TYPE Brief Research Report

PUBLISHED 25 August 2022

DOI 10.3389/feduc.2022.942272

The effects of a translation

OPEN ACCESS training program on English as a
EDITED BY
Hassan Ahdi,
Global Institute for Research Education
foreign language trainees’
and Scholarship, Netherlands

REVIEWED BY
translation skills
Fozia Fatima,
National University of Medical
Sciences (NUMS), Pakistan Yasamiyan Alolaywi*
Gilbert Cabilangan Magulod Jr.,
Department of English Language and Translation, College of Science and Arts, Methnab, Qassim
Cagayan State University, Philippines
University, Buraidah, Saudi Arabia
*CORRESPONDENCE
Yasamiyan Alolaywi
[email protected]
This study aimed to measure the effectiveness of a training experience
SPECIALTY SECTION
This article was submitted to involving a simulation of the work environment in developing the translation
Teacher Education, skills of a group of translation trainees. It also sought to investigate the
a section of the journal
Frontiers in Education participants’ views about their training experience, as well as measure their
RECEIVED 01June 2022 level of satisfaction with the program. Thirty participants with qualifications
ACCEPTED 11 July 2022 in English language and translation from different regions of the Kingdom of
PUBLISHED 25 August 2022
Saudi Arabia participated in this study. This research is a quasi-experimental
CITATION
study in the form of a one-group pretest and posttest design. Initially, the
Alolaywi Y (2022) The effects of a
translation training program on English participants underwent a preliminary assessment (pretest) of their translation
as a foreign language trainees’ abilities. Afterward, they undertook the experiment, an intensive course in
translation skills.
Front. Educ. 7:942272. translation and its required skills, which extended over a 2-month period. At
doi: 10.3389/feduc.2022.942272 the end of the program, the participants underwent a posttest to measure
COPYRIGHT whether there were statistically significant differences in their performance
© 2022 Alolaywi. This is an
in the pre- and posttests, with the results showing statistically significant
open-access article distributed under
the terms of the Creative Commons differences in program performance (p < 0.05). The data from the attitudinal
Attribution License (CC BY). The use, questionnaire administered to the participants at the end of the program
distribution or reproduction in other
forums is permitted, provided the showed that they held positive opinions about the program and they benefited
original author(s) and the copyright significantly from the training experience. Based on these results, suggestions
owner(s) are credited and that the
original publication in this journal is and recommendations are proposed to those interested in the field of training
cited, in accordance with accepted and translation to further improve the work.
academic practice. No use, distribution
or reproduction is permitted which
does not comply with these terms. KEYWORDS

translation, training, evaluation, empirical research, pretest, posttest

Introduction
Undoubtedly, societies are in constant need of translators in all the fields. The
translation profession is critical and in demand in all the governmental, educational,
and private sectors, including business and tourism.
However, there are important questions regarding translators: Is everyone who holds
the title of translator worthy of practicing the translation profession? How competent

