Human Rights Defenders in Africa

Report of the Study on the Situation of Women Human Rights Defenders in Africa
Vierge
Vierge
Report of the Study on the

Situation of Women Human
Rights Defenders in Africa
Preface
I appreciate the efforts of the African Commission on Human and

Peoples' Rights and its Special Procedures to push for the implementation
of the provisions of the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights.
This is an endeavor filled with challenges. This report is testament to
the spirit and commitment of the Commission. It is my pleasure to write
this preface as my contribution to the struggle of African women human
rights defenders for an Africa free from violence.
It is true that in spite of the initiatives taken here and there, the
situation of women rights defenders in Africa and in the world at large,
still remains precarious. Women Human Rights Defenders continue to
be victims, of deep inequality, discrimination and abuse. They are
frequently the targets of social and political hostility. Specific women's
rights legal instruments at the global and regional levels are designed to
see the reform and eradication of norms and practices that create and
facilitate such violations
This report highlights the work of women human rights defenders

and their leading roles in protecting vulnerable and under-privileged
groups. It highlights rights abuses suffered by women. The report speaks
directly of those working on gender equality and of the work of women's
rights activists in the area of sexual orientation and gender identity. But
its scope goes far beyond mere recognition of a problem. It recommends
to States Parties to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights
to be visionary and robust in their commitment to ensure the protection
of women human rights defenders and the promotion of their work.
07
I therefore support the conclusions of this report, reflecting as

they do the experience, insights, and analysis of women human rights
defenders in Africa. The highly challenging environment in which women
human rights defenders live and work across the continent, comes across
powerfully in this report.
I hope this report will be widely disseminated and used as the

basis for enhancing the effectiveness of women human rights defenders
in Africa. I also hope that it will serve as a model for other human rights
systems in their work for the protection of women defenders and the
promotion of their work.
I recommend this report to States Parties to the African Charter

on Human and Peoples' Rights and hope they will take steps to consider
and implement the recommendations made to them.
NaviPillay
Former United Nations High Commissioner for Human Right
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Acknowledgements:
The Special Rapporteur on Human Rights Defenders in Africa,

Commissioner Reine Alapini Gansou is very grateful to the members
of the advisory group set up to support the collection of information for
the preparation of this report. In particular it addresses these thanks to
the following individuals and institutions:
Tilder Kumichii, Development Consultant/Coordinator Gender

Empowerment and Development (GeED), Cameroon
Djingarey Maiga, Women and Human Rights, Mali
Eleanor Openshaw, Pooja Patel, Clement N. Voulé; International

Service for Human Rights (ISHR), Geneva
Hannah Forster; African Centre for Democracy and Human Rights

Studies (ACDHRS), Gambia
Lúcia Da Silveira; Associaçao Justiça, Paz e Democracia (AJPD),

Angola
Dawn Cavanagh, Sipho Mthathi, Fadzai Muparutsa ; Coalitionof
African Lesbians (CAL), South Africa
Rachel Nicholson; East and Horn of Africa Human Rights Defenders

Project (EHAHRDP), Uganda
Corlett Letlojane; Human Rights Institute of South Africa (HURISA)
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Masa Amir, Amal Elmohandes, Samah Hadid, Rasha Mohamed;

NAZRA for Feminist Studies, Egypt
Solange Fiaty, Estelle Nkounkou; West Africa Human Rights

Defenders Network (ROADDH/WAHRDN), Togo
Maximilienne Ngo Mbe; Queen Biseng CarineLe Réseau des

Défenseurs des Droits Humains en Afrique Centrale (REDHAC),
Cameroon
The Special Rapporteur also expressed her thanks to her

colleaguesfrom the African Commission who have contributed their
expertise to the development of this report and especially Commissioner
Soyata Maiga, Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Women in Africa.
The development of this study was made possible thanks to the

information collected from various sources on the continent. To this end,
the Special Rapporteur thanks the States, national human rights
institutions, non-governmental organizations and any other organization
or individual who responded to the information gathering questionnaire
or through any other means.
Finally, the Special Rapporteur is grateful to Bread for the World,

IrishAid and AIDS for providing financial support for the writing of this
report.
10
Contents:
Foreword:
I. Introduction
A. Background and rationale
B. Objectives
C. Methodology
11
II. African and international human rights instruments related

to the promotion and protection of the rights of women
human rights defenders
III. Who are women human rights defenders?
IV. The work of women human rights defenders in Africa
V. Contextual factors that contribute to violations of the

rights of women human rights defenders
VI. Types of violations of the rights of women human rights

defenders
VII. The impact of the violations of the rights of women

VIII. Measures for the protection of women human rights

defenders
IX. Conclusions and recommendations
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11
Foreword:
1. Women Human Rights Defenders (WHRDs) break norms

and cultural taboos based on social inequalities when they take the risk
to speak out and advocate for measures to ensure the respect of human
rights. Promoting the work of women human rights defenders and
protecting them in their work amounts to a secular struggle against
inequalities and discrimination against women. Furthermore, the
conclusions of numerous meetings on the state of implementation of
legal instruments on women's rights in general show that little progress
has been made in the field of violence and discrimination against women.
2. Our governments should therefore make an effort to create

