.
148
 The instrument takes measurements over a period of 10-15 minutes during
each satellite pass and can fix a vessel’s position within 0.2 of a nautical mile.
Every time a satellite passes over, the position is recalculated by the micro-
computer. When leaving port the approximate position (within 60 miles) the
date, GMT, course and speed is entered.
Various data displays will give the GMT, date, latitude and longitude, also
the GMT, date and time of future satellite passes, identification, maximum
altitude and direction of rise, the position and time of last fix, and finally given
the position of intended destination. Up to 10 intermediate destinations, (way
points) together with the tide, speed and direction, the data display will then
show the way point number, its range, bearing (true or magnetic), course to
steer (great circle or rhumb line), vessel’s speed and heading.
Below is a diagram showing the orbital planes of satellites.

Fig 127 Orbital planes of satellites

On page 150 is shown DS4 satellite navigator from Racal-Decca Ltd. and
another, the 601S, is from Kelvin Hughes Ltd.

Decca
Possibly the most familiar piece of equipment known to fishermen.
d in
The Decca Navigator is a hyperbolic radio navigation system operate
in the 70-130 kHz fre-
conjunction with ground transmitter chains working
transmit ted from 51 change of
quency band. These low frequency signals are
stations, sited in many countries and still expanding.
radiating con-
It is a well established system with the transmitting stations
a decomet er, records
tinuous wave signals which the receiver on board, called
149
 30 HDG

Fig 128 Satellite Navigator. This receiver gives a clear display and providing,
simultaneously, latitude longitude, time, date and heading, while other displays of informa-
tion give all the additional global Sat.-Nav. position fixing data required by the professional
fishermen.
By courtesy of Raca/-Decca Ltd.

. MQ

re nave
gates

Fig 129 Satellite Navigator. A compact unit it has a static accuracy of approximately 100
yards and the frequency of satellite updated is dependent upon the user’s position. At
latitude 50° it is every 70 minutes, and at latitude 30° updating will be at intervals of 90
minutes.
By courtesy of Kelvin Hughes Ltd.

on three clock-like dials these readings being referred to a specially latticed

navigation chart. The maximum range is around 240 nautical miles within a
chain, but greater distances can be obtained according to conditions and with
accuracy down to a position within 25 metres.
The special Decca charts required for use with the Decca Navigator can be
obtained from any chart supplier, and the receiver is usually rented from the
150
 Fig 130 Decca Navigator
By courtesy of Racal-Decca Ltd.

company. The system is easy to learn and simple to operate, while servicing is
available to any time and within reach of fishing ports. Above is shown the
Decca Navigator Mark 21.

Loran ‘C’
The word ‘LORAN ’ is taken from the words LOng RAnge Navigation. Special
receiving equipment and lattice charts are required on vessels which use this
system.
The Loran ‘C’ system is a terrestrial based low radio frequency pulse and
phase time difference measurement navigation system. It provides medium to
long range continuous position fixing, with a precision sufficient to meet
coastal and ocean navigation in suitable coverage areas. It is extensively
deployed in the United States and Canadian coastal waters, also in other parts
8 11
of the World including the North Atlantic, the North and Central Pacific, and
the Mediterranean Sea.

Omega
Provides continuous position fixing data in the order of two nautical miles
suitable for ocean navigation purposes. The system comprises a total of &
individual stations, located in the USA, Japan, Hawaii, Australia, Reunion,
Argentina, Norway, and Liberia, and is operational in the North Atlantic and
North Pacific.
Below is an illustration of the Racal-Decca Marine Navigator System MNS
2,000 which is designed to operate from the Decca Navigator, Loran C,
Omega, and Transit Satellite System.
All the information given in this chapter must of necessity be brief, fuller
details should be obtained from the manufacturers or their representatives or
agents at fishing ports before the fitting and operation of electronic navigation
equipment.

SENSOR SELECTION *
Decca (D)
Loran (L) (in use)
Omega (0)
Transit (1)
<Man. Selection —_
Auto Selection L_

Fig 131 Loran ‘C’ and Omega Navigator

By courtesy of Raca/-Decca Ltd.

152
 Appendix
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND USEFUL ADDRESSES
Bibliography
Fishermen’s Handbook by Capt. W. H. Perry (Fishing News Books Ltd.)
Stability and Trim of Fishing Vessels by J. A. Hind (Fishing News Books Ltd.)
The Fishing Cadet’s Handbook by A. Hodson (Fishing News Books Ltd.)
International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (H.M. Stationery
Office)
Reed’s Almanac by Capt. O. M. Watts, F.R.A.S. (Thomas Reed)
Brown’s Nautical Almanac (Brown, Son and Ferguson Ltd.)
Radar Observer’s Handbook, Capt. W. Berger (Brown, Son and Ferguson Ltd.)
Home Trade Navigation Guide, Capt. W. MacFarlane (Brown, Son and
Ferguson Ltd.)
The Mariner’s Highway Code, Capt. D. R. Derrett (Stanford Maritime Limited)
Exercises in Coastal Navigation, Capt. G. W. White (Stanford Maritime
Limited)

Some useful addresses

H.M. Coastguard, Sanctuary Buildings, 20, Great Smith Street, London, S.W.1.
H.M. Stationery Office, 49, High Holborn, London, W.C.1.
H.M. Customs and Excise (Headquarters) King’s Beam House, Mark Lane,
London, E.C.3.
The Mariner’s Handbook, Hydrographic Department, Ministry of Defence,
Taunton, Somerset.
Meteorological Office, London Weather Centre, 284-6, High Holborn, London,
Wace:
Registrar General of Shipping and Seamen, Llantrisant Road, Llandaff,
Cardiff.
Fishing News Books Ltd., 1 Long Garden Walk, Farnham, Surrey.
Fishing News, Cloister Court, 24 Farringdon Lane, London ECIR 3AV.
Racal Marine Radar Ltd., New Malden, Surrey, KT34 4NR.

153
 TRAVERSE TABLE 028°
f
lh 52m
28° 20 28
Ss
DEGREES. |152°
——.

ols
21S Dist|D. Lat|
Boe 159-8] 85:
54- 160-7] 85- yi
Cis
Ho
55° 161-6} 85- 6
56- 162-5] 86- 4
oo
Wo
57: 163-3} 86: 53
58: 87: 2
59° 87- a
60: 88 - 9-0
MPNOWAAMNDWO
oo00
NAD
60- 88- 9
=
CeONAuUAWANY
[oX=)
kee}oo 6l- Ar;
89- LONWoOWoOLROLRO

62-
63-
rPrO
row 64-
H i) 65-
66:
67-
68
68 -
69-
70: OPRODOAHAHA HPO
5 71-
-4 72
RH
HRP 3
NOHH)
COM!
AMHAKHLN 73:
2 74:
Ww
0 Oril 75-
0 75:
mo 8
AWG 76
oY 77:
0900aL6 78-
i)n 5 79: LDADIWDOK
0 Jj -4 80-
28: 3 81-
29 sil 82-
30 -0 83:
50 9 83-
8 84.
“7
6
4
3
+2
“1
0
+8
7
-6
5
-4
3
Ail AH
ADIAWHDOMN
PROABNIDDOP|NEAMRID
0
9
8
7
6
4
3
a)
“1

I
0 WEADDDOHNWIARIDHSHENDWAT|
HDODDOHNANAA|DOODONUNRARIO
CHPNWAUNIWBDOOC|HNATUBRIWOHN|
COrPWEARIAWO DOMNANRI
SOS
ae
Tg
Taw
ENE
ah
LO
Ee
EE
eI,
leah
|
een,
ei
a
(OE
ea
aes
eee
ate
WONT
Epes
The
iNet
Mae
n-ie
ia
ar
eR
NE
i LO!
Ml]
—P
NOH
COR
WAW
Pp.
ev) S

62 DEGREES.
TRAVERSE TABLE
28 DEGREES.

a5 aes cua
J) 478-6) 254 5
act 979-4) 254.9
“9 480-5] 255-4
ay 481-2) 255.9
°8 482-1) 256-3
3
483-0, 256-8
8 483-9] 257-3
“2 484-7) 257-7
7 485-6| 258.2
2 486-5| 258-7
“6 487-4] 259-1
+1 488-3] 259-6
-6 489-2] 260-1
1 490-0] 260-6
6 490-9] 261-0
-0 491-8] 261-5
5 492-7) 262-0
9 493-6] 262-4
4 494-5 | 262-9
9 495-3] 263-4
23) 496-2} 263-8
8 497-1] 264-5
3 498-0] 264-8
7 498.9) 265-3
2
499-7] 265-7
: 500-6] 266.2
501-5! 266-7
502-4] 267-1
503-3] 267-6
4-2] 268-1
0} 268-5
9| 269:
-8| 269
-7| 269%
6} 270
-5| 270-
3] 271-
-2} 271:
AM By:
-0| 272
-9| 273-
AD Dips
-6; 274:
5!
4
73
2
“1
9