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are current translators in the field? What are the criteria for the In addition, the conditions resulting from the COVID-19
qualification and evaluation of translators? All these questions lockdown have provided more opportunities for trainees to
deserve to be answered through research and investigation. enroll in these programs, which have been offering courses
The translation profession requires adequacy in a set of remotely for the last 2 years.
skills and subskills. If a translator lacks one of these skills, However, despite the abundance of these programs, there are
deficiencies will occur in the translation process. There not enough studies evaluating the quality of these programs or
is an urgent need for adequate preparation of translators, measuring their efficiency. This study has been undertaken to
providing them with all the skills and knowledge necessary answer these questions. The current study aims to evaluate the
for the profession before they embark on the labor market. effectiveness of a translation-training experience in developing
This is particularly important in areas where translation trainees’ translation skills and to examine the participants’
errors cannot be accepted. Moreover, the translation perceptions of the training program.
career involves different intellectual activities, including
language proficiency, analysis, problem solving, association,
conceptualization, learning, information processing, perception, Research questions
understanding, and re-expression, which makes translation
a complex phenomenon (Coban, 2015). Coban continued as The study seeks to answer the following research questions:
follows:
- How effective is the proposed translation training program
As in other professions, translation also requires some skills in preparing prospective English as a Foreign Language
such as language acquisition, text competence, research (EFL) translators?
competence, cultural competence, transfer competence, - What are the trainees’ perceptions of the translation
and abilities such as decision-making, creativity, giving training program?
quick responses, especially in simultaneous translation, and
arranging the time of response well (p. 708).
Significance of the study
In addition, it is important not to rely entirely on
university outputs, as these preparatory programs are at times The significance of the study is summarized as follows:
insufficient or inadequate.
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) is a monolingual • The results of this study will provide insights into the
country with limited linguistic diversity, which limits efficacy of training in terms of preparing future translators
opportunities for language practice for bilinguals and polyglots. and improving their skills.
For example, considering the situation of the English language • It will help narrow the gap in preservice training research,
in KSA, it will be found that its uses are limited, and mostly particularly in the field of translator training.
confined to the academic domain. Therefore, in Saudi Arabia, • The study will test the feasibility of the proposed program
English has deemed a foreign language due to the scarcity of its and assess the possibility of the application of the program
use in public facilities. on a larger scale.
All of these factors combined call for the proper • The study will present a paradigm of translator training that
rehabilitation and preparation of translators before the involves a set of strategies to be subsequently simulated and
actual engagement in the translation profession. adopted in similar contexts.
Today, translation has moved to different areas, especially • The feedback obtained from the study will be expected to
due to the impact of developments in communication help trainers, educators, and policymakers improve current
technology, services, and modern age demands. As a result, it training conditions.
requires the ability to quickly choose among many alternatives • The research outcomes will arguably provide useful insights
and make decisions. What is important for a translator is and visions of interest to future researchers, as well as
not knowing everything, but knowing how and where to find identify more research gaps to be filled by further research.
the information when needed and how to choose the most
appropriate information (Pym, 2014).
In this regard, it has been recently observed that there are
many training programs and training institutes for translators Literature review
in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. These institutes offer a
wide array of courses in general and specialized translations This part reviews the literature related to the current
that include all the fields of translation (religious, legal, study and provides the framework for this article. It sheds
literary, medical, etc.). light on both the theoretical and empirical considerations of