62 DEGREES.

155
 1
Terrestrial Spheroid) MERIDIONAL PARTS. Compression 793-468

45° 46°
47° 48°
49° 50° M
M| 4l° 42° 43° 44°
2766-05 |2847-13 2929:55|3013-38 | 3098-70 | 3185-59 3274-13 3364-41
3456:53
0 |2686-24
3275-62 336593 3458-08
1 |2687-56 |2767-39 | 2848-49 |2930-93 3014-79 3100-14 3187-05
5277-11 3367-45 3459-64
2 | 2688-88 |2768-73 ,2849-85 |2932-32 3016:20 3101-57 3188-51 3278-60 336897 3461:19
3 |2690-20 |2770-07 |2851-22 |2933-71 3017-61 3103-01 3189-97 3370-49 3462:74
4 | 2691-52 |2771-41 |2852-58 |2935-09 3019-02 3104-44 3191-44 3280-09
3281 °58 3372-01 3464-29
5 | 2692-84 |2772-75 |2853-94 | 2936-48 3020:43 3105-88 3192-90
6 |2694-16 |2774-10 |2855-31 |2937-87 3021-85 3107-32 3194-36 3283-07 3373°54 3467-403465:85
7 |2695-49 |2775-44 |2856-67 |2939-26 |302326 3108-76 3195-83 328457 3375-06 337658 3468-96
B | 2696-81 |2776-78 |2858-04 |2940-64 3024-67 3110-19 3197-29 3286-06
9 | 2698-13 |2778-13 |2859-40 |2942-03 3026 :08 3111-63 3198:76 | 3287°55 3378-11 3470-52
10 | 2699-45 |2779-47 |2860-77 |2943-42 3027 50 3113-07 3200-23 | 3289-05 3379-63 3472-07
11 |2700-78 |2780-81 |2862-14 |2944-81 3028-91 3114-51 3201-69 3290:54 3381-16 3473-63
12 |2702-10 |2782-16 |2863-50 |2946-29 3030:32 3115-95 3203-16 3292-04 3382-68 3475-19
13 | 2703-42 |2783-50 |2864-87 |2947-59 3031-74 3117-39 3204-63 329354 3384-21 3476-75
14 |2704-75 |2784-85 |2866-24 |2948-98 $033:15 311883 3206:10 | 3295 :03 3385-73 3478-30
15 |2706-07 ; 2786.19 |2867-60 |2950-37 5034:57 3120-27 3207 56 5296:53 3387-26 3479-86
16 | 2707-40 |2787-54 |2868-97 |2951-76 303599 3121-71 320903 3298-03 | 3388-79 3481-42
17 |2708-72 2788-89 |2870-34 |2953-15 3037-40 3123-16 | 3210-50 529952 3390-32 5482-98
18 |2710-05 |2790-23 |2871-71 |2954-55 3038-82 3124-60 | 3211-97 3301-02 3391-85 3484 54
19 |2711-38 2791-58 |2873-08 |2955-94 3040-23 3126-04 3213-44 330252 3393-38 3486-11
20 | 2712-70 |2792-93 |2874-45 |2957-33 3041-65 3127-49 | 3214-91 3304 02 3394-91 5487-67
21 |2714-03 |2794-28 |2875-82 |2958-73 3043-07 $128:93 3216-38 3305:52 3396-44 3489-23
22 | 2715-36 |2795-62 |2877-19 |2960-12 5044-49 31350:°37 3217-86 3307-02 3397-97 | 3490-79
23 |2716-68 |2796-97 |2878-56 |2961-51 3045-91 3131-82 3219-33 | 3308-52 | 3399-50 | 3492-36
24 | 2718-01 |2798-32 |2879-93 |2962-91 5047-33 3133-26 3220-80 | 3310-02 3401-03 3493-92
25 | 2719-34 |2799-67 |2881-30 |2964-30 5048-75 3134-71 3222-27 3311-53 3402-56 3495-49
26 | 2720-67 |2801-02 |2882-67 |2965-70 3050-17 $136:15 3223-75 | 5313-03 3404-10 | 3497-05
27 | 2722-00 |2802-37 |2884-05 |2967-09 3051 :59 3137-60 | 3225-22 | 3314-53 3405-63 |3498-62
28 |2723-33 |2803-72 |2885-42 |2968-49 $053:01 3139-05 3226-69 3316-03 | 3407-16 | 350018
29 | 2724-66 |2805-07 |2886-79 |2969-89 5054-43 3140-49 3228-17 331754 3408-70 3501-75
30 |2725-99 |2806-42 |2888-17 |2971-28 3055-85 3141:94 3229-64 | 3319-04 3410-23 3503-32
31 |2727-32 |2807-77 |2889-54 |2972-68 3057-27 3143:39 3231-12 3320:55 3411-77 3504-89
32 | 2728-65 |2809-13 |2890-91 |2974-08 3058-70 3144-84 3232-60 | 3322-05 5413:50 | 3506-45
33 | 2729-98 |2810-48 |2892-29 |2975-48 3060:12 3146-29 3234-07 | 3323:56 3414-84 3508-02
34 |2731-31 |2811-83 |2893-66 |2976-88 5061-54 3147-74 3235-55 | 3325-07 3416-38 3509:59
35 | 2732-64 |2813-18 |2895-04 |2978-28 5062-97 3149-19 3237-03 | 3326:57 3417-92 3511-16
36 |2733-97 |2814-54 |2896-42 |2979-68 5064-39 3150-64 3238-51 3328-08 3419-45 3512-73 Somrn]s
ASGK=
Soars
ERBBS
SBBNB
REBSS
$8aavn-
o
37 |2735-31 |2815-89 |2897-79 |2981-08 $065:81 3152-09 3239-98 | 3329-59 3420-99 3514-31
38 |2736-64 |2817-25 |2899-17 |2982-48 3067 24 $153°54 3241-46 | 3331-10 3422-53 3515-88
39 | 2737-97 |2818-60 |2900-54 |2983-88 5068-66 3154-99 3242-94 3332-60 3424-07 3517-45
40 |2739-30 |2819-95 |2901-92 |2985-28 |5070-09 3156-45 3244-42 3334-11 3425'61 3519-02
41 |2740-64 |2821-31 |2903-30 |2986-68 3071-52 3157-90 3245-90 3335-62 3427-15 3520-60
42 |2741-97 |2822-67 |2904-68 |2988-08 3072:94 $159°35 3247-38 3337-13 3428-70 Ry
43 | 2743-31 |2824-02 |2906-06 |2989-48 507437 3160:81 3248-87 333865 3430°24 $523°75
44 | 2744-64 |2825-38 |2907-43 |2990-88 5075-80 | 3162-26 3250-35 3340-16 3431-78 3525:32
45 | 2745-98 |2826-73 |2908-81 |2992-29 3077-23 | 3163:71 3251-83 3341-67 343332 3526-90
46 |2747-31 |2828-09 |2910-19 |2993-69 3078-66 | 3165-17 3253-31 3543:18 3434-87 3528 °47
47 | 2748-65 |2829-45 |2911-57 |2995-09 3080:09 5166-62 3254-80 3344-69 5436-41 5530-05
48 | 2749-98 |2830-81 |2912-95 |2996-50 3081-52 | 2168-08 3256 28 3346-21 3437-95 3531-63
49 |2751-32 |2832-16 |2914-33 |2997-90 3082:95 3169°54 | 3257-77 | 3347-72 3439-50 $533:21
50 |2752-66 |2833-52 |2915-72 |2999-31 3084-38 | 3170-99 3259-25 334924 3441-05 3534-79
51 |2754-00 |2834-88 |2917-10 |3000-71 308581 $172:45 3260-74 3350-75 . 3442-59 353637
52 |2755-33 |2836-24 |2918-48 |3002-12 3087 24 3175-91 3262:22 $352:27 | 3444-14 3537 :95
53 | 2756-67 |2837-60 |2919-86 |3003-53 3088 ‘67 3175-37 3263-71 3353-78 3445-69 3539-53
54 | 2758-01 |2838-96 |2921-24 |3004-93 3090:10 317683 3265-20 | 3355-30 3447-23 3541-11
55 | 2759-35 |2840-32 |2922-63 |3006-34 $091 :53 5178-28 3266-68 | 3556-82 5448-78 3542-69
56 |2760-69 |2841-68 |2924-01 |3007-75 3092:97 3179-74 3268-17 3358-33 3450-33 3544-27
57 | 2762-03 |2843-04 |2925-39 |3009-16 3094-40 3181-20 5269-66 335985 3451-88 3545-85
1 58 |2763-37 |2844-40 |2926-78 |3010-56 3095-83 3182-66 $271-15 3361-37 3453-43 3547-44
59 | 2764-71 |2845-77 |2928-16 |3011-97 309727 3184-13 5272-64 336289 3454-98 3549-02
60 |2766-05 |2847-13 |2929-55 |3013-38 3098-70 3185-59 3274-13 3364-41 345653 3550-60
hoes ss arr
M/| 4° 42° 43° 44° 45° 46°
47° 48°
4g
(Terrestrial Spheroid) MERIDIONAL PARTS. Compression zou
M| 5I° | 52° | 53° | Sa | 55° | 56° | S7° , SE ! 59 «60° «||M
0 | 3550-60 |3646-74 |3745-05 |3845-69 |3948-78 |4054-48 |4162-97 |4274-43 |4389-06 4507.08!0
1 |3552-19 |3648-36 |3746-71 |3847-38 |3950-52 |4056-27 |4164-81 |4276-31 |4391-00 |4509.07| 4
2 |3553-77 |3649-98 |3748-37 |3849-08 3952-26 |4058-05 |4166-64 |4278-20 4392-94 |4511-071 2
3 |3555-36 |3651-60 |3750- |3850-78 03
|3954-00 |4059-84 |4168-47 |4280-08 |4394-88 |4513-07| 3
4 | 3556-95 |3653-22 |3751-69 |3852-48 |3955-74 |4061-63 |4170-31 |4281-97 |4396-82 |4515-07| 4
5 |3558-53 |3654-84 |3753-35 |3854-18 |3957-48 |4063-41 |4172-14 |4283-86 4398-76 |4517.07| 5
6 | 3560-12 |3656-47 |3755-01 |3855-88 |3959-23 |4065-20 |4173-98 |4285-75 |4400-70 |4519-08 6
7 | 3561-71 |3658-09 |3756-67 |3857-58 |3960-97 |4066-99 |4175-82 |4287-64 |4402-65 |
8 | 3563-30 |3659-72 |3758-33 |3859-29 |3962-72 |4068-78 |4177-66 |4289-53 |4404-59 |4521-08!4503-08|
7
8
9 | 3564-89 |3661-34 |3760-00 |3860-99 |3964-46 |4070-57 |4179-50 |4291-42 |4406-54 |4525-09| 9
10 | 3566-48 |3662-97 |3761-66 |3862-69 |3966-21 |4072-37 |4181-34 |4293-31 |4408-49 |4507-09 | 10
11 |3568-07 |3664-59 |3763-33 |3864-40 |3967-96 |4074-16 |4183-18 |4295-20 |4410-43 |4529-101 11
12 |3569-66 |3666-22 |3764-99 |3866-10 |3969-70 |4075-95 |4185-02 |4297-09 |4412-38 |4531-11] 412
13 |3571-25 |3667-85 |3766-66 |3867-81 |3971-45 |4077-75 |4186-86 |4298-99 |4414-33 |4533-12] 13
14 |3572-85 |3669-48 |3768-32 |3869-52 |3973-20 |4079-54 |4188-71 |4300-89 |4416-28 |4535-13 | 14
15 |3574-44 |3671-11 |3769-99 |3871-22 |3974-95 |4081-34 |4190-55 |4302-78 |4418-24 |4537-141 45
16 | 3576-03 |3672-74 |3771-66 |3872-93 |3976-70 |4083-13 |4192-40 |4304-68 |4420-19 |4539-15! 16
17 |3577-63 |3674-37 |3773-33 |3874-64 |3978-46 |4084-93 |4194-24 |4306-58 |4422-14 |4541-17| 417
18 | 3579-22 |3676-00 |3774-99 |3876-35 |3980-21 |4086-73 |4196-09 | 4308-48 | 4424-10 | 4543-18| 18
19 | 3580-82 |3677-63 |3776-66 |3878-06 |3981-96 |4088-53 |4197-94 4310-38 4426-05 | 4545-20! 19
20 |3582-41 |3679-26 |3778-33 |3879-77 |3983-71 |.4090-33 |4199-79 |4312-28 4428-01 4547-21! 20
21 | 3584-01 |3680-89 |3780-00 |3881-48 |3985-47 |4092-13 |4201-64 |4314-18 4429-97 | 4549-23] 21
22 |3585- |3682-5361|3781-68 |3883-19 |3987-22 |4093-93 |4203-49 |4316-08 |4431-93 4551 25| 22
23 |3587-20 |3684-16 |3783-35 |3884-91 |3988-98 |4095-73 |4205-34 |4317-98 |4433-89 4553.27| 23
24 | 3588-80 |3685-79 |3785-02 |3886-62 |3990-74 |4097-54 |4207-19 |4319-89 |4435-85 |4555-29| 24
25 | 3590-40 |3687-43 |3786-69 |3888-33 |3992-49 |4099-34 |4209-04 |4321- |4437-8179 4557-31) 25
26 | 3592-00 |3689-07 |3788-37 |3890-05 |3994-25 |4101-14 |4210-90 | 4323-70 | 4439-77 | 4559-33) 26
27 | 3593-60 |3690-70 |3790-04 |3891-76 |3996-01 |4102-95 | 4212-75 | 4325-61 4441-73 4561-36| 27
28 |3595-20 |3692-34 |3791-72 |3893-48 |3997-77 |4104-75 |4214-61 |4327-52 |4443-70 |4563-38 | 28
29 | 3596-80 |3693-98 |3793-40 |3895-20 |3999-53 |4106-56 |4216-46 |4329-42 |4445-66 |4565-41| 29
30 |3598-40 |3695-61 |3795-07 |3896-91 |4001-29 |4108-37 |4218-32 |4331- |4447-6333|4567-44 | 30
31 |3600-01 |3697-25 |3796-75 |3898-63 |4003-06 |4110-18 |4220-18 |4333- |4449-6024 4569-46] 31
32 | 3601-61 |3698-89 |3798-43 |3900-35 |4004-82 |4111-99 |4222-04 |4335-16 |4451-56 4571-49| 32
33 |3603-21 |3700-53 |3800-11 |3902-07 |4006-58 |4113-80 |4223-90 |4337-07 |4453-53 |4573-52| 33
34 |3604-82 |3702-17 |3801-79 |3903-79 |4008-35 |4115-61 |4225-76 |4338-98 4455-50 |4575-55| 34
35 |3606-42 |3703-82 |3803-47 |3905-51 4010-11 |4117-42 |4227-62 |4340-90 4457-48 |4577-59) 35
36 | 3608-03 |3705-46 |3805-15 |3907-24 |4011-88 |4119-23 |4229-48 | 4342-81 4459-45 | 4579-62! 36
37 |3609-63 |3707-10 |3806-83 |3908-96 4013-64 |4121-05 |4231-34 4344-73 |4461-42 |4581-65| 37
38 | 3611-24 |3708-74 |3808-51 |3910-68 4015-41 |4122-86 |4233-21 |4346- |4583-69| 38
|4463-40 65
39 |3612-85 |3710- |3912-41 4017-18 |4124-67
|3810-19 39 |4235-07 |4348- |4585-72 | 39
|4465:37 56
40 |3614-46 |3712-03 |3811- |3914-1388 4018-95 |4126-49 |4236-94 |4350-48 |4467-35 |4587-76] 40
41 |3616-06 |3713-68 |3813-56 |3915-86 |4020-72 |4128-31 |4238-80 |4352-40 4469-32 | 4589-80] 41
a2 |3617-67 |3715-32 |3815-25 |3917-58 4022-49 |4130-12 |4240-67 |4354-32 |4471-30 |4591-84] 42
43 |3619-28 |3716-97 |3816-93 |3919-31 |4024-26 |4131-94 |4242-54 |4356-25 |4473-28 |4593-88] 43
44 |3620-89 |3718-62 |3818-62 |3921-04 4026-03 |4133-76 |4244-41 |4358-17 |4475-26 |4595-92] 44
45 |3622-50 |3720-26 |3820-30 |3922-77 |4027-80 |4135:58 |4246-28 |4360-09 |4477-24 |4597-96 | 45
3604-12 |3721-91 |3821-99 |3924-50 |4029-58 |4137-40 4248-15 |4362-02 |4479-22 |4600-01 | 46
ae |Se08-73 |3723-56 |3823-68 |3926-23 |4031-35 4139-22 4250-02 4365-94 | 4481-21 |4602-05] 47
ag. |3627-34 |3725-21 |3825-37 |3927-56 4033-13 |4141-04 4251-89 |4365-87 |4483-19 |4604-10) 48
49 |3628-95 |3726-86 |3827-06 |3929-69 |4034-90 |4142-87 |4253-77 |4367-80 |4485-18 |4606-15} 49
50 |3630-57 |3728-51 |3828-75 |3931-42 |4036-68 4144-69 |4255-64 |4369-72 |4487-16 |4608-19) 50
3632-18 |3730-16 |3830-44 |3933-15 |4038-45 |4146- |4371-65 |4489-15 |4610-24) 51
|4257:52 52
oy |3633.80 |3731-81 |3832-13 |3034- |4040-23 88|4148-34 4259-39 4373-58 4491-14 | 4612-29] 52
53. |3635-41 |3733-47 |3833-82 |3936-62 |4042-01 |4150-17 4261- |4375-51 27|4493-13 |4614-34) 53
54 |3637.03 | 373512 3835-52 | 3938-35 |4043-79 |4151-99 4263-15 |4377-45 |4495-12 4616-40 | 54
Bs |3638- |3837-21 |3940-09 |4045-57 |4153-82 4265-02 4379-38 4497-11
|3736-77 64 |4618-45] 55
| 3738-
3640-26 | 43 | 3941-83
|3838-90 ; |4047-3 5 : |4266-90
Bou |4155-65 90 |4381-3-31 | 4499-10 |4620-50] 56
oe |3641.88 |3740-08 3840-60 |3043-56 4049-13 || 4157-48, 4268 -78
|4383-25 4501-09 |4622-56] 57
B83 |3643 -50
|3741-74 |3842-29 |3945-30 | 4050-92 4159-31 | 4270-67 4385-18 |4503-09 | 4624-62 58
|
4161-14 4272-55 | 4387-12 4505-08 |4626-67 |
3645.12 |3743-40 | 3843-99 | 3947-04 | 4052-70 | 4162-97 | 59
7646-74 |3745-05 | 3645-69 3948-78 |4054-48 | 4274-43 4389-06 |4507-08 | 4628-73 60
Blea
a
sz gs ess eos (055 | 256" | Sr)
1 | °
58° fo}
| 52° | 60
| ° r
 LOGARITHMS
No. 1000———1599 Log. 00000-——20385
7

NN
BN
OO
NR

OY
a

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

2
2
2
2
2
A

2
2
2
2

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

2
2
2
2
2
2 3:
2
2
2
2

For fifth-figure differences see page 174.

 LOGARITHMS
No. 1600——2199 Log. 20412 34223
1 2 4 5 6
20439 | 20466 | 20493 | 20520 20548 20575
161 20710 | 20737 | 20763 | 20790 20817 20844
20978 | 21005 | 21032 | 21059 21085 21112
21245 | 21272 | 21299 | 21325 21352 21378
oN~ is)NN 21511 | 21537 | 21564 | 21590 21617 21643
165 21775 | 21801 | 21827 | 21854 21880 21906
166 22037 | 22063 | 22089 | 22115 22141 22168
167 22298 | 22324 | 22350 | 22376 22402 22427
22557 | 22583 | 22608 | 22634 22660 22686
WNW
NHWNNHNHWNHNWWWD
CO 169 22814 | 22840 | 22866 | 22891 22917 22943
170 23070 | 23096 | 23122 | 23147 23172 23198
171 23325 | 23350 | 23376 | 23401 23426 23452
23578 | 23603 | 23629 | 23654 23679 23704
23830 | 23855 | 23880 | 23905 23930 23955
174 24080 | 24105 | 24130 | 24155 24180 24204
175 24329 | 24353 | 24378 | 24403 24428 24452
176 24576 | 24601 | 24625 | 24650 24675 24699 |
177 24822 | 24846 | 24871 | 24895 24920 24944
178 25066 | 25091 | 25115 | 25140 25164 25188
179 25310 | 25334 | 25358 | 25382 25406 25431
180 25551 | 25576 | 25600 | 25624 25648 25672
181 25792 | 25816 | 25840 | 25864 25888 25912
182 26031 | 26055 | 26079 | 26103 26126 26150
183 26269 | 26293 | 26316 | 26340 26364 26387
184 26505 | 26529 | 26553 | 26576 26600 26623
185 26741 | 26764 | 26788 | 26811 26834 26858
186 nNfon\oN wn N a ‘oOvo)foe) NrSNfo)ie)ord 27045 27068 27091
187 27207 | 27231 | 27254 | 27277 27300 27323
188 27439 | 27462 | 27485 | 27508 27531 27554
189 27669 | 27692 | 27715 | 27738| 27761 27784

190 27898 | 27921 | 27944 | 27967 27990 28012

191 28126 | 28149 | 28172 | 28194 28217 28240
192 28353 | 28375 | 28398 | 28421 28443 28466
193 28578 | 28601 | 28623 | 28646 28668 28691
194 28803 | 28825 | 28847 | 28870 28892 28914
195 29026 | 29048 | 29070 | 29093 29115 29137
NSae INC)%© 196 29248 | 29270 | 29292 | 29314 29336 29358
197 29469 | 29491 | 29513 | 29535 29557 29579
198 29688 | 29710 | 29732 | 29754 29776 29798
199 29907 | 29929 | 29951 | 29973 | 29994 30016

200 30125 | 30146 | 30168 | 30190 30211 30233

201 30341 | 30363 | 30384 | 30406 30428 30449
202 30557 | 30578 | 30600 | 30621 30643 30664
203 30771 | 30792 | 30814 | 30835 30856 30878
204 30984 | 31006 | 31027 | 31048 31069 31091
205 31197 | 31218 | 31239 | 31260 31281 31302
206 31408 | 31429 | 31450 | 31471 31492 31513
207 31618 | 31639 | 31660 | 31681 31702 31723
208 31827 | 31848 | 31869 | 31890 31911 31931
209 32035 | 32056 | 32077 | 32098 32118 32139

210 32243 | 32263 | 32284 | 32305 32325 32346

211 32449 | 32469 | 32490 | 32511 32531 32552
212 32654 | 32675 | 32695 | 32716 32736 32756
213 32858 | 32879 | 32899 | 32919 32940 32960
214 33062 | 33082 | 33102 | 33123 33143 33163
215 33264 | 33284 | 33304 | 33325 33345
216 33466 | 33486 | 33506 | 33526
217 33666 | 33686 | 33706 | 33726
218 33866 | 33886 | 33905 | 33925
So
Bs
GH
Ge
Go
Bo
Ga
Gs
Go
So
aDo
Go
Ge
So
GGW
Ge
So
Do 219
WNHWNHHWNHWWWWN
3G 34064 | 34084 | 34104 | 34124

No 1 2 3 4
For fifth-figure differences see page 174,

159
 .e)
10 LOGS. OF TRIG. FUNCTIONS
190°
Sine Parts | Cosec. Tan. Parts | Cotan. | Secant | Parts | Cosine Be

00-0 | 9:23967| ’ 10-76033 | 9-24632 | ’ 10-75368 | 10-00665 | ’ 9-99335 | 60’

01-0 | 9-24039 | -1 7 | 10.75961 | 9-24706 | -1 7 | 10-75294 | 10-00667 | -1 0 | 9-99333
02:0 | 9-24110 | -2 14 | 10-75890 | 9-24779 | -2 15 | 10-75221 | 10-00669 | -2 0 | 9-99331
03-0 | 9-24181 | -3 21 | 10-75819 | 9-24853 | -3 22 | 10-75147 | 10-00672 | -3 1 | 9-99328
04-0 | 9:24253 | -4 28 | 10:75747 | 9-24926 | -4 29 | 10-75074 | 10-00674 | -4 1 | 9-99326
05-0 | 9-24324| 5 36| 10-75676 | 9-25000 | “ 37 | 10-75000 | 10-00676 | 9 1) 9.99324] 55’
06-0 | 9-24395 | 6 43! 10-75605 | 9-25073 | © 44 | 10-74927 | 10-00678 | 6 1 | 9.99322
07-0 | 9-24466 | °7 50| 10-75534] 9-25146 | ‘7 51 | 10-74854] 10-00681 | “7 2 | 9-99320
08-0 | 9-24536 | 8 57 | 10-75464| 9-25215 | “8 59| 10-74781 | 10-00683 | “8 2 | 9.99317
09-0 | 9-24607 | -9 64) 10-75393 | 9.25292 | “9 6 | 10-74708 | 10-00685 | -9 2 | 9.99315
0-0 9-24678 1410-75323 | 9-25365 167 10-74635 | 10-00687 9-99313 | 50’
1-0 | 9-24748 |‘} 7) 10-75252 |9-25437 | “5 14 |10-74563 | 10-0690 ‘1 0} 9.99310
2-0 | 9-24818 | ‘2 14 | 40.75182 | 9.25510 ba |10-74490 | 10-00692 2 01] 9.99308
3.0 | 9.24888 | > 21) 40.75112 | 9.25582 : ae 10-74418 | 1000694 | “5 1] 9.99306
ao | 9-24958 |“ 28) 10-75042 |9.25655 | “5 36 |10-74345 |10-00696 Pee ex
. 9-25028 | |g 4> | 10:74972 |9-25727 | .¢ 43 | 10:74273 | 10-00699 | ¢ 1 | 9-99301 | 45’
925098 | (> 4g | 10-74902 | 9-25799 | .7 50 | 10-74201 | 10-00701 |7 9 | 9-99299
925168 | 5g cg | 10-74832 | 9-25871 | .g 5g | 10-74129| 1000703 3 9 | 9-99297
9-25237 | 9 @3 | 10-74763 | 9-25943 |.g 65 | 10-74057 | 10-00706 |g 9 | 9:99294
9-25307 10-74693 | 9-26015 10-73985 | 10-00708 9-99292
tae eee) a ph
Ween
20-0 | 9-25376| | | 10-74624| 9.26086 || 7 |10-73914 10-00710 | 9-99290 | 40’
21-0 | 925445 | “5 14 | 10-74555 |9-26158 | (5 14 | 10:73842 | 10-00713 ‘1 0) 9.99288
22-0 | 9-25514| “5 5) | 10-7486 | 9-26229 | “5 5) | 10:73771 | 10-00715| ‘2 0) 9.99285
23-0 | 9-25583 | “7 5° | 10-7417 | 9-26301 | “4 5g |10-73700 | 10-00717 ° ‘3 1) 9.99283
24-0 | 9-25652 | 2 21 | 10-74348 |9.26372 | (5 36 |10-73628 | 10-0719 i 9-99281
25-0 | 9-25721| ¢ 4] | 10:74279 | 9-26443 | .¢ 43 | 10-73557 | 10-00722 | § | 9-99278| 35’
26-0 | 9:25790 | .7 4g | 10:74210} 9-26514| .7 50 | 10-73486 | 1000724 | 7 5 | 9-99276
27-0 | 9-25858 | .g 55 | 10-74142 | 9-26585 | .g 57 | 10:73415 | 10-00727| 3 9) 9-99274
28-0 | 9-25927 | .g 62 | 10:74073 | 9-26656 | .g 64 | 10-73345} 10:00729 | g 5) 9-99271
29:0 | 9-25995 10-74005 | 9-26726 10:73274 | 10-00731 | 9-99269
30-0 | 9:26063 || _ | 10:73937 |9.26797 | 7 |10-73203 |10-0073 | 9-99267 | 30’
31-0 | 9-26131 | (5 14 | 10-73869 |9-26867 | (5 14 | 10:73133 |10-0736 | ‘1 0) 9.99264
32-0 | 9-26199 | °¢ 57 | 10-73801 |9.26938 | “3 5) | 10-73063 |10-00738 2 0) 9.99262
33-0 | 9-26267 | “2 5m | 10-73733 |9-27008 | °; 53 | 10-72992 |10-00740 3 1) 9.99260
34-0 | 9-26335 | “2 21 | 10:73665 |9.27078 | (5 35 |10-72922 |10-00743 ‘4 1 | 9.99257
35-0 | 9-26403 |¢ 4) | 10-73597 | 9-27148 |6 42) 10-72852 | 10-00745 x a 9-99255 | 25’
36-0 | 9:26470 | .7 47 | 10:73530] 9-27218| .7 4g | 10-72782| 10-00748| 7 5 | 9-99253
37-0 | 9:26538 | .g sq | 10-73462 | 9-27288 | .g 56 | 10:72712| 10-00750| 3 5) 9:99250
38-0 | 9-26605 | .g 6) | 10:73395 | 9-27357 | .g 63 |10-72643 | 10-00752 | 9 5 9:99248
39-0 | 9-26672 10-73328 | 9-27427 10-72573 | 10-00755 | 9-99245
40-0 | 9-26740| | | 10-73261 |9.27496 10-72504 | 10-00757 | 9-99243 | 20’
41-0 | 9-26807 | “5 14 | 10-73194 | 9-27566 ‘lL 7) 40-72434 | 10-00759 | “1 9 9.99244
42:0 | 9-26873 bo |10:73127 |9-27635 2 14 | 40-72365 | 10-00762 | “2 © 9.99238
43-0 | 9:26940 : 5» | 10-73060 | 9-27704 3 21 | 40.72296 | 1000764 |© 1 9.99236
aa-o | 927007) 2" | 10-72993 |9.27773 : an 10-72227 | 10:00767 | “* 1 9.99234
45-0 | 9-27074| (2 3) 10-72927 |9-27842 | 2 3) | 10-72158| 10-00769 |2 2 | 9.99231 |75°
46-0 | 9-27140 7 47 | 10-72860 |9-27911 | 7 4g | 10-72089 | 10-0071 6 1| 9.99229
47-0 | 9-27206 | (5 53 | 1072794] 9-27980| .g <5 | 10-72020 | 10-0074 T 2) 9.99236
48-0 | 9-27273 | .g 6 | 1072727 | 9-28049 | g G | 10-71951 | 10-00776 8 2 | 5.99224
49:0 | 9-27339 10-72661 | 9-28117 10-71883 |1000779 |2 2 9.99224
50-0 | 9-27405| 10-72595 | 9-28186 10-71814 | 10-00781 9-99219 | 10’
51-0 | 9-27471 | -1 7 | 10-72529 | 9-28254| -1 7] 10-71746] 10-00783 | -1 ©. 9-99217
52:0 | 9-27537 | -2 13 | 10-72463 | 9-28323 | -2 14 | 10-71678| 10-00786 | -2 ©. 9-99214
53-0 | 9-27603 | -3 20 | 10-72398 | 9-28391 | -3 20] 10-71609 | 10-00788 | -3 1. 9-99212
54-0 | 9:27668 | -4 26 | 10-72332 | 9-28459 | -4 27 | 10-71541 | 10-00791 | -4 1. 9.99209
55-0 | 9-27734| °9 55 | 10-72266 | 9-28527 | “9 34 | 10-71473 | 10-00793 |5 1) 9.992074 57
56-0 | 9-27799 | “© 39 | 10-72201 | 9-28595 | “6 41 | 10.71405 | 10-00796 |6 1] 9.99204
57-0 | 9-27865 | «7? 46 | 10-72136 | 9-28662 | “7 48) 10-71338 | 10-00798 | -7 2] 9.99202
58:0 | 9:27930 | “8 52 | 10-72070 | 9-28730 | ‘8 54 10-71270 | 10-00800 |8 2] 9.99200
59-0 | 9-27995 | “9 59 | 10-72005 | 9-28798 | *9 61 | 10-71202 | 10-00803 |9 2] 9.99197
60-0 | 9-28060 10-71940 | 9-28865 10-71135 | 10-00805 9:99195 | 0
169°
349°
160
 LOGS. OF TRIG. FUNCTIONS
226°
eae Sine Parts | Cosec. Tan. | Parts | Cotan. Secant Parts | Cosine
—$<$<$<—$$
|
00-0 | 9-85693 | ’ 10-14307 | 10-01516 | ’
01-0 | 9-85706 9-98 ¢ .
10-14294 | 10-01542 SOLS Raat eae
02-0 9-85718 | -1 1 10-14282 | 10-01567 | -1 3 9-98433 | 1015849 | -1 11] 9.94154
03-0 | 9-85730 10-14270 | 10-01592 9-98408 | 10-15862
04:0 | 9-85742 10-14258 | 10-01617 984138
9-98383 | 10 15875 9 84125
05-0 | 985754 |2 2| 10-14246] 10-01643| 2 5 | 9.9 :
06-0 | 9-85767 : :
10-14234 | 10-01668 eeu 1818062 ene eettss
07:0 | 9-85779 10-14221 | 10-01693 9-98307
08-0 | 985791 | 10-15915 9-84085
|3 4 | 10-14209 | 10-01719 |3 3 | 9.98281 | 10-15928 3 4 | 9-84072
09:0 | 9-85803 10-14197 | 10-01744 9:98256 | 10-15944 9-84059
10:0 | 9-85815 10-14185 | 10-01769 9-98231 | 10-
11-0 | 985827 |4 5 | 10-14173 | 10-01794 :
| 4 10 | 9-98206 ieisver AES
12:0 | 9-85839 10:14161 | 10-01820 9-98180 | 10-15980 | * > 9-84020
13-0 | 9-85851 10-14149 | 10-01845 9:98155 | 10-15994
14-0 | 9-85864 5 6 | 1014137 | 10-01870 9-84006
9-98130 | 10-16007 9-83993
9-85876 1014124 | 10-01896 | © 38 998104 | 10-16020| © 7” 9-83980
9-85888 10-14112 | 10-01921 9-98079 | 10-16033
9-85900 10-14100 9-83967
| 10-01946 9-98054 | 10-16046 9-83954
985912 |© 7] 40-14088 | 10-01971 | 6 15] 9.99029 | 10-16060 | 6 8 9-83940
9-85924 10:14076 | 10-01997 9-98003 | 10-16073 9-83927
9-85936 10-14064 | 10-02022 9:97978 | 10-16086 :
9-85948 |“7 8 | 10-14052 | 10-02047 | “7 18 | 9.97953] 10-16099 | -7 9 9.83901 |
9-85960 10-14040 | 10-02073 9:97927 | 10-16113 9-83888
9-85972 10-14028 | 10-02098 9-97902 | 10-16126 9.83874
985984 | 8 10 | 10-14016 | 10-02123 | -g 20 | 9-97877] 10-16139| -g 11 | 9-83861
9-85996 10-14004 | 10-02149 9:97852 | 10-16152 9-83848
9-86008 10-13992 | 10-02174 9-97826 | 10:16166 9-83834
986020 | -9 11 | 10-13980 | 10-02199 | -9 23 9-97801 | 10-16179 | .9 12 | 9.83821
9-86032 10-13968 | 10-02224 9-97776 | 10-16192 9-83808
9-86044 10-13956 | 10-02250 9:97750 | 10:16206 9-83795
: 9-86056 10-13944 | 10-02275 9:97725 | 10-16219 9-83781
i 986068 10-13932 | 10-02300 9:97700 | 10-16232 9-83768
32-0 | 986080 /) 1 | 10-13920 | 10-02326 |; 3 | 9-97674] 10-16245| | 9.83755
33 986092 10-13908 | 10-02351 9:97649 | 10-16259 9-83741
34 9-86104 10:13896 | 10-02376 9-97624 | 10-16272 9-83728
35 986116 | 9 2 | 1013884] 1002402] 2 5 | 9-97599 | 10-16285] » 3 | 9-83715
36 9-86128 10-13872 | 10-02427 9:97573 | 10-16299 9-83701
37 9-86140 10-13860 | 10-02452 9:97548 | 10-16312 9-83688
38 9-86152 10-13848 | 10-02477 |, , |9-97523 |10-16326 9-83675
39 9:86164| © | 10-13836 | 10-02503 9-97497 | 10:16339 | © 41] 9.83664
9-86176 10-13824 | 10-02528 9-97472 | 10-16352 9-83648
9-86188 10-13812 | 10-02553 9:97447 | 10-16366 9-83634
9-86200 | “* 5] 10-13800 | 10-02579 |* 10] 9.97421 | 10-16379 | “4 5 9.83624
9-86212 10-13789 | 10-02604 9-97396 | 10-16393 9-83608
9-86223 10-13777 | 10-02629 9-97371 | 10-16406 9:83594
9-:86235 | © ©| 10-13765 | 10-02655 |° 15 | 9.97345 | 10-16419| 5 71| 9.93584
9-86247 10-13753 | 10-02680 9-97320 | 10-16433 9-83567
9-86259 10-13741 | 10-02705 9:97295 | 10-16446 9:83554
9-86271 | 6 7] 10-13729 10-02731 | 6 15 | 9-97270 | 10-16460 | -6 8] 9-83540
9-86283 10-13717 10-02756 9-97244 | 10-16473 9:83527
9-86295 10-13705 1002781 997219 | 10-16487 9-83513
9-86306 | -7 8 | 10-13694 | 10-02807 | -7 18 | 9-97194 | 10-16500| -7 9 | 9-83500
9-86318 10-13682 | 10-02832 9-97168 | 1016514 9-83487
9-86330 10-13670 | 10-02857 9-97143 | 10-16527 9-83473
9-86342 | .g 30 | 10-13658 | 10-02883 | 3 9, | 9-97118| 10-16541 | .g 31 | 9-83460
9-86354 10-13646 | 10-02908 9-97092 | 1016554 9-83446
9-86366 10-13634 | 10-02933 9:97067 | 10-16568 9-83433
9:86377 | .g 31 | 10-13623 | 10-02958 |4 53 | 9-97042 | 10-16581 | 9 yj. | 9-83419
986389
9-86401
10-13611 | 10-02984 9-97016 | 10-16595 9-83405
10-13599 10-03009 9-96991 | 10-16608 9-83392
8SSI8H
FAS2e
esse
gasses
Coe 9-86413
66666
666566
SSSS9S0
66666
COCCS 10-13587 10-03034 9-96966 | 10:16622 9-83378