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this research and presents an overview of the findings of yielded some interesting findings. For instance, Di Wu and
previous studies. Aiping (2019) examined the influences of training programs
on preservice translators in terms of their self-efficacy beliefs
in translating, teaching, and research. It was found, in general,
Theoretical considerations that the program had positive impacts on the development
of the self-efficacy beliefs of the participants, suggesting that
Theory of constructivism the training of translators could yield successful results when
conducted in a formal and systematic ways. In addition,
The theoretical framework of the experimentation in this Mekheimer (2015) investigated the challenges for EFL students
research is based on the theory of constructivism, which enrolled in Arabic–English and/or English–Arabic programs
postulates that learners construct new understandings and at language and translation colleges in Saudi Arabia before
knowledge, integrating with what they already know. The main them embarking on the labor market. The findings identified
premise of constructivist theories is that learners create their three major challenges: (1) lack of language proficiency, (2)
own knowledge through experience. Constructivism has its insufficient intercultural knowledge, and (3) curriculum design
roots in the cognitive theories of Piaget and Vygotsky and issues. Results also indicated a number of issues that require
embraces several aspects of both of those theories. From Piaget, systemic modification of the curricula of these colleges.
we have active learning, schemes, assimilation, accommodation, Arslan and Kavaklı (2019) conducted a study to analyze
etc. From Vygotsky, we get social constructivism, group work, the translation errors of preservice EFL teachers. The
apprenticeship, etc. (Vygotsky, 1978). translation assignments of 30 preservice EFL teachers
Torrance and Pryor (2002) described the constructivist were analyzed through document analysis, and the results
perspective as an aspiring approach because it considers the showed that the errors fell into structural, lexical, and
interaction between the teacher and the pupil in the learning translational/interpretational categories. The vast majority of
process. Torrance and Pryor (2002) argued that, in this the errors fell into the structural category. It was apparent that
approach, the interaction between teachers and learners means some of the participants of the study had challenges in forming
that teachers assist the learners to understand new ideas, rather subject–verb agreement, using relative clauses/pronouns, and
than just discussing the pupils’ assessment results. Kolb (1985) constructing well-formed sentences in accordance with the
suggested that the constructivist approach helps learners to be rules of syntax.
active in analyzing knowledge. Likewise, experimental research was carried out to compare
The constructivist approach treats learners as individuals students’ translation learning ability before and after using
who are trying to make sense of the knowledge that has been e-learning lessons and to study the satisfaction of the English
introduced to them (Sjoberg, 2007). It maintains that individuals preservice students in the Basic Translation course. The
create or construct their own new understandings or knowledge participants were 48 English students from the Faculty of
through exploring what they already know, as well as the Education at Suratthani Rajabhat University. The findings
ideas, events, and activities with which they come in contact showed that the efficiency of the e-learning lesson in Basic
(Richardson, 1997). The constructivist-learning environment Translation was 75.12/77.86. The students’ achievement after
provides the learner with opportunities to help them build learning by using the e-learning lesson was significantly
on prior knowledge and understand how to build up new higher than the previous level of 0.05. The satisfaction of the
knowledge from authentic experience (Rami et al., 2009). students in the e-learning lesson was rated at a high level
Moreover, it is essential that instructors try to know (Kittichartchaowalit, 2018).
how their pupils associate new information with ideas, which Moreover, a specifically preservice translator training
are already present in their minds (James, 2013). Driscoll program was designed to test trainees’ ability to deal with
(2000) identified two main characteristics of the constructivist cultural references, a text segment type, which is widely
approach; first, it helps pupils to comprehend new knowledge; considered problematic for translators. It was found that
second, it refines old ideas, and it ought to have feedback, which the program enabled a group of students within a naturally
should include feedforward notions. Feedforward notions focus occurring preservice training context to detect a greater number
not only on what pupils have achieved, but what they might of cultural references within a text, and to also propose a
achieve (Torrance and Pryor, 2002). greater number of feasible variants for the translation of cultural
references (Scott-Tennent and Davies, 2008).
Similarly, English–Yoruba translation, which is a mandatory
Empirical considerations course for preservice teachers in education colleges in Nigeria,
is an important aspect of Yoruba language studies. Adeoye
Reviewing the literature regarding the training of (2016) studied the effects of bilingual and peer-tutoring
translators, it was found that there is little research conducted instructional strategies on preservice teachers’ learning gains
in the field. However, a few studies tackled the issue and in Yoruba translation. Findings indicated that bilingual

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and peer-tutoring instructional strategies were effective in 2020 academic year and included 30 participants. Before the
enhancing preservice teachers’ English–Yoruba translation experiment, the participants’ translation ability was measured
skills. Accordingly, English–Yoruba translation teachers in using a pretest. Thereafter, a posttest was administered to each
education colleges are expected to implement the strategies participant after completing the 2-month translation training
when teaching it. program. Upon the completion of the program, the participants
Rafiqa and Yasim (2019) conducted a study to investigate were also asked to complete an attitudinal questionnaire to
elevating the preservice teacher’s translation skills through measure their level of satisfaction with the translation course.
learner autonomy. The notion of learner autonomy or learner
independence moves into an area where learners can direct
their own learning, particularly when translating the sentences
Research participants
and texts given during the class. It refers to learning activities,
which take place without the intervention of a teacher. This,
The study included 30 participants, each holding degrees
in turn, encourages learners to be more efficient and effective
in the English language and were mainly graduates of the
when they study independently. Learners are indirectly forced
English language and translation departments of various Saudi
to assume responsibility for their own learning. The findings of
universities. Most of those enrolled in the program were either
the study showed that learner autonomy has a great impact in
unemployed individuals who were seeking to develop their
elevating the preservice teacher’s translation skills. Additionally,
translation skills in order to enhance their eligibility to secure
a study was undertaken by Hatipoğlu (2015) to examine the
a job or were freelance translators with a desire to refine their
effects of training by exploring the expectations and needs
translation skills.
of preservice English language teachers in Turkey. Data were
collected from 124 preservice English language teachers using
needs analysis survey questionnaires and interviews. The results
of the study illustrated the effect of local assessment cultures and Research instruments
contexts and the previous assessment experiences on preservice
teachers’ perceived needs related to language assessment literacy. Translation program
The findings also showed that instructors should monitor their The total duration of the program was 8 weeks, with 96 h
students if the aim is to create more useful English language of training. Taking into account the personal circumstances
testing and evaluation (ELTE) courses. of the trainees, the program was divided into two slots—
Finally, it is acknowledged in the literature and professional one in the morning and another in the evening. The entire
practice that there is a “gap” between the theory of preservice training program was conducted remotely. The training was
training and the actual professional practices. Hence, Kervin and practical and intensive and was designed in a way that
Turbill (2003) described a model of professional learning that simulated the work environment. The program targeted all
greatly assisted novice trainees in making connections between the translators, translation students, and graduates of English
their preservice training and its relevance to their professional language programs who were interested in developing their
practices. A gap has also been identified between the theory translation skills. It was offered by experts specialized in the field
and practice of some training programs. Lingham et al. of translation, and applicants obtained certificates submitted by
(2006) evaluated training programs that promote collaboration an accredited translation office. The total value of the program
between organizational leaders, trainers, participants, and was 1,500 Saudi Riyals. The organizational party for this course
evaluators by adopting a four-phase approach. The main result was the House of Translators, a certified translation institute
of the study was that content was stronger than applicability. in Saudi Arabia.
This finding was critical in understanding the learning focus
of the program and the significance of developing unique Pretest and posttest
evaluation systems that are both meaningful and important to Every participant undertook a pretest to determine their
any organization and its members. translation ability before the translation course. The participants
then undertook a posttest after completing the program, and
the results of the pretest and posttest were compared. The
Methodology two tests had the same format; both were self-designed by
the researcher with multiple choice questions (MCQs) format.
Research design Each test comprised 30 items testing the respondents’ general
knowledge of translation concepts, strategies, theories, English
This research reported herein is a quasi-experimental study to Arabic editing skills, as well as simple translating tasks
in the form of one-group pretest and posttest designs. The (Appendix A). A single item counts for 1 point with a total score
experiment was conducted during the second semester of the of 30 points per test.