LSS
BBA

161
NATURALS, 1.
 oO
48 HAVERSINES
Se) =) 4
6 8
Log. | Nat. Log. | Nat. | Log. | Nat. Log.
| Nat. | Log. | Nat.

1654
weeea ilstern weeee 24874 |16548 |21880 |16550 |2188s |16552
esos Va4g25 |1zeer |ogee, 16561 |21914 |16563
16569 |21936 |16572 |2
580 |21965 |16582
16587 |21982 |16589 |21987 |16591 |21993 |16593 |21999 |tes98
16608 |za0a8 |teett |zzoae |tees |Zango
16619 | 22067
|1eens
2050 | 16615 |
| ages
22055 ||16606
1
| 16621 | 22072 | 166 24 | 22078 | 16626 | 22084 | 1 6628
16630 | 22095 | 16632 | 22101 | 16634 | 2 2106 | 16637 | 2211 6639
16641 | 22123 | 16643 | 22129 | 16645 | 22135 | 16647 22140 16650
16652 | 22151 | 16654 | 22157 | 16656 | 22163 | 16658
16663 | 22180 | 16665 | 22185 | 16667 | 22191 | 16669 297 16671
16673 | 22208 | 16676 | 22214 | 16678 | 22219 | 16680 | 22225 | 16682
16684 | 22236 | 16686 | 22242 | 16689 | 22248 | 16691 | 22253 | 16693
16695 | 22264 | 16697 | 22270 | 16699 | 22276 | 16702 | 22281 | 16704
16706 | 22293 | 16708 | 22298 | 16710 | 22304 | 16712 | 2231
16717 | 22321 | 16719 | 22326 | 16721 | 22332 | 16723 22338 iene
16728 | 22349 | 16730 | 22355 | 16732 | 22360 | 16734 | 22366 | 16736
16738 | 22377 | 16741 | 22383 | 16743 | 22389 | 16745 | 22394 | 16747
16749 | 22405 | 16752 | 22411 | 16754 | 22417 | 16756 | 22422 | 16758
16760 | 22434 | 16762 | 22439 | 16765 | 22445 | 16767 | 22450 | 16769
16771 | 22462 | 16773 | 22467 | 16775 | 22473 | 16778 | 22479 | 16780
16782 | 22490 | 16784 | 22495 | 16786 | 22501 | 16788 | 22507 | 16791
16793 | 22518 | 16795 | 22524 | 16797 | 22529 | 16799 } 22535 | 16802
16804 | 22546 | 16806 | 22552 | 16808 | 22557 | 16810 | 22563 | 16812
16815 | 22574 | 16817 | 22580 | 16819 | 22585 | 16821 | 22591 | 16823
16825 | 22602 | 16828 | 22608 | 16830 | 22614 | 16832 | 22619 | 16834
16836 | 22630 | 16839 | 22636 | 16841 | 22642 | 16843 | 22647 | 16845
16847 | 22658 | 16849 | 22664 | 16852 | 22670 | 16854 | 22675 | 16856
16858 | 22686 | 16860 | 22692 | 16862 | 22698 | 16865 | 22703 | 16867
16869 | 22715 | 16871 | 22720 | 16873 | 22726 | 16876 | 22731 | 16878
16880 | 22743 | 16882 | 22748 | 16884 | 22754 | 16886 | 22759 | 16889
16891 | 22771 | 16893 | 22776 | 16895 | 22782 | 16897 | 22787 | 16900
16902 | 22799 | 16904 | 22804 | 16906 | 22810 | 16908 | 22815 | 16910
16913 | 22827 | 16915 | 22832 | 16917 | 22838 | 16919 | 22843 | 16921
16924 | 22854 | 16926 | 22860 | 16928 | 22866 | 16930 | 22871 | 16932
16934 | 22883 | 16937 | 22888 | 16939 | 22894 | 16941 | 22899 | 16943
16945 | 22911 | 16947 | 22916 | 16950 | 22922 | 16952 | 22927 | 16954
16956 | 22939 | 16958 | 22944 | 16961 | 22950 | 16963 } 22955 | 16965
16967 | 22966 | 16969 | 22972 | 16972 | 22978 | 16974 | 22983 | 16976
16978 | 22994 | 16980 | 23000 | 16982 | 23006 | 16985 | 23011 | 16987
16989 | 23022 | 16991 | 23028 | 16993 |23033 | 16996 | 23039 | 16998
| 17002 | 23056 | 17004 | 23061 | 17006 | 23067 17009
17000 | 23050
| 17013 | 23084 | 17015 | 23089 | 17017 | 23095 17020
47011 | 23078
| 17024 | 23112 | 17026 | 23117 | 17028 | 23123 17030
47022 | 23106
| 17035 | 23140 | 17037 | 23145 | 17039 23151 | 17041
17033 | 23134
| 17046 | 23167 | 17048 | 23173 | 17050 23179 | 17052
17044 | 23162
| 17057 | 23195 | 17059 | 22201 | 17061 23206 | 17063
47055 | 23190
| 17068 | 23223 | 17070 | 23229 17072 | 23234 | 17074
17066 | 23218
| 17079 | 23251 | 17081 | 23256 17083 | 23262 | 17085
17076 | 23245
| 17090 | 23279 | 17092 | 23284 17094 | 23290 | 17096
17087 | 23273
| 17101 | 23307 | 17103 | 23312 17105 | 23318 | 17107
47098 | 23301 | 23345 | 17118
| 17112 | 23334 | 17114 | 23340 17116
47109 | 23329 | 23373 | 17129
| 17122 | 23362 | 17125 23368 | 17127
47120 | 23357 | 23401 | 17140
| 17133 | 23390 | 17136 23395 | 17138
47131 | 23384
| 17144 | 23418 | 17147 23423 | 17149 } 23429 | 17151
47142 | 23412 | 17160 | 23457 | 17162
| 17155 | 23446 | 17158 23451
17153 | 23440 | 17171 | 23484 | 17173
| 17166 | 23473 | 17169 23479
17164 | 23468 | 17182 | 23512 | 17184
| 17177 | 23501 | 17179 23507
17175 | 23496 | 17193 | 23540 | 17195
| 17188 | 23529 | 17190 23534
17186 | 23523
fe 4 b)
:)

LOGS. 3; NATURALS, 1.
PARTS for 0%-1 :—

163
 HAVERSINES

Bl

PARTS for 0’-1 :— LOGS. 2; NATURALS, 1.

164
 HAVERSINES

42410 | 26552 | 58
42431 | 26565 | 57
42452 |26578 | 56
42473 | 26591 | 55
42494 | 26604 | 54
42515 | 26616 | 53
42536 | 26629 | 52
42557 | 26642 | 51
42578 | 26655 | 50
42599 | 26668 | 49
42620 | 26681 | 48
42641 | 26694 | 47
42662 | 26706 ) 46
42682 | 26719 | 45
42703 | 26732 | 44
42724 | 26745 | 43
42745 | 26758 | 42
42766 | 26771 | 41
42787 | 26784 | 40
42808 | 26797 | 39
42829 | 26809 | 38
42850 | 26822 | 37
42870 | 26835 | 36
42891 | 26848 | 35
42912 | 26861 | 34
42933 | 26874 | 33
42954 | 26887 | 32
42975 | 26900 | 31
42996 | 26913 | 30
43016 | 26925 | 29
43037 | 26938 | 28
43058 | 26951 | 27
43079 | 26964 | 26
43100 | 26977 | 25
43120 | 26990 | 24
43141 | 27003 | 23
43162 | 27016 | 22
43183 | 27029 | 21
43203 | 27042 | 20
43224 | 27055 | 19
43245 | 27068 | 18
43266 | 27080 | 17
43286 | 27093 | 16
43307 | 27106 | 15
43328 | 27119 | 14
43348 | 27132 | 13
43369 | 27145 | 12
43390 | 27158 | 11
43411 | 27171 | 10
43431 | 27184 | 09
43452 | 27197 | 08
43473 | 27210 | 07
43493 | 27223 | 06
43514 | 27236 | 05
43535 | 27249 | 04
43555 | 27262 | 03
43576 | 27275 | 02
43596 |27288 | 01
43617 | 27300 | 00

fe)
NATURALS, 1. 297
PARTS for 0’-1 :—
 TABLE A — Hour ANGLE A
A
47° 48° |49° 50°| 51° 52° 53° 54° 55° 56° 57° |58° 59°. 60° Tae
313° 31243119 310°] 309° 308° 307° 306*| 305° 304*| 303° 3021 301° 300° °
0 00 00} 00, 00] 00 -00 “00! -00! 00 00] -00' 00] -00 -00] 0
02! -02) -o2| -o1| -o1| -o1] ol; OL] -O1| OL] OL; OL] 01 OL} 1
1 -03] -02' 02] 02, 02] 02 02) 2
2 03' 03) -03! -03| -03| 03] 03'
3 05-05] -05! 04] 04) -04] -04; -04] -04| 04] 03) 037 03, 03] 3
07| 061 -06| .06| -06| 05] -05| -05] -05| -05| -05| 04] 04 04] 4
4 06] 06) 067 06, 05] 05 05] 5
5 08' 08} -08 -07| -07| -07] 07,
10 -09| 09) 09] 09, 08] 08 -08] 07) O07} 07 O07; 06 06] 6
6 -09] -09) 08] -081 OS)" 07° -O7) 7
7 1} *21| -11| -10] -10| 10] -09|
8 Ast asl alae) | ai) <1)! 0 110i), 09) 091 S024 308s 508 bes
9 ag) 4) a4) ag) 1s |)<12] Jee 2 iL) <1), oe ig eo, oe
161) 16) Ye) ats) 14) 414) +13) 13/512)! “1a id), atone
10
11 18) qel a7 ael a6| 15) 15| 14] 14) 1s] 13) 12) “1a) 21) 41
12 20! 19) -18| -1g| 17| 17] -16| -15] -15| -14] -14| 15] -13) -l2] 12
13 22) 211 90) 19} 19 |) “18! -17) 17] “16] 16) -15) 14) 14) Teits
14 .93| .22| -22| -21] -20| -19} -19| -18] -17| -17] +16) -16] -15, -14) 14
15 95| 241 -23| 221 -22| -21] 20) -19] -19| -18] -17| 17] -16!~-15] 15
16 27| 96) -25| -24| -23) -22] -22| 21] -20| -19] -19| 18] -17| -17) 16
17 .29| .98| -27| -26] -25| -24] -23| -22] -21) -21] -20| 19) 18) -18) 17
30 | 29] -28| -27] -26| -25| -24| -24] -23| -22] -21| 20] -20 -19] 18
18 -25] -24| -23] -22| -22] -21) -20] 19
19 -32| 311 -30| -29] -28| -27] -26|
-34| -331 -32| 31] -29| -28] 27) -26] -25| -24)
-25| -23] -22; -21) 20
20
21 36-35] 33) 32] 31) “30 29| -28| -27| -25|
-26] -24] -23' -22) 21
22 -38| -36] -35| -341 -33| -32] -30| -29] -28| -26|
-27] -25] -24, -23) 22
23 .40| 381 -37| 361 -34| -33| -32| -31] -30| 28]
-29] -27| -26' -25] 23
24 42| 40] -39| -37] -36| -35] -34| -32] -31| -29)
-30] 28] -27, -267 24
25 44| 42] -41| 30] 38) -36| -35| -34] -33| -30)
31] 29] -28 -27) 26
26 .46| -44] -42| -41] -39| -38] -37| -35] -34| -32|
-33] -30] -29 -28] 26
27 .48| .46] -44| -43] -41| -40] -38) -37| -36| -33)
-34] 32] -31 -29] 27
28 50| -48] -46| -45] -43| -42] -40| -39] -37| -35)
-36] 33] -32) -3L] 28
29 52| -50/ -48| -47] -45| -43] -42] -40] 39) -37] -36) -35] -33° -32] 29
30 54| -521 -50| -48] -47| -45| -44) -42] 40) -39] -37) 36] 35 -33] 30
31 56| 54] 52) 50] -49| -47] -45\ -44] -42|) 40] 39° 38] 36-35] 31
32 58| 56] -54| 52] S1| -49] -47) 45) 44) 42) -41 39] -38' -36] 32
33 61! -581 -56| -551 -53| 51} -49| -47] -45| -44] -42| -41] -39! -37] 33
34 63| -61| -59| -57| -55| -53] -51| -49] -47| -46] -44| -42] -41| -39] 34
35 65| 63] -61| 59] -57| 55] 53| Sl] 49) 47] -45| 44) -42/ -40) 35
36 68! -651 -63| -61] -59| 57] -55| -53] -51| -49] -47| 45] -44/) -42] 36
37 70| -681 -66| -63) -61| 59} -57| 55] -53| Sl] -49|) 47] -45! -44] 37
38 73! -70] -68| -66| -63| 61] 59! -57] -55| -53] -51) -49] -47) -45] 38
39 76| -731 -70| -68| -66| -63] -61| -59] -57| -55] -53| -Sl} -49, -47] 39
40 78| -76] -73| -70] -68| -66] -63, -61] -59| -57] -55| -52] -50| -48] 40
a1 81| -781 -76| -73] -70| -68] -66| -63] -61| -59] -56) -547 -52, -50] 41
42 84| -81] -78) -76] -73| -70] -68| 65] -637 -61] -58| -S6] -54 -52| 42
43 87) -84] -81| -78] -76| -73] -70| -68] -65| -63] -61| -58] -56: -54] 43
44 90| -87] -84| -81] -78| -75] -73| -70] -68| -65] -63/ -60] -58. -56] 44
45 : 93| 90] -87| -84| -81| -78] -75) -73] -70) -68] -65) -63] -60 -58] 45
46 1:00] -97| 93] -90| -87] -84| -81] -78| -75] -73) -70] -67| -65] -62. -60] 46
ydaoxa
oysoddo
e[BUY
‘opnyyey]
pomeN—yw
03
.06
usyA
INoP{
SI
U9EM4eq
PUB
oOLZ
47 1:04}1-00| -97] -93) -90} -87| -84] -81| -78] -75| -72] -70| 67] -64! -62] 47 270°
Angle
and
90°
between
Hour
is
when
except
Latitude,
opposite
A—Name
to
48 1:07] 1-04|1-00] -97| -93] -90| -87] -84| -81] -78| -75] -72| -69] 67 -64] 48
49 |1-11]1-07|1-04]1-00| -97] -93| -90] -87| -84] -81| -78] -75| -72] -69 -66] 49
50 115] 1-11 /1-07]1-04|1-00] -97) -93] -90| -87] -83| -80] -77| -75] -72' -69] 50
51 1:19] 1-15 |1-11]1-07|1-04]1-00) -97] -93, -90] -86| -83] -80, -77] -74 -71] 51
52 1-24}1-19 1-15}1-|11 1-07]1-04/1-00] -96 -93] -90 -86] -83| -80] -77 -74] 52
53 1-28} 1-24 |1-19} 1-15} 1-11] 1-07|1-04]1-00 -96] -93, -90] -86|) -83] -80 -77] 53
54 11-33 |1-28 |1-24] 1-20! 1-15} 1-11 |1-08]1-04 1-00] 96) -93] 89 -86} -83 -79] 54
55 1-38] 1-33 |1-29] 1-24 1-20]1-16 |1-12]1-08 1-04]1-:00 -96] -93) -89] -86 -82] 55
56 1-43] 1-38 1-34] 1-29 1-24]1-20 1-16] 1-12 |1-08}1-04 1-00] 96. -93] -89 -86] 56
57 1-49] 1-44 1-39] 1-34 |1-29]1-|25 1-20]1-16 1-12]1-08 1:04]1-:00 -96] -93 -89] 57
58 1:55]1-49 1-44]1-39 1-34] 1-30 |1-25]1-21 1-16]112 1-08}1-04 100] -96 -92] 58
59 1-61} 1-55 |1-50} 1-45 |1-40} 1-35 |1-30] 1-25 |1-21 1-17|1-12 1-08 1:04]1-00' -96| 59
60 1-67 ease 1-51 |1-45] 1-40 |1-35] 1-31 |1-26 [1-21 1-17] 1-12) 1-08] 1-04 1-00 |60
130°} 129° 128° 127° 126°) 125°, 124°) 123°, 122° 121° 1207]
=a | | at.!
| ; | |
227°| 228°} 229° 230°} 231°| 232° 233°| 234°} 235° 236° 237°| 238° 239° 240°