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Attitudinal questionnaire TABLE 1 Reliability statistics of research instruments.

Instrument Cronbach’s alpha

An attitudinal questionnaire measuring the trainees’ rate of
satisfaction with their training experience was developed and Pre- and Posttests 0.988

administered at the end of the program. The questionnaire Questionnaire 0.867

comprised 10 close-ended items and was designed in a four-

point scale format. It generally consisted of characteristic TABLE 2 One-sample statistics.
statements, and the respondents were required to indicate the
N Mean Std. deviation Std. error mean
extent to which they agreed or disagreed by ticking one of the
responses ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” Pretest 30 14.27 7.239 1.322
Posttest 30 17.27 6.313 1.153

Data collection and analysis

Reliability
The study utilized a one-group pretest and posttest
quasi-experimental design. The data collection involved Reliability, on the other hand, of a research instrument
the administration of the pretest with the 30 participants, refers to the stability or the consistency of the measurements
who together represented the translation program produced by a particular assessment procedure (Gravetter
registrants. The pretest was administered to the participants and Forzano, 2006). The internal reliability of the two tests
before the commencement of the extensive Translation and questionnaire items was established by conducting a
Training Course. The experiment was carried out over standard reliability test. The statistical technique adopted
2 months. Upon completing the program, a posttest was to measure the internal reliability was Cronbach’s alpha
administered to the participants, as well as a satisfaction (Table 1).
questionnaire to measure their attitudes toward the Translation The measurement revealed that the instrument was reliable
Training Course. at 0.988 for the pre- and posttests, which are considered an
The data were analyzed quantitatively using the Statistical excellent value according to the general evaluation system of
Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) (version 23). The raw Cronbach’s alpha statistics. In addition, it was found that the
scores of both the tests were submitted to the SPSS for questionnaire was reliable at 0.883, which is also considered a
further analysis, and the significance level was set to p < 0.05. fairly plausible value.
The one-sample t-test was run to compare the means of the
pretest and posttest scores. In addition, descriptive statistics
were generated to demonstrate the means of the attitudinal
questionnaire items. Results
Q1: How effective is the proposed
Validity translation training program in
preparing prospective English as a
In research terminology, validity refers to the degree to foreign language translators?
which an assessment procedure measures the variables it claims
to measure (Dornyei, 2007). In order to ensure the content This research question aimed to examine the impact
validity of the research instrument, the researcher adopted the of the translation training program on improving trainees’
following procedures: translation abilities. To this end, the study participants
undertook a pretest and posttest. Upon analyzing the
• Four or more response-item construct format was selected data, it was found that the trainees’ performance in
to minimize the guessing of correct answers. the posttest had improved considerably as a result of
• The options were made homogeneous in content. their enrollment in the program. Table 2 shows that
• To eliminate the testing effect, an 8-week interval mediates the mean score for the posttest was 17.27 compared to
between the pretest and posttest. 14.27 in the pretest.
• To eliminate mortality threats (participants’ dropout or This finding shows that there was a statistically significant
withdrawal from the study), more than thirty students were difference in the performance of the participants in both the tests
initially enrolled in the study. as the significance level was p ≤ 0.05 (Table 3).