A HOUR ANGLE A

166
 TABLE B — nour ancte.
foe | | 9° 50" | 51) 56°]
Heel 313 ee th 310° uk 308"] 307° 306% 305° 304] 57°58° |
4 °

59° 60°
° ° | ° ° | Pm

j ‘ 00| -
303° 3024 301° 3007 »
: 00! -o0| - 00! - 0! - i
02 02] 02 -02] -02 | oO
02] -o2 02 2. 02 02 2| 02 02| 02
705; -O5] -05) -05] -05, -05
O7| -O7] 07; O71 -67; 07] -07! 07] .67|
‘10| -10] -10)
-
-09} -09, -09] -09; -09] -.99| 08
12) 12) 32) 12) 12) 1) 11) -u} | -n
15] 15] -14] -14] -14| -14] 14] 13) 13] 13
CALA) LUE Ale) cilye) | cals, | ale 16; 16} -15|
9) -19)} -19)| -18 18) -18] -18| -17
20) -20] -20| -20
‘23, -22| -22| .22 Nawn-o
CON

‘25| -25] -24| -24

‘27. 27) -27| -26
30-29] -29 -29
<2. 9-32'1 231 | 31
34-34] 34) -33
37) 36] -36| -35
39-39] -38/ -38
42-41] -41 -40
44-44] 43-43
RS
at
tk
et
ek
etTN
SOBNM
PWNH|
TaWNHN$O
CHOBNA 47, 461 -46, -45
49° -49] -48° -47
‘52, 51] -51) -50
55-54] -53) -52
‘57 57] -56) -55
60 59] 58 -58
63-62] 61-60
66 65) 64 63
68 67] 67. -66
‘71 -70) 69. -69
‘174 -73| -72| -71
‘17 -76) -75. °74
WW
WONHNHN
YHYHND ‘80 -79] -78 -77
84-82] -81 -80
‘87 «-86| -84 83
90-89] -88 87
93-92] -91' -90
1:00 -98
1-07 1-05] 1-04 1. 90
1-11 1-09]1-07 1- 94-94
115 /1-13]1-11 1-10]1-08 1-06] 1-05 |1-04 98-97
“UOTPRUTPIT,
s{eaty—g
OWES
SV
94}
pomeu
119 1:17]1-15 1-13]1-12 1-10]1-09 |1-07 1-01 |1-00
1-23 1-21] 1-19 |1-18]1-16 |1-14] 1-13 |1-11 1-05 1-04 B—Always
the
named
Declination,
same
as
1-28 |1-25] 1-24 |1-22] 1-20 1-18]1-17 |1-15 1-09 1-08
1-32 1-30]1-28 1-26]1-24 1-23]1-21 1-19 113 1-12
1-37 |1-35]1-33 1-31]1-29 1-27]1-25 1-24 1:17 1-15
1-42 1-39]1-37 1-35]1-33 1-31]1-30 1-28 1-21 1-20
1-47 |1-44]1-42 1-40]1-38 1-36] 1-34 1-33 1-25 1-24
1-52 1-49]1-47 1-45]1-43 1-41]1-39 1:37 1:30 |1-28
157 1-55]1-52 1-50]1-48 1-46]1-44 1-42 1-34 1-33
1-63 1-60]1-58 1:56]1:53 1-51]1-49 1-47 1:39 1-38
1-69 1-66] 1-64 1-61]1-59 1-57]1-55 1-53 1-44 1-43
1-75 1-72] 1-70 1-67]1-65 1-62]1-60 1-58 1-49 1-48
1:81 1-79]1-76 1-73]1-71 1-68]1-66 1-64 1-55 |1-53
1-88 1-85]1-82 1-80}1-77 1-75]|1-72 1-70 1-61 |1-59
95 1-92]1-89 1-86]1-84 1-81]1-79 1-77 1-67 |1-65
03 2:00]1-96 1-94]1-91 1-88]1-86 1-83 1:73 1-71
‘11 2-07] 2-04 2-01}1-98 1-95]1-93 1-90 1:80 1-78
19 2:15]2-12 2:09]2-06 2:03]2-00 1-98 1-87 1-85
2-28 2-24]2-21 2:17]214 2-11] 2-08 2-06 1-94 1-92
26|2:23 2-20]2-17 214 2:02 |2:00

HOUR ANGLE.
 TABLE C
A. & B. CORRECTION.

AZIMUTHS.
° ° !

69-7 |69:2
69:8 =—=3
nm

70:0
70:2
70:6 BSS
. OOD
rxSVT
o
enter
Eee

70-8
AW (loi
HADWY
71:3

5:2
71-6
TAs) SLASP
BBBEB
NoOaAWN
INOAG

7 5-4 12-2
Ul5:6 72-4
7 Ssh 72-6
ti5:9)
7 6:0
HE
>.
HFOOOO
UNE
543
a3 AF
72:8
WNWNNN]
O 129
ANOoOA|
35445
34333) Of IrIAIAIAI|
ADAM
COOO®
HrOOO!]
SCOONON
RrHrO|
IAVDAA
NIAAA)
DIO
PO
,
LSSHs
S8SS8|8SSSI5
ADMHDHM
SCOCODDO
NADODAN
DRHOGD
CADWH|

a 6:2 WS1
4 6-4 13)
t 6:5 (ED
7 6:7 1t
7 6:9 74-0

7 (al 74:2
7 7:2 74-4
Ul7-4 74-6 DAKO
GDOIBKH
DAANHKoOD!|
AnAVNOw®
OVO]
G 7:6 PD
an Om 74:9 aAnror
AnNom!] S8I935
SSShE,
S8S88|
2322/SSS
7 78 ~J 75-1
Seine)
Seal) |I
AYIAKDAKO]
YWoOGAND
ADAKOSD
AVNOAA
OIPNO|]
yaya

7 8-0 TS
7 8-2 75:6
7 8-4 TRS
7 8-6 76:1
7 89 yJaI444
A
oraa3a4 76-4 aAAWNN|]
|NOPE
BRERA
in
ed
gg

7 91 766
7 9:3 76:9
i 9:5 T2
7 9:8 77-4 DACAIN
OnANd|]
8 0:0 4d ari AAI
|4a
yA aIyInI44I |ISa OHUSH|AHWOBH
BESO
NOHHS
ANSHH|
OOAAH
SAvon|
|S8SSSh
SOCOO
HKHFPrOO
NONNH|
BAANACH
AanSS|
SASS
Oo
aa
ass
Qjaga4aaf

8 0-2 =] COROS
GB 78:0 aD
Onannn
8 0:5 OG
HOIGW
DD
AHKODS| OD
NSOOHHA]|
AWOoA
SHOHDHh
HORDNHOD
DAHOH|
CIBH
THON]
Sm
8 0:7 i) pe
ee)
8 1:0
8 1:2

8 eo D1
Orr
O01
2,
CCC!
at
Ona
OC
COI]
00/00100)
COs
8 ley
8 2:0 AAUNN
HEHE!
ANIBDAH|AGAAAH
DODDDA
BOO! RO
Aad
COLO0
II
eta
OO
OO
sCOCO
8 Yay
8 2:5 TA
WAV
YNAAAA!
3IIIN
wmowonora|
eeANOOW
ANOAD
ANSCOD|]
OnabHwO|
ADNOA
FHaHANSO|
PEK) EapOT|
WONUD
DANOM]
POTAH

8 2:8 AA|
AAAAR2A
AVA
AT
VIA
AJIVAA|]
33399
ootdjdj3/
©(Si
SHS) YWINAANA
@erIAIAIA|
oOo
83 0 AAFOAN|
COIMNSO
OHAOCT
ANSaNY|
5D OO
5S AAVAA
ANYAT|
3394292
Jy932349/
or
83 3
83 6 =)PHHOH
PYNOAH|
Band
288s
|)
BNAMHH
FHHWN
ATAMRD
OCODDO]

A & B Qame names\ RULE TO FIND (A & B ifferent names,

take um, (add.) {CG CORRECTION take ifference, (sub.)
C CORRECTION, (A+B) is named the same as the greater of these quantities.
AZIMUTH takes combined names of € Correction and Hour Angle.

168
 TABLE C
A & B CORRECTION.
-72'
| -74’
AZIMUTHS.
unl ° |
|
SHE)5) 52:85
DOS 52:95
54:7|5 53-2)5
Ho as 53-6 n
DaAaann 54-1|noANNND
55:6 nn.BBAAN hOANS
ele
Sel
Reaes
ADNannn hOLKO

09:9 54:5|
56:3 54:8|
56:7| 5922
Sil Sri
57-6| 56-1 OOannn
AnBA HHSOO0
COHDH
NODNo
58-1 56:6
58:3 56:9
58-6| S12
63 Beh) | DES
6. 59:2 57:8 FOMra@
FPoOmno|]

6 58-1
6 58-4
6 58-7 DY
onBAW
WWHN
Nonnn
Non
ONnanns
6 59°
6 MMM RG)
tone
fame
aANANAM
.
ODOOM
Onan MO 59-4
HORE
OHRODD
ANODW!]
DWOON DAAAM
aanMan
AnNDanan!
O
FOB
OWoOsH
BEODW|
MBAIAR
BAANN
ARAAG)
NONEPPH, OAD
6
6 ADMDDD
n
aM
Nan
Aono
6
6
6 WNHDNMDNH CONAN |AWOOFH
OAPAA
COOOO!]
eS,
BAERS
MMWBAN
ABDRWDAOHD
DOOM
Aannn IN Ananan]!
WDOROD!]
NONNWO owAAHAAG|
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@B®ARO|]
DWOG
AaAann
ATWAMMD
ana WOrNSHE
CIWAOD
6
6 an
PBWNWWN
MMDMDMD
DD
DOD
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ale
Be
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memes
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ANOAN]
C©HNKE

open)
SS)DXODDD
|
DAMDOMD
DAAAM
NMDD®D MOs
Pam DAAAHA
BIIAD|
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on
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WODNO|] DOon Om
DVNOAN DD

oOowWwo NANIIOOA)
HHBSG
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HHSSS
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WOMOH~4A
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WoRhon
ODMDWOf
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HHAOHS!

ANH NN
YAN
SaS28
LD POPRD|
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|33
3232
|In.
AINIDOD AHDBBAN
ADM!)
ANNE
an
S88
aane|Fesss
& SSSSR
BSS
WHODNFENYFF)
rFoOoOuowo AMD NAAMBMM
ABWNWDY
OMOM-~
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|]
PBAWN
NERFOS
NYAINNA|
AAI
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ARBAWN!] yA
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|
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re
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ee
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AOROA!
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AMDOMD
AMMDMD
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ee
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DODDMD
ONOonnn
DOONMN
MAMRMMD!)
Anann QORMHA|
PRHDR
BHHADD|
waaay

oO NDNOWN|
a(2 DAOHS
CP
SHINGO]
GE PDD
HO
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ARAAH
MRHAHAVDA!
uw
oun
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2gQaQom
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IAYANAADQ!
annan
aan!
LD
SHOWTI|HHAOHDS
GOUdS

ORDWN
MDNOWNO]
ANONOR
SOGHIAG!]
OmL-
4I44~3
ODN A~ NORD
syn DAH
WOWOW|
OWNONO
BOM NII
SINAN
MNonspt Ege,
OU
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AHNSG
BOWOND]
AHNIHY
I~)
aAnpAA WAFH
OBOWI32)]
DHHOHE
OPBW SSSSS
-9)GSSSSBBR
SSES
SISISIES)
J NDOWSin
oD ONMDO
NMOWA
NOL@WLDY KOS)
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PRBTIO HHoOW-I
NDOKAD)
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WACAY ADMD
J~I~4~J HOOG

64 | -66’| -68’| -70'| - -78’ | -80'| - 84’ | -86’

A & B Qame names\ RULE TO FIND SA & B ifferent names,
take um, (add.) f@ CORRECTION ifference, (sub.) take
C CORRECTION, (A+B) is named the same as the greater of these quantities,
AZIMUTH takes combined names of € Correction and Hour Angle.