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TABLE 3 One-sample test. performance in the program, 46% strongly agreed, 43% agreed,
T df Sig. Mean 95% confidence 5% were undecided, 4% disagreed, and 2% strongly disagreed.
(2-tailed) difference interval of the Upon investigating the respondents’ opinions about whether
difference they believed that the training was essential for translators, 41%
of them strongly agreed, 53% agreed, 4% were undecided, and
Lower Upper 2% disagreed. Furthermore, the participants were asked whether
they thought that a 2-month period was sufficient for training.
Pretest 10.794 29 0.000 14.267 11.56 16.97
In all, 35% strongly agreed, 23% agreed, 25% were undecided,
Posttest 14.980 29 0.000 17.267 14.91 19.62
14% disagreed, and 3% strongly disagreed. They were also
asked whether they were generally satisfied with their translation
TABLE 4 Test of normality.
abilities, with 35% strongly agreeing, 23% agreeing, 25% being
Kolmogorov–Smirnova Shapiro–Wilk undecided, 14% disagreeing, and 3% strongly disagreeing. When
asked whether they felt that they needed further translation
Statistic df Sig. Statistic df Sig. training, 29% of them strongly agreed, 26% agreed, 15% were
Pretest 0.157 30 0.057 0.951 30 0.179
undecided, 16% disagreed, and 14% strongly disagreed.
Posttest 0.205 30 0.002 0.898 30 0.007
In response to the statement “I think that practical training
should be integrated into the program,” 42% of the participants
a Lilliefors significance correction.
agreed, 13% were undecided, and 45% disagreed. Finally,
in assessing the respondents’ general satisfaction levels with
Test of normality their overall training experience, 46% strongly agreed that
they were generally satisfied, 45% agreed, 6% were undecided,
A test of normality was also calculated to determine whether and 3% disagreed.
or not the date is normally distributed. To this end, the Shapiro–
Wilk test was conducted. The results of the test are shown on
Table 4. Discussion
As it can be seen in table above, the significance value
for the pretest is p ≥ 0.05, which ultimately supports the null The findings of this study revealed that the training
hypothesis, which states that “sample distribution is normal.” experience had a positive impact on the trainees’ translation
On the other hand, the significance value for the posttest is abilities. This is in accordance with previous studies, such
p ≤ 0.05, which accordingly rejects the null hypothesis. as those of Mansour (2013) and Abd Samad et al. (2015),
which concluded that training yielded positive outcomes on
trainees’ performance.
Q2: What are the trainees’ perceptions After participating in the Translation Training Course,
of the translation training program? the student’s achievement levels were significantly higher
than before at the 0.05 level. This has also been proven
This research question aimed to explore the participants’ by similar studies, which compared students’ translation
attitudes toward the translation course. To answer this question, learning abilities before and after joining learning programs
an attitudinal questionnaire was administered to the trainees (Kittichartchaowalit, 2018).
at the end of the treatment. Upon examining the respondents’ Moreover, the participant’s responses to the satisfaction
replies to the questions, the overall results revealed positive questionnaire indicated positive attitudes toward the training
attitudes toward the program. Table 5 shows the overall results experience and program, as well as their translation skills.
of the questionnaire items. This finding is also similar to the findings of Di Wu and
The participants were asked whether they enjoyed the Aiping (2019), who found that training had a positive impact
translation program, and the results showed that 47% of them on the development of self-efficacy beliefs of the participants,
strongly agreed, 44% agreed, 3% were undecided, and only suggesting that the training of translators could yield successful
6% disagreed. When asked if they felt that their translation results when conducted in a formal and systematic ways.
skills had improved as a result of their enrollment in the It is also consistent with the findings of Kittichartchaowalit
program, 52% strongly agreed, 43% agreed, 2% were undecided, (2018), who found that the satisfaction of the students with
and 3% disagreed. When asked whether they had observed an e-learning lesson in the Basic Translation Course was rated
any improvement in their English skills as a result of at a high level.
attending the program, 34% strongly agreed, 42% agreed, 10% Previous research has shown that English as a Foreign
were undecided, 8% disagreed, and 6% strongly disagreed. Language (EFL) students face challenges with the English
When questioned if they were generally satisfied with their language, with their proficiency levels being found inadequate