169
 TRUE AMPLITUDES

Declination
Lat.
IF || cP || 7-e 62) “Fo 7S? ore" bie
| ° ° ° ° °

2 6 7-0 8-0 9-0 ; 10-0 | 11-0 | 12-0 | 13-0 | 14-0 15:0

4 6: 7-0) 8-0 | 9:0 * 10:0)| 11-0) 12:0 || 15:0" ||14-0) 15-0
6 6 T1 81 OL LOH || LV Pe AS Ls eT See
8 6 uel 8-1 | yal loyal) alae 2A Sa) Le ae Ss2
10 6 TI 8-1 9:27) 10-2 | P2922) | S-2) 4 2a SS
12 6 7:2 8-2 9-2 | 10-2 | 11-3 | 12-3 | 13-3 | 14-3 | 15-4
14 6 7:2 8-3 9-3 | 10-3 | 11-3 | 12-4 | 13-4 | 14-4 | 15-5
16 6 T3 8-3 9-4 | 10-4 | 11:5 | 12-5} 13-5 | 14-6 | 15-6
18 6: 7:4 8-4 9-5 | 10-5 | 11-6 | 12-6 | 13-7 | 14-7 | 15-8
20 6 75 8-5 | 9-6 | 10-7 | 11-7 | 12:8 | 13-9 | 14-9 | 15-9
22 6 76 8-6 9-7 | 10°8 | 11-9 | 13-0 | 14-1 | 15-1 | 16-2
24 6 7-7 8-8 9-9 | 11-0 | 12-1 | 13-2 |}14-3 | 15-4 | 16-5
26 6 7:8 8-9 | 10-0 | 11-2 | 12-3 | 13-4 | 14-5 | 15-6 | 16-8
28 6 79 9-1 | 10-2 | 11-4 | 12-5 | 13-6 | 14-8 | 15-9 | 17-1
30 6- 8-1 9-3 | 10-4 | 11-6 | 12-7 | 13-9 | 15-1 | 16-2 | 17-4
31 Ti 8-2 9-4 | 10:5 | 11:7 | 12-9 | 14-0 | 15:2 | 16-4 | 17-6
32 " 8-3 9-5 | 10-6 | 11-8 | 13-0 | 14-2 | 15-4 | 16-6 | 17-8
33 Hl 8-4 9-6 | 10:8 | 12:0 | 13-2 | 14-4 | 15-6 | 16-8 | 18-0
34 7 8-5 9:7 | 10-9 : 12-1 | 13-3 | 14-5 | 15-8 | 17-0 | 18-2
35 if 8-6 9-8 | 11-0 | 12-2 | 13-5 | 14-7 | 16-0 | 17-2 | 18-4
36 tf 8-7 9-9 | 11-2 ; 12:4 | 13-7 | 14-9 | 16-2 | 17-4 | 18-7
37 7 8-8 | 10-0 | 11-3 | 12-6 | 13-8 | 15-1 | 16-4 | 17-6 | 18-9
38 ii 8-9 | 10-2 | 11-4 | 12-7 | 14-0 | 15-3 | 16-6 | 17-9 | 19-2
39 7 9-0 | 10-3 | 11-6 | 12-9 | 14-2 | 15-5 | 16-8 | 18-1 | 19-5
U 9-2 10-5 | 11-8| 13-1 | 14-4 | 15-8 { 17-1 | 18-4 | 19-8
8: 9°35 10:6
| 12-0 | 13-3 | 14-7 | 16-0 | 17-4 | 18-7 | 20-1
42 8: 9-4 10-8 | 12-2 |13-5 | 14-9 |16-3 | 17-6 | 19-0 | 20-4
43 8 9-6 11-0 | 12-4 } 13-7 | 15-1 | 16-5 | 17-9 | 19-3 | 20-7
44 8: 9:8 11:2 | 12-6 | 14-0 | 15-4 | 16-8 | 18-2 | 19-7 | 21-1
a ao 8- 9:9 11-4 | 12-8 | 14-2 | 15-7 | 17-1 | 18-6 | 20-0 | 21-5
46 8- 10 “1 11-6 | 13-0 | 14-5 | 16-0 | 17-4 | 18-9 | 20-4 | 21-9
47 8 ‘103 11:8 | 13:3 | 14-8 | 16-3 | 17-8 | 19-3 | 20-8 | 22-3
48 9 10 5 12-0 | 13-5 | 15-1 | 16-6 | 18-1 | 19-7 | 21-2 | 22-8
49 9: 10:7 ‘T | 12-3 | 13-8 , 15-4 | 16-9 | 18-5 | 20-1 | 21-6 | 23-2
50 9: 10-9 9 | 12-5 | 14-1 | 15-7 | 17-3 |18-9 | 20-5 | 22-1 | 23-8
504 9-5 | 11-0 | 12-6 | 14-2 | 15-8 | 17-5 | 19-1 | 20-7 | 22-4 | 24-0
51 9-6 | 11-2 | 12-8 | 14-4 | 16-0 | 17-7 | 19-3 | 21-0 | 22-6 | 24-3
514 9-7 | 11-3 | 12-9 | 14-6 | 16-2 | 17-8 | 19-5 | 21-2 | 22-9 | 24-6
52 9-8 | 11-4 | 13-1 | 14-7 | 16-4 | 18-1 | 19-7 | 21-4 | 23-2 | 24-9
524 9-9 | 11-5 | 13-2 | 14-9 | 16-6 | 18-3 | 20-0 | 21-7 | 23-4 | 25-2
53 10:0 | 11-7 | 13-4 | 15-1 | 16-8 | 18-5 | 20-2 | 22-0 | 23-7 | 25-5
533 MOMNM
BHOONA
DMHVMD
OY
OO
QHGUAG
annum 10:1 | 11-8 | 13-5
IIAIIIAIAIWMM
aqugUGMG
o | 15-2 | 17-0 | 18-7 ; 20-5 | 22-2 | 24-0 | 25-8
54 8-5 | 10-3 | 12-0 | 13-7 | 15-4 | 17-2 | 19-0 | 20-7 | 22-5 | 24-3 | 26-1
544 8-6 | 10-4 | 12-2 | 13-9 | 15-6 | 17-4 | 19-2 | 21-0 | 22-8 | 24-6 | 26-5
55 8-7 | 10-5 HANKS
| 12-3 | 14-1
DARGA
ANSOOA
AANKS
OHADHGA
OHOA®G
HHSGOO
AAHNNHHK
GQBAHS | 15-8 | 17-6 ) 19-4 | 21-3 | 23-1 | 25-0 | 26-8
554 8-9 | 10-6 | 12-4 | 14-2 | 16-0 | 17-9 | 19-7 | 21-5 | 23-4 | 25-3 | 27-2
56 9:0 | 10-8 | 12-6 | 14-4 | 16-3 | 18-1 | 20-0 | 21-8 | 23-7 | 25-6 | 27-6
56} 9-1 | 10-9 | 12-8 | 14-6 | 16-5 | 18-3 | 20-2 | 22-1 | 24-1 | 26-0 | 28-0
57 9-2 | 11-1 | 12-9 | 14-8 | 16-7 | 18-6 | 20-5 | 22-4 | 24-4 | 26.4
57} | 28-4
9-3 | 11-2 | 13-1 | 15-0 | 16-9 | 18-9 | 20-8 | 22-8 | 24-8 | 26-8 | 28-9
58 9-5 | 11-4 | 13:3 | 15-2 | 17-2 | 19-1 | 21-1 | 23-1 | 25-1 | 27-2
58} , 29-2
9-6 | 11-5 | 13-5 | 15-4 | 17-4 | 19-4 | 21-4 | 23-4 | 25-5 | 27-6 | 29-7
52 9-8 | 11-7 | 13-7 | 15-7 | 17-7 | 19-7 | 21-8 | 23-8 | 25-9 | 28-0
594 | 30-2
9-9 | 11-9 | 13:9 | 15-9 | 18-0 | 20-0 | 22-1 | 24-2 | 26-3 | 28-5 | 30-7
60 10-0 | 12-1 | 14-1 | 16-2 | 18-2 | 20-3 | 22-4 | 24-6 | 26-7 | 28-9 | 31-2
604 10-2 | 12-3 | 14-3 |16-4 | 18-5 | 20-6 |22-8 25-0 | 27-2 | 29-4
61 | 31-7
10-4 | 12-5 | 14-6 | 16-7 | 18-8 | 21-0 | 23-2 , 25-4 | 27-7 29-9 | 32-3
614 10:5 | 12-7 |14-8 | 17-0 |19-1 | 21-3 |23-6 | 25-8 |28-1
62 30-5 | 32-8
10-7 | 12-9 | 15-1 | 17-3 | 19-5 | 21-7 | 24-0 | 26-3 | 28-6 | 31-0 | 33-5
62} SOT
H
red
SOUL
el
veer
use
Le
La
el
ee
Up
lee
alertpo
elie
ae
ed
lM
le
tailed
es
Cee
SSPE
aSSSI
ue
a
SSS
NN
HEHE
ANAND
ARBAWD
OQAAAA
HHHAGH
DEHES
COO686
OS YVNONNN
YVNNNN
YVNYONNN
NYONYNDY
WAND
YNNOHWN
NYNNNWND
WANNA
°AWWW
PPDDAR
WHWWNW
PAWN
O-3-2-2-2
OCHOWOWOMO
OO
COO
NONEPKEKEHE
HNHONONND
ANNEH
HAPPEN
AIHDHH
6OOOe
AWDOHEHE
WANND
HABAW
DAGAAG
BOATAI
OOO
6OO6080
HRPREEHE
HH PHHHHD
AANAANA
HPHHHH
ANNAN
APHPHHH
NANA
ANA
©AAA
AMAA
ONAN
POMMD
COOMA]
DHOHOCSO
OAAAN
ODMAD
HBADE
DHOBOOA
ANHOSO
AHRKHAWN
HAABAND
ARAGDA
HOSOOS
ONEHHE OOH 10-9HAAN
TDHHNH
GHANA
MORN
PEDAL
MDHMHH
PHREDA
IYIIIIWAIMMBAM
PRED
PEARED
oOOOM
OO
MIIVWI
NONE
ARGDEW
OH
DHAAWN
DHOHAIYN
DAGAA
COHOIAAT
HHO6O
ANNEH
BORE
HAADHDH
COOIG
OS | 13-1 | 15-3 | 17-5
OBHHAND
HOSOOH
VHOOHD
HHOOO
AANNHH
OBIARA
ADBHAA
AHNHOO
CHOHOOH
ODAKDBD
HOOAID | 19-8 |22-1 | 24-4 | 26-8 | 29-2 | 31-6 | 34-1
|
 AMPLITUDES
Declination
° ° ° °
~ NwWw N& NYWw
°

bw

ssa) BRR
RY ood
ell
ll
i ,HHDAAH
NOMWNMNMNM

CIPHG
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DOHAH SRKKR,
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el
RRRWANES
HoOIKA
ee
ad
ee HDHRBWNW
WHNWAWWGW
NNNNNY
SSIES HAKKO
AnNODH OAD
AREF
BAWFHO
RRaRS.
NNN
VNONNH
BDHHAN

NOOR
mnNow
rH ANOOant
WHRrO
NOM
OKO
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OND
OOOO
OO ONNr NONNNM
DnnpL
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woowman
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WNNRRO
Omron
NONMONrrH DIRS) OWNOD
ANKKO
DNOOBHR
DA NONNWNN
NNNMNN
DADMMD
Annps

2
AWOAA
NO 2
VIMO
CC)
CI
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2
2

2
a
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DrR~AIW ldrFOoOOOwo
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3
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BWNWDN WNWWWANWG
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TS
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BANDE
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BTIOHO
BCARHDO
CROWD
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aon

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asS =S} BpaB

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ADBPHAA
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OWDAMN
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BARA
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DADADL
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BAwMWH
ONHOW
YONVAHA
OUNOHYIY
BADE
OKPAnA
OBAAI®
QAGAQ GBHONH
AMIOO
SOOAHDIADUAD
OCDOFWN
QRKOOD
ADpDHA
PpPpnaas
HDAwHhAOND
PpAH PBWNHNHWDH WOHOH
BCONNH
SCOHEHAYN
ABPROH
ONROW
HOBHd®
WOKADADAD DapDAD ODDADDANN
HFOOOD

GREE
SRIGH
WNOOrA
OnNnMmoO
WWNWNWW
WNWWN ASH
AHH SSG@3G
GREAS
MSc
oot
~a~mDmDwmvooeo
HA|AA
AHA
ODAMDN AAanrer
Oo3a3IA
apADDADL
BfWN-H
Anns ee S6oes
eS
one
hNOrOO
DAMMAM
ADHAAW
NFOCOM
AannS SoS
oa
anon
Aanna
DAWNH AGE
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ARMAND ke
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Cx
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DANOAIM Saaee
SlSSS
NNOARe

171
 A2 ALTITUDE CORRECTION TABLES 10°-90°—SUN, STARS, PLANETS
OCT.—MAR. SUN = APR.—SEPT. STARS AND PLANETS DIP

App. Lower Upper App. Lower Upper |]App. App. AdditionalllH. of fe of Sat
Mie) Liner Ale Chee Ae Corr “Ait, Corn ||Eye. CO Eye Bye Cor
Plpe eabe, 1972 i ee
Bs)
9 39 +106 2172 be pe 53 VENUS herds ay = =
10 20 ae Jan.1-Feb.29 |} 2-8 = gee oes
ie a ct a
Oey ae 10 33 $.9 F a se : Site) EIEGy Pests}
WONG
46 —4°9 4 ee LORS ale St Oia.
WO By rece pots |
LORAOR rey scorn || as ee 4's PEE ADE seer) Lek See table
LOS diem eran IY 14. 47 ae 36 <
II 08 11.3 Be Il 29 _ 4.6 47
BE 23 yyy asa) .< Apr.16-May12
11 38 er eee ° me
IT 544 11-6 -202 SS
P2BLO + 11'7 —20°1
12 28 | 11-8 - 20-0
12 46 Teer
IS O5 sEI2-O-=19:8
| SS 24 SEY ort 19°7
iB) A8) 1 12°2\—19°6
Mes OH + I2°3—19°5

{ T4530 +124 19-4

Bb SA tag ted
j D2 126 19-2
15 46 +12°7~19'1
+12°8-19-0
16 44 112-9 ~18-9

June 30-July 8 2 = prt

or A aataS
21 28 as 6 ts 6— 2-4
22,10" soeuee ao ed Si 2e7
PEL ig) tse 31 aoey 10 — 371
July 9-July 24 See table
Oe Sees
Ors ft
y 70 8:1
US — eRe
80 8-7
85 — 8-9
90 - 92
Aug.20-Oct. a
. °° a 95 — 9°5
40 08 a: 47 at 100 — 9:7
page cre 3! 105 ~ 9°9
- 39 _ 6-5 S +0°1 110 ~10:2
5 II§ —10°4
120 -10°6
op veal! MARS 135 10:8
60 28 Sd, Jan. 1-Dec. 31
65 08 SB Or 130 —I1't
135,13
140 ~—11°5
145 —11-7
150 —11°9
1§5 —12"1
App. Alt. = Apparent altitude = Sextant altitude corrected for index
error and dip.
For daylight observations of Venus, see Page 260.

TZ
 1972 MAY 3, 4, 5 (WED., THURS., FRI.) 93
Twilight Sun- Moonrise
Naut. — Civil rise

Mh Mi 01 24
469 N15 38-4 “8 S25 44:3 2.9 Mi on 02°13
195 469 39-1 | 323 294 9:7 25 414 3-0 an 0017 | 02 43
210 47-0 39-9 | 337 58:1 9:8 25 38:4 3-1 Mi 01 36 | 03 06
225 47-1 - - 406 | 352 269 98 25 35:3 3.3 / 02 11 | 03 23
240 47-1 414 6 55:7 98 25 32:0 3-4 00 14 | 02 36 | 03 38
47-2 42-1 28-6 3-5 01 25 | 02 55 | 03 50
47-3 42:8 . 250
285 47:3 43-6 50 22-1 9:9 25 21:5
300 47-4 44:3 64 51:0 98 2517-7
315 47:5 - + 45:0 79 198 99 25138
330 47:5 45:8 93 48:7 9-8 25 09:8
47-6 46:5 05-6 bBeaaevvye
onnae
VN

47-6 47-2 . 01-3 4-4 03 51 | 04 27 | 04 56

15 47-7 47-9 | 137 15:3 10:0 24 569 4-6 04 06 | 04 39 | 05 06
30 47:8 48-7 | 151 443 9:9 24 52:3 4-7 04 19 | 04 49 | 0515
45/47°8) <= 49:4) ||166 13:2 Yo.0 24) 47-6) “4-8 04 39 | 05 06 | 05 29
60 47-9
<>oOumMZOmsS 50:1 | 180 42:2 9:9 24 42:8 4-9 04 54 | 05 20 | 05 42
75 48-0 50‘9!)/ 195; 1d) 10-0! 24) 37-9) 59 05 07 | 05 32 | 05.53
51-6
105 48-1 523
120 48-1 53-0
135 48:2 - + 53-8
150 48-3 54:5
55:2
48-4 N15 56-0 1 S23 59-8
195 48-5 56:7 2 23 538
210 48-5 57:4 2 23 477
225) 28:6. = 158-1! "3 23 41-5
240 48-6 58:9 | 354 31-4 10-2 23 35-2
255 48:7 15 59-6 9 00-6 10-3 23 28-8 ee
sere
coOl@aYT
~~
BUN
STERwYN

48-8 N16 00-3 23 299 10:3 3: S23 22-2

285 48:8 01-0} 37 59-2 10- 4 22 S:5)
300 48-9 01-7 52 28-6 10- 4 23 08-7
315.489 -- 02:5 66 58-0 10- 4 23 01:8
330 49-0 03-2 B81 °27-4 20: 4 22 54-7
345 49-0 03-9 95 56:8 10: 4 22 47-6 Tee
yyy
eyes)
49-1 N16 04:6 | 110 26-2 10:5 $22 40:3 7-
15 49-2 05:3 | 124 55-7 10-5 22 329 7-
30 49-2 06-1 | 139 25:2 10-6 22 25:3 7-
45 49-3 --
<>rPOurxCIH4 068] 153 548 106 2217-7 7
60 49-3 07-5 | 168 24-4 10-6 22 09:9 7-
75 49-4 08-2 | 182 54:0 10-6 22020 8
90 49-4 N16 089 | 197 23-6 10:7 S21 54:0 8
105 49-5 09-7 | 211 53:3 10:7 21459 8
120 49-6 10-4 | 226 23:0 10:7 21 37:7 &
135 49-6 »- 11-1] 240527 108 21 294 28
150 49-7 8 8
165 49:7 8 8
8.
8.
9
9:
as
9.

<>PO-ZaN

=eesc
RP
RR
Re
SIs
WNH
NAMB
OO

Eqn. of Time
12"

03: LOl} 21 Sz
(Epa) ||Oe Sy
03 22

173
 CONVERSION OF ARC TO TIME
0°-59° | 60-119 120-179 180 -239 | 240-299 | 300 -359 0-00 | 0-25 | 0-50 | 0-75
2

e » ° hom ° hom 5 hom ° hom ry hom , m ® m . m . a .

@|o 60 |4 00 | 120 8 00 | 180 | 12 00 | 240 | 16 00 | 300 | 20 00 0 | 000] 001 |] 0 02] 0 03
ae) 61 |4 04 | 121 8 04 | 181 | 12 04 | 241 | 16 04 | 301 | 20 04 I | 0 04 | O O§ | 0 0 | 0 07
2/0 62 |4 08 | 122 8 08 | 182 | 12 08 | 242 | 16 08 | 302 | 20 08 2/008 |o009/o10]/o118
3|0 63 |4 12 | 123 8 12 | 183 | 12 12 | 243 | 16 12 | 303 | 20 12 3 | 0 12, | 0 13 | 0 14) © 15
4|0 64 |4 16 | 124 8 16 | 184] 12 16 | 244 | 16 16 | 304 | 20 16 4/090 16]017|018]/019
gs | 0 65 | 4 20 | 125 8 20 | 185 | 12 20 | 24§ | 16 20 | 305 | 20 20 § |© 20/ O 21 | O 22] 0 23
6/0 66 | 4 24 | 126 8 24 | 186 | 12 24 | 246 | 16 24 | 306 | 20 24 6 |© 24 | © 25 | © 26 | 0 27
7 |0 67 | 4 28 | 127 8 28 | 187 | 12 28 | 247 | 16 28 | 307 | 20 28 7.0) 28) || 029) ||k0430) 0131
Blo 68 | 4 32 | 128 8 32 | 188 | 12 32 | 248 | 16 32 | 308 | 20 32 8.| 0 32 | © 33 | 0 34 |]0 35
9|0 69 | 4 36] 129 8 36 | 189 | 12 36 | 249 | 16 36 | 309 | 20 36 9 |© 36 | O 37] © 38 | 0 39
10 | 0 70 | 4 40 | 130 8 40 | 190 | 12 40 | 250 | 16 40 | 310 | 20 4o | 10 | O 4o | O 41 | 0 42] 0 43
Ir | 0 71 | 4 44 | 131 8 44 | 191 | 12 44 | 251 | 16 44] 311 | 20 44] II | O 44]! O 45 | 0 46 | O 47
12 | 0 72 | 4 48 | 132 8 48 | 192 | 12 48 | 252 | 16 48 | 312 | 20 48 | 12 | O 48 | 0 49] 0 50] oO 51
13} 0 73 | 4 52 | 133 8 52 | 193 | 12 52 | 253 | 16 52 | 313 | 20 52 | 13 | O 52 | 0 53] 0 54] 0 55
14 | 0 74 | 4 56 | 134 8 56 | 194 | 12 56 | 254 | 16 56 | 314 | 20 56 | 14 | O 56 | 0 57 | 0 58] 0 59
16/1 75 | § 00 | 135 9 00 | 195 | 13 00 | 255 | 17 CO | 315 | 21 CO} 16 | 1 CC| 1 OF | I 02] I 03
16/1 76 | 5 04 | 136 9 04 | 196 | 13 04 | 256 | 17 04 | 316 | 21 04 | 16 | 1 04 | I 05 |] I 06] 1 07
Pop ab ds 77:| § 08 | 137 9 08 | 197 | 13 08 | 257 | 17 08 | 317 | 21 08 | 17 | 1 08 | 1 OF] I 10/111
18 | 1 78 | 5 12 | 138 Qt2) 198) 13) 12) | 2581017) 127) S48 ear 2) er8 ery ea raha 4 | ers
19 | 1 79 | 5 16] 139 9 16 | 199 | 13 16 |] 269 | 17 16 |] 319 | 21 16] 19 I 16 | 1 17) P18) arer9)

20 / 1 80 | 5 20 | 140 9) 20) ||'200))| 13) 20) | 260: "17 207)})'"320 |-25 20 | 20 |r 20/51 27 |) e220 23
21 \ 1 81 | 5 24 | 141 O24 Zor 324s | 261e | or7) 24320 2 raza aK lin 2402 sa eeGale tear
22/1 82 | 5 28 | 142 928} 202) 13) 28 |°262))))17 28) ||322) ||21 28 j/i22 | ir 28 |)r 29 |) 1 30) or 3x
23) 1 83 | 5 32 | 143 9 32 | 203 | 13 32 | 263 | 17 32 | 323 | 21 32 | 23 | 1 32 | 1 33] 1 34] 1 35
24/1 84 | 5 36 | 144 9 36 | 204 | 13 36 | 264 | 17 36 | 324 | 21 36 | 24 | 1 36] 1 37] 1 38] 1 39

25 | 1 85 | 5 40 | 145 9 40 | 205 | 13 40 | 265 | 17 40 | 325 | 21 40] 25 | r go} 1 41 | 1 42] 1 43

26 \1 86 |5 44 | 146 9 44 | 206 | 13 44 | 266 | 17 44 | 326 | 21 44 | 26 | 1 44 | 1 45 | 1 46] 1 47
27 | 1 87 |5 48 | 147 9 48 | 207 | 13 48 | 267 | 17 48 | 327 | 21 48 | 27 | 1 48 | 1 49 | 1 50] 1 51
28/1 88 |5 52 | 148 9 52 | 208 | 13 52 | 268 | 17 52 | 328 | 21 52 | 28 | 1 52] 1 53 | 1 54 | 1 55
29 | 1 89 |5 56 | 149 9 56 | 209 | 13 56 | 269 | 17 56 | 329 | 21 56 | 29 | 1 56] 1 57| 1 58) 1 59

3o | 2 90 | 6 00 | 150 | 10 OO | 210 | 14 00 | 270 | 18 00 | 330 -| 22 00 | 30 | 2 OO | 2 OF | 2 o2 | 2 03

31 | 2 91 | 6 04 | 151 | 10 04 | 211 | 14 04 | 271 | 18 04 | 331 | 22 04 | 31] 2 04 | 2 05 | 2 06 | 2 07
32 | 2 92 | 6 68 | 1§2 | 10 O8 | 212 || 14 08 | 272°) 18 08 | 332 | 22 08 | 92 | 2 08 | 2: a9 | 2 10 |] 3 rr
33 | 2 93 | 6 12] 1§3 |) FO. 12 | 213) 14 12 | 273 | 18 12 | 333 | 22 12 | 33 | 2 12 | 2 13 | 2 14] 2 15
34/2 94 | 6 16 | 154 | 10 16 | 214 | 14 16 | 274 | 18 16 | 334 | 22 16 | 34 | 2 16 | 2 17] 2 18] 2 19

35 |2 95 |6 20 | 155 | 10 20 | 215 | 14 20 | 27§ | 18 20 | 335 | 22 20 | 35 |2 20 |2 21 | 2 22 |2 23

36 |2 96 |6 24 | 156 | 10 24 | 216 | 14 24 | 276 | 18 24 | 336 | 22 24 | 36 |2 24 |2 25 |2 26 |2 27
37 |2 97 |6 28 | 157 | 10 28 | 217 | 14 28 | 277 | 18 28 | 337 | 22 28 | 37 |2 28 |2 29 |2 30 |2 31
38 |2 98 |6 32 | 158 | 10 32 | 218 | 14 32 | 278 | 18 32 | 338 | 22 32 | 38 |2 32 |2 33 |2 34 |2 35
39 |2 99 |6 36 | 159 | 10 36 | 219 | 14 36 | 279 | 18 36 | 339 | 22 36 | 39 |2 36 |2 37 |2 38 |2 39

40 |2 100 |6 40 | 160 | 10 40 | 220 | 14 40 | 280 | 18 40 | 340 | 22 40 | 40 |2 4o |2 41 |2 42/2 43

41 |2 1or |6 44 | 161 | 10 44 | 221 | 14 44 | 281 | 18 44 | 341 | 22 44] 4 |2 44 |2 45 |2 46 | 2 47
42 |2 102 |6 48 | 162 | 10 48 | 222 | 14 48 | 282 | 18 48 | 342 | 22 48 | 42 |2 48 |2 49 |2 50 | 2 51
43 |2 103 |6 52 | 163 | 10 52 | 223 | 14 52 | 283 | 18 52 | 343 | 22 52 |]43 |2 52 |2 53 |2 54 | 2 55
44 |2 104 |6 56 | 164 | 10 56 | 224 | 14 56 | 284 | 18 56 | 344 | 22 56 | 44 |2 56 |2 57 |2 58 | 2 59

45 | 3 105 | 7 00 | 165 | II 00 | 22§ | 15 00 | 285 | 19 00 | 345 | 23 00 | 45 | 3.00 | 3 oF | 3 02 | 3 03

46 | 3 106 | 7 04 | 166 | II 04 | 226 | 15 04 | 286 | 19 04 | 346 | 23 04 | 46 | 3 04 | 3 05 | 3 06 | 3 07
47/3 107 | 7 08 | 167 | 11 08 | 227 | 15 08 | 287 | 19 08 | 347 | 23 08 | 47 | 3 08 | 3 09 | 3 10 3 ONT
48 | 3 108 | 7 12 | 168 | 11 12 | 228 | 15 12 | 288 | 19 12 | 348 | 23 12 | 48 | 3 12 | 3 13 | 3 14 | 3 15
49 | 3 109 | 7 16 | 169 | 11 16 | 229 | 15 16 | 289 | 19 16 | 349 | 23 16 | 49 | 3 16 | 3.17 | 3 18 3:19

50 | 3 1IO | 7 20 | 170 | II 20 | 230 | I§5 20 | 290 | 19 20 | 350 | 23 20 | S50 | 3 20 | 3 21 | 3 22 | 3 23

51 | 3 11t | 7 24 | 171 | 11 24 | 231 | 15 24 | 291 | 19 24 | 351 | 23 24] 51 | 3 24 | 3 25 | 3 26 | 3 27
2 |3 W112 | 7 28 | 172 | 11 28 | 232 | 15 28 | 292 | 19 28 | 352 | 23 28 | 52 | 3 28 | 3 29 | 3 30 | 3 31
53 | 3 113 | 7 32 | 173 | 11 32 |}233 | IS 32 | 293 | 19 32 | 353 | 23 32 | 53 | 3 32 | 3 33 | 3 34 | 3 35
54/3 114 | 7 36 | 174 | 11 36 | 234 | 15 36 | 294 | 19 36 | 354 | 23 36 | 54 | 3 36 | 3 37 | 3 38 | 3 39
55 | 3 115 | 7 40 | 175 | II 40 | 235 | 15 40 | 295 | 19 40 | 355 | 23 40 | 55 | 3 40 | 3 41 | 3 42 | 3 43
56 | 3 116 | 7 44 | 176 | 11 44 | 236 | 15 44 | 296 | 19 44 | 356 | 23 44 | 56 | 3 44 | 3 45 | 3 46 | 3 47
57.| 3 117 | 7 48 | 177 | 11 48 | 237 | 15 48 | 297 | 19 48 | 357 | 23 48 | 57 | 3 48 | 3 49 | 3 50 | 3 51
58 | 3 118 | 7 52 | 178 | 11 52 | 238 | 15 52 | 298 | 19 52 | 358 | 23 52 | 58 | 3 52 | 3 53 | 3 54] 3 55
59 | 3 119 | 7 56 | 179 | 11 56 | 239 | 15 56 | 299 | 19 56 | 359 | 23 56159 | 3 56 | 3 57 | 3 58 | 3 59
The above table is for converting expressions in arc to their equivalent in time ; its main use in this Almanac
is for the conversion of longitude for application to L.M.T. (added if west, subtracted if east) to give G.M.T. or vice
versa, particularly in the case of sunrise, sunset, etc.