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TABLE 5 Statistics of the questionnaire items.

Statements Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly

disagree agree

I enjoyed the translation training experience. 0% 6% 3% 44% 47%

I feel that my translation skills have improved as a result of joining the program. 0% 3% 2% 43% 52%
I noticed an improvement in my English language skills as a result of joining the program. 6% 8% 10% 42% 34%
I am satisfied with the performance of the trainers in the program. 2% 4% 5% 43% 46%
I believe that training is essential for translators. 0% 2% 4% 63% 41%
I think that a 2-month period is enough for training. 3% 14% 25% 23% 35%
I am satisfied with my general translation abilities. 2% 5% 7% 44% 42%
I feel that I am in need of further training on translation. 14% 16% 15% 26% 29%
I think that practical training should be integrated to the program. 0% 45% 13% 42% 0%
Generally, I am satisfied with my overall training experience. 0% 3% 6% 45% 46%

(Mekheimer, 2015). Yet, the results of the research showed that 1. It is suggested that practical training becomes an integral
the students recognized progress in their levels of the English part of any training program plan.
language as a result of joining the training program. 2. The outcomes of the study can have pedagogical
Finally, previous studies have pointed out a gap between implications for translators’ preparation programs in Saudi
the theory and practice of some training programs (Lingham universities and in Qassim University to simulate the
et al., 2006). Nevertheless, no gaps were identified between experience and refine translators’ talents.
training and practice in the current program. This finding was 3. It is also recommended that the training period extends
critical to understanding the learning focus of the program and to 6 months at least instead of 2 months to ensure more
the significance of developing unique evaluation systems that robust outcomes and efficient training.
are both meaningful and important to the organization and 4. The new program could include a plan for language
its beneficiaries. skills enhancement, as language proficiency is essential for
translators, as well as further ensuring the efficiency and
quality of the training outputs.
5. It is also suggested that longitudinal studies are conducted
Conclusion to examine the effectiveness of training, focusing primarily
on testing the translation skills included in the program.
This study aimed to evaluate a training experience involving 6. The selection of both the trainees and trainers to take part
the simulation of the work environment in developing the in the program should be based on standard criteria such
translation skills of a group of translators. It also sought to as linguistic testing to ensure the quality and efficiency of
explore the opinions of the study participants about their the training program.
perceptions of the program and assess their level of satisfaction
with the program outcomes. The results of the study showed
that, in general, the participants had positive attitudes about
the program and that they benefited significantly and enjoyed
the training experience. The findings also showed statistically Data availability statement
significant differences in the participants’ performance in the
pre- and posttests. This result corroborates the findings of The original contributions presented in this study are
previous research on the effectiveness of training in developing included in the article/Supplementary material, further
translators’ skills. However, there were persistent research gaps inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
that will require further investigation and exploration.

Ethics statement
Recommendations and practical Ethical review and approval was not required for the study
implications on human participants in accordance with the local legislation
and institutional requirements. Written informed consent for
Based on the findings of the current study, the following participation was not required for this study in accordance with
recommendations were proposed: the national legislation and the institutional requirements.

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Author contributions Publisher’s note

YA designed the study, developed the framework, All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the
carried out the experiment in coordination with the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated
director of the translation program, analyzed the data, organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the
reported the findings, and approved the submitted reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or
version. claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed
or endorsed by the publisher.

Conflict of interest
Supplementary material
The author declares that the research was conducted
in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships The Supplementary Material for this article can be
that could be construed as a potential conflict of found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/
interest. feduc.2022.942272/full#supplementary-material

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