174
 INCREMENTS AND CORRECTIONS
44=| PLANETS
SUN ARIES |MOON ||] or Corre Y Y
= Corr"
v
or Corre
v v
or Corr} or Corre

00 |11 000 | 11 01.8] 10 299 |] 0-0 00] 60 45] 20 99

01 | 11 00-3 | 11 02-1 | 10 30-2 |] 01 0-2] 62 45] 2a 90
02 | 11 00-5 |11 02:3] 10 30-4 |] 0-2 o1] 62 46] 22 99
03 |11 00-8 |11 024] 10 30-6 |] 03 0.2] 63 47/23 94
04 | 11 01-0 | 11 028] 10 309 || 0-4 0-3] 64 47] 12-4 9.2
05 | 11 01-3 | 11 03-1 | 10 32-1 |] 05 0-4] 65 48] 12-5 9.3
06 | 11 01-5 |11 03:3] 10 314 || 06 04] 66 49] 26 93
07 | 11 018 | 11 034] 10 314 |] 07 05] 67 50] 27 9-4
08 | 11 020 | 11 038] 10 318 |] 08 06] 68 So]we 9-5
09 | 11 02:3 |11 04-1 | 10 32-1 || 0-9 0-7] 69 511] 12-9 94
10 | 11 02-5 |11 04-3 |10 32:3 |] 1-0 07] 7-0 5-2] 13-0 9%
11} 11 028 |11 044 | 10 324 |f12 08] 71 5:3] 32 97
12 | 11 030 | 11 048 | 10 328 |l 1-2 09] 7-2 53] n2 98
13 | 11 03:3 | 11 05-1 |10 330 ff13 10] 73 54/3 99
14 |11 03-5 |11 05:3 |10 33-3 [J1-4 10] 74 55] a4 99
15 | 11 03-8 | 11 05-6 | 10 335 |}1-5 12] 75 546] 3-5 100
16 | 11 04-0 | 11 058] 10 338 |} 1-6 12] 76 56] 3-6 10-1
17 | 11 04-3 |11 06-1 |10 34-0 |} 1-7 13] 7-7 5-7] 3-7 10-2
18 | 11 04-5 |11 06-3 |10 34-2 |}1-8 13] 78 58] 3-8 10-2
19] 12 048 | 11 064 | 10 34-5 |} 1-9 14] 7-9 59] 13-9 103
20 | 11 050 | 11 068 | 10 34-7 ||2-0 15] 8-0 59] 14-0 10-4
21] 12 05-3 |11 07-1 |10 34-9 |] 21 1-6] 82 60] 141 10-5
22 | 11 05-5 | 11 07-3 |10 35-2 |] 2-2 16] 8-2 61} 14-2 105
23 | 11 05-8 | 11 0746 | 10 35-4 || 23 1.7] 83 62] 1463 10-6
24 | 11 06-0 | 11 07:8 |10 35-7 ||2-4 18] 8-4 6-2] 14-4 10-7
25 |11 06-3 | 11 08:1 | 10 359 |] 25 1-9] 85 6-3] 14-5 10-8
26 | 11 065 | 11 08-3 |10 36-1 |] 26 19] 8-6 64] 146-6 10-8
27-| 11 068 | 11 084 | 10 364 || 2-7 20] 8-7 65] 14-7 109
2B | 11 070 | 11 08-8 | 10 364 || 28 21] 88 65] 14-8 11-0
29 | 11 07-3 | 11 09-1 |10 369 |] 2-9 2.2] 9-9 66| 16-9 11-1
30 | 11 07-5 | 11 09:3 | 10 37-1 |] 3-0 2:2] 90 67] 15-0 11-1
31 | 11 078 | 11 094 | 10 37-3 |)3. 23] 92 671] 152 12-2
32] 11 08-0 | 11 098 | 10 374 |] 3-2 24] 92 68] 15-2 113
33 | 11 08-3 |11 10-1 | 10 378 |/ 3-3 24] 93 69] 15-3 113
34 | 11 08-5 | 11 10:3] 10 38-0 |] 3-4 25] 9-4 7-0] 154 114
35 | 11 088 | 11 104 | 10 38-3 ||3-5 26] 9:3 70 | 15-5 11-5
36 | 11 09-0 | 11 108] 10 38-5 || 3-6 27] 9-6 7-1 | 15-6 116
37 | 11 09-3 |11 11-1 | 10 388 |/ 3-7 2.7 | 9-7 7-2] 15-7 116
38 | 11 09-5 |11 11-3 | 10 39-0 || 3-¢ 28] 98 7-3] 15-8 12.7
39 | 11 09-8 |11 114 | 10 39-2 |l 3-9 29] 9-9 7-3] 15-9 118
40 | 11 10-0 | 11 11-8 | 10 39-5 |] 4-0 3.0 | 10-0 7-4] w-0 119
41 | 11 10-3 | 11 12-1 | 10 39-7 |} 41 3.0 |102 7-5 |21 119
42/11 105] 11 12:3] 10 40-0 |] 42 3:1 | 102 74] w-2 120
43} 11 10-8] 11 124 | 10 40-2 |] 4-3 3-2] 103 76 | w-3 121
44/11 110] 11128] 10 404 |] 4-4 3-3 | 10-4 7-7 | 16-4 12.2
45} 11 11-3 | 11 13-1 | 10 40-7 |] 4-5 3-3] 10-5 7-8] 1-5 12-2
46 | 11 11-5 | 11 13-3] 10 409 || 4-6 34 | 106 749] 16-6 12:3
47 | 11 11-8} 11 136] 10 41-1 |] 4-7 3-5 | 10-7 7-9 | 16-7 124
48 | 11120 | 11 138] 10 41-4 || 48 346] 106 8-0] 16-8 12-5
49 | 11 12:3 | 11 14-1 | 10 414 || 4-9 3-46] 10-9 8-1 | 16-9 12:5
50} 11 12-5] 11 14-3} 10 41-9 |] 5-0 3:7] 1-0 8-2 | 17-0 12-6
51] 11 128] 11146] 10 42-1 |} 52 38] ua 8-2] 172 12.7
52] 11 13-0] 11148] 10 42:3 || 5-2 39] 11-2 83] 17-2 128
53 | 11 13-3] 11 15-1 | 10 42-6 || 53 39] 1-3 84] 17-3 128
54] 11 13-5] 11 15:3] 10 42:8 |] 5-4 4.0] 11-4 8-5 | 17-4 129
55 | 11 13-8} 11 156] 10 43-1 || 5-5 4-1] 1-5 8-5] 17-5 13.0
56] 11 140] 11 158] 10 43-3 || 56 42] 1-6 846] 17-6 13-1
57} 11 14-3 | 11 16-1 | 10 43-5 || 5-7 4-2] 1-7 8-7 | 17-7 132
58 | 11 145] 11 16:3] 10 43-8 || 58 43] 118 88] 17-8 132
59] 11 148/11 166] 10 440 || 5-9 44] 1-9 88] 17-9 133
60} 1115-0] 11 168] 10 44-3 || 6-0 45] 12-0 89 | w-o 134

roxy

175
 INDEX
A Buoyage,
Lateral System 134-141
Abbreviations, Chart Cardinal System 133-141
Admiralty, Direction i17/
Charts Buoyancy,
Notices to Mariners Centre of 114
Publications Movement of 114
Allowance for Tidal St reams 50 Reserve 1N7/
Altitudes, Buys Ballot’s Law 126-129
Apparent
Correction of
Definition of C
Observed
Parallax in Cable 24
Sextant Calculated Zenith Distance 62 63
True Cardinal, Buoyage System 133-141
Altitude Meridian Celestial
Amplitude, Deviation by 98-102 Concave 86
Aneroid Barometer, Use of 124-126 Equator 86
Angles, Horizon 61
Functions of 79-83 Meridian 85 89
Horizontal Sextant 64-66 Poles 86
Vertical Sextant 66-68 Position Lines 88
Angles of Heel 114 116-118 Sphere 86
Apparent Time Centre of Gravity,
Appendix Movement of 115-123
Arc and Time Shift of 115-123
Astronomy, Nautical Added Weights 120 121
Atmospheric, Pressure Removed Weights 120 121
Average 125.126 130 Stiffness sINGy dUILZ
Falling 126-128 130 Tenderness HG ey,
Rising 126-128 130 Chart
Steady 126-128 130 Classifications 26
Auto Pilots 145 146 Corrections 32-34
Azimuth, Deviation by 85 102-104 Details 26
Azimuth Tables 103 104 166-169 Chart Datum 24
Chart Work 40
B Charts,
Mercator 23
Backing, Wind 127-1129 Notations 42
Barometer, Plotting 4]
Aneroid Use of 124-126 Publication of 2OR2T;
Readings 124-126 Variation 5
Bearings Symbols and Abbreviations 27-32
Amplitude Chronometers 92 93
Correcting Circle,
Cross Great 85 86 90
Laying Off of Position 88 108
Magnetic Small 88 108
and Range of Light Clock Time 93
True Cloud, Types 132 133
Beaufort Wind Scale Coastal Features 29
Boat’s Head Cold Front 129

176
Compass Ee Dividers 4]
Cards 2-3 Draft LSS aT
Construction 1 Drawing of Figures 90-92
Courses to Correct 16-18
Deviation 5-14 E
Error of 8 9
Magnetic 2 Earth,
Rose 6 The mil
Steering 3 Orbit of 86 87
Converting Arc to Time and vice Echo Sounders 144 145
versa 94 174 Ecliptic 86
True Course to Compass Course Effect of Height on Atmospheric
and vice versa 8 16-19 Pressure 125
Counteracting Effects of Tide Electronic Instruments 144-152
or Current 50 Elements from Nautical Almanac 95-96
Courses, Equator,
Compass 16 Celestial 86
Correcting 16-18 Terrestrial 24
Magnetic 1 Equation of Time 85
To Lay Off 43 Equilibrium,
True 43 Neutral 118
Cross Bearings 44 Stable ili
Current, Unstable 118
Allowing for 49-50) Equinoctial 84 86
Counteracting 50 Error,
To Find Set and Drift 51 Chronometer 92 93
Compass 8 9
D Index 56-59
Estimated Position 42
Dangers 30 31 Expressing Terrestrial Positions 20-23
Dead Reckoning Position 42
Decimals 78 79 F
Decca 149 151
Declination 88 89 Fathom 24 28
Definitions, Nautical Astronomy 84-89 Field’s Parallel Rulers 40 4]
Definitions, Ship Stability 114-118 Figure Drawing 90-92
Degrees y Fish Finders 144-145
Departure 70 Fix,
Depressions 126-131 Cross Bearings 44-48
Deviation, Horizontal Sextant Angle 63-66
Cards 11-14 Position Line 42 44-46
of Compass SaaS Running 46-49
from Pole Star, Sun, and Station Pointer 64-66
Amplitude 96-104 Vertical Sextant Angle 66-68
by True Azimuth 102-104 Fog 138
from Shore Bearings 9-11 Fog Signals 140
from Transit Bearings 9-11 Freeboard, Effect of 116
Difference of Latitude 70 Free Surface Liquids 118-120
Difference of Longitude 70 Effect of 118-120
Difference Meridonal Parts 76 77 81-83 Reduction of GM 118-122
Front 129-132
Dip 62 106 107
Dip of Compass Needle 5 Function of Angles 79 80
Dip of Sea Horizon 62 G
Dipping Distance of Lights 45 46
Displacement 115 Gale Warnings 126
Distance, G, Movement of 119-123
Measuring 43 44 GM 116
Polar 89 Geographical Position 21
Zenith 62 of Heavenly Body 88

Lay
Gnomonic, Chart Projection AS Lights, Visibility of 141
Gravity, Centre of 115 Listing 121
Great Circles 24 Local Hour Angle 87 88
Greenwich House Angle of the Sun 89 Logarithms, Use of Sm
Mean Time 93-95 Loll 118
Meridian 21 87 88 89 95 Longitude,
Angular Measurement of D2
H Difference of 70
Linear Measurement of ye, PES)
Haversines 110 162-165 Meridian of 21 24
Horizon, and Time 94
Rational 61 Loran ‘C’ 151
Sensible 61 Lowest Astronomical Tide 26
Visible 61 Lubber’s Line 2
Horizontal Angles,
by Drawing 66 M
Station Pointer 64 65
Horizontal Sextant Angles 63-66 Magnet,
Hour Angle, Earth 4
Greenwich 89 90 Poles of 4
Local 87 88 Magnetic,
Compass 1
I Course 16-18
Field 3 4
IALA Buoyage System ‘A’ 133-141 Poles 45
Ice Forming on Board 120-123 Variation 3 ©
Ice, Stability Effects of 120-123 Magnetism 3-5
Inclinations, Small Angles of Heel 116 Marc St Hilaire Postion Line
Index Error 56-59 Method 1A) va
Inertia 116 Mean High Water Springs 37 38
Initial Stability LIGg, Mean Time 84 85
Instruments, Navigation Use of 40 41 Mercator’s Projection 3}
Intercepts 109-113 Charts 23
Isobars 127-130 Sailing 75-83
Isogonic Lines 5 Merchant Shipping Notices 39
Isolated Danger 134 Meridians 2
Meridian of Longitude 21
K Meridian,
Altitude 105-107
KG 120 Greenwich 87 89 90 93-95
KM 120 Passage OB
Knot 24 Prime 21 24
Zenith Distance 91 105-107
L Meridian Observation of Sun 105-108
Meridonial Parts 75-77
Lanby Buoy 142 143 Metacentre 116
Lateral Buoyage System 134-141 Metacentric Height 116
Latitude, Effect of Free Surface
Angular Measurement of 21 Liquids 118-123
Difference of 70 Metric Charts AT Die 2S) 38}
Linear Measurement of 22 Miles, Nautical 2D I
Middle 73 74
by Meridian Altitude 105-108 N
Parallels of 20 24
Leeway oy) Ss: Natural Scale of Charts 28
Lever, Righting 117 Nautical Almanac 95 96
Lights, Navigational 140 141 143 144 Nautical Mile 24
Lights—Sector and Leading 141 Navigational Marks and Lights 139 140
Lightvessels 141 142 New Dangers 137 138

178
Navigation, Principles of 20 R
Norie’s Tables 154-171
Notices to Mariners 34 35 Racons 138
Radar 147 148
O Radio Navigation Systems 144 146
Range of Stability ew
Observations Ratio of Angles JI- 83
LOS=113
Observed Altitude Refraction 63
59-64 105-107
Observed Position Reserve Buoyancy au)
42 Righting Lever 117
Occlusion Sil iy
Rising and Setting Sun 98-102
Omega SP
Running Fix 46-50

P
S
Parallax 63
Parallel Rulers, Use of 40 Safe Water Marks 134-138
Parallel of Latitude 20 24 Sailing,
Parallel Sailing IS Mercator, Parallel, Plane 74-77
Pelorus, Use of 14 15 Traverse 69-75
Pilots 36 Satellite Navigation 148 149 150
Plane 24 Scale a>
Plane Sailing 74 75 Secondary Depression 1930
Plotting 4] Semi-diameter 63
Polar Distance 89 Sextant,
Poles, True and Magnetic 4 5 Adjustments of 56-59
Poles, North and South 24 Angles, Vertical and
Pole, Elevated 85 Horizontal 55 63-68
Port Hand Buoy 134 Description of 54
Position, Error of 56-59
Circle of Parts of 54
88
Dead Reckoning 42 Principles of Construction 54 55 56
Estimated 42 Vernier 54 60
Geographical 21 88 Sights 105-113
Lines 44 45 46 88 108-113 Single Position Line 88
Observed 42 Small Angles of Inclination 128
Plotting 41 Small Circles 24
Position Lines, Soundings 28
Celestial and Terrestrial 88 108-113 Special Marks 134 136
Charting 45 Speed Sl
Fix by 45 46 Sphere,
Intercept Method 108-113 Celestial 90-92
Meridian Altitude 108 Projection of Celestial 90-92
Single 42 45 Squall 130
Transferred 47 49 Squared Paper Method 110-111
Precipitation 132 Stability,
Pressure, High and Low 127-130 Initial Lo 117
Prime Meridian 21 24 Range of 117
Prime Vertical 85 Starboard Hand Buoy 134
Projection, Station Pointer 64 65
Mercator’s 23528 Steering Compass 1-3
Gnomonic Ey fs Stiff Ship 116-117
Protractor, Use of 4] Sun,
True and Apparent Motion 84 85
Greenwich Hour Angle of 89 90
Q Latitude by Meridian
Altitude 105-108
Quadrantal Notation es Meridian Passage 93
Quality of Sea Bottom 27 28 Rising and Setting 98-102
19
Sunrise and Sunset Traverse,
Swing for Deviation 11 Sailing 71-77 81-83
Symbols, Chart 27-31 Tables, Use of 71-74
Triangles 79-83
Trim 116
True Altitude 59-64
T True Amplitude Tables, Use of 98-102
True Bearing 910
Tables, True Course 16-19
A, Band C 166-169 True Zenith Distance 62 63
Altitude Correction 72
Amplitudes OMA U
Azimuth 166-169
Conversion of Arc to Time 174 Useful Addresses 153
Deviation 11-13
Haversine 162-165 Vv
Increments and Corrections IAS)
Logarithms Salo Variation, Magnetic 5
Meridional Parts 156 157 Veering, Wind 127-129
Traverse 1545155 Vernier 60
Trig. Functions 160 161 Vertical,
Tender Ship 116 117 Circle 85
Three Figure Notation 2 Danger Angle 67 68
Tidal Information 37 38 Sextant Angles 66-68
Tidal Streams 38 39 132 Prime 85
Tides, Visibility 133
Set and Drift SSas9 sil
Counteracting the Effect of 50 Ww
Time,
Apparent 84 85 Weather Forecasts 126
Azimuth 85 Wedge of Immersion 114
Clock 92 93 Emersion 114
Conversion of 94 95 Weight, Effects of 115, 118-123
Equation of 85 Wind 126-129
Greenwich Mean 93-95 Wireless Time Signals 37
Longitude and 94
Mean 84 85 db
Ship 95
Signals 93 Zenith 61 64
Title of Charts 32-33 Zenith Distance, Calculated
Transferred Position Lines 108-113 and True 62 64
Transit Bearing 9-11 Zenith, Observers 64

180
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Free catalogue available on request

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181
 ————
ee
f

am
~
Gey eseora en
 All fishermen need a basic knowledge of
navigation, whether it is formally taught or
acquired by experience. More thorough study
is needed by those who are obliged to seek
Certificates of Competency assfc aac and
second hands.

The great merit of this book is that Captain

F. S. Howell, M.B.E., had long practical
experience at sea and also established a
successful school of navigation where his
knowledge and skill in tuition led to an
exceptionally high success rate for his students.

This second edition adds new material on

electronic aids and navigating in the Southern
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Fishing News Books Limited

specialises in books on a wide range of
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