a safe, enabling and secure environment for women human rights
defenders so that they can participate appropriately in the development
of their countries. This involves among others consideration of the gender
approach in efforts by States and of the experience of women human
rights defenders.
3. This report is therefore part of the aim, well justified by the

circumstances, of the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights
(the African Commission), to assess the extent and degree of the
difficulties routinely faced by women human rights defenders and is based
on its resolution ACHPR/Res. 230 (LII), dated 12 October 2012.
4. The findings of this study are aimed at contributing to efforts

that push for an improvement in the precarious working conditions of
women human rights defenders in Africa.
1
See Section III
13
5. In this report, the various instruments for the promotion

and protection of the rights of women human rights defenders are
reviewed.
6. The report also contains the contributions of women human

rights defenders, representatives of non-governmental organizations
(NGOs), national human rights institutions (NHRIs) and States. The
activities of women human rights defenders in Africa have been analysed
from different points of views, including the context of the factors that
cause the deterioration of their working environment.
7. It is also my hope that the recommendations made to States

and other stakeholders in this report on how best to implement effective
protection measures for women human rights defenders will not be
ignored.
8. Finally, I wish to express my deep gratitude to all those

who generously contributed their time and expertise to this report. I am
aware that a large number of women human rights defenders pay a
heavy price for their faith in human rights and hereby wish to thank and
pay them tribute.
9. The synergy of actions between political actors, national

human rights institutions and all non-state actors involved in the promotion
and protection of human rights remains a necessary strategy for the
effective realization of the universality of human rights.
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Introduction
10. In this report, the Special Rapporteur on Human Rights

Defenders in Africa, Mme Reine Alapini Gansou, focuses on the laws
that have a negative impact on the situation of women human rights
defenders in Africa. The report highlights the discriminatory practices
that aim to destroy the role of women human rights defenders in the
promotion and protection of human rights on the continent.
A. Background and rationale
11. Since the establishment of mechanism of the Special

Rapporteur on Human Rights Defenders of the United Nations, the African
Commission has recognized the vital role played by human rights
defenders in the promotion and protection of human rights for peace,
security and democracy on the continent. Through a large number of
resolutions, the African Commission, resolutions has urged, and
continues to urge, States to fulfil their obligations to protect human rights
defenders in their work. In this respect, the mechanism of the Special
Rapporteur on Human Rights Defenders remains one of the organs for
monitoring and promoting the situation of human rights defenders in
Africa.
12. There has been significant progress made by human rights

defenders in gaining recognition for their important work. However, the
African Commission is well aware, thanks to its investigative methods
and information it receives- including from victims of human rights
violations- that the situation of women human rights defenders can be
particularly precarious because of stereotypes. Women human rights
15
defenders are generally targeted because of their gender and because

of their human rights activities. In addition to the types of violations and
abuses they may suffer in line with those experienced by their male
colleagues, women human rights defenders are also subjected to specific
attacks due to their gender, including gender-based violence.
13. Many women human rights defenders in Africa arestruggling

to overcome patriarchy and heteronormativity by working on issues of
gender discrimination, health, reproduction and sexuality. WHRDs
continue to fight against the discriminating social, cultural and religious
stereotypes, which expose them to a number of risks in the course of
their activities.
14. The environment in which WHRDs operate is characterizedin

many countries by increasing and incessant arbitrary arrests and
detention, including judicial harassment, threats, intimidation, summary
and extrajudicial executions, torture, and inhumane and degrading
treatment because of their activities.
15. The African context of the work of WHRDs is complex

andthe range of violations they experience is extensive, which means
that ensuring effective protection of these targets will require actions
and concrete and effective measures from the State.
B. Objectives
16. The main objectives of this report are twofold, in line
2
The African Civil society played a crucial role before the African Commission through the Johan-
nesburg conference of 1999 and for the adoption of the Declaration and Action Plan of Grand Bay of
1999 and the Declaration of Kigali of 2003.
16
withresolution ACHPR/Rés. 230 (LII) 12:
. To help improve the working conditions of women humanrights

defenders in Africa;
. To develop appropriate strategies to protect women human
rights defenders on the continent.
17. Through this report, the African Commission shows

itscommitment to women human rights defenders on the continent.
18. Specifically, the report presents a number of

measuresnecessary to promote and protect the work of WHRDs and
makes appropriate recommendations to stakeholders (governments, civil
society actors, national and international organizations, women human
rights defenders and national human rights institutions) in order to better
promote and protect WHRDs.
C. Methodology
19. For the drafting of this report, the Special Rapporteur setup
an advisory committee that assisted in reviewing the literature and
collecting the data and contributions. This committee of women human
rights defenders was at the heart of the research for the preparation of
this report. As WHRDs, they are the most capable of assessing the
risks they and their families face.
20. The committee was composed of members of the

Africanregional human rights networks and members of the Women
Human Rights Defenders International Coalition. The Coalition is
17
committed to providing greater visibility to the experience of WHRDs

and encourages States to fulfil their obligations with regard to women
human rights defenders.
21. Strategically, a questionnaire was developed and

distributedthrough the advisory committee in order to obtain the
participation of the largest possible number of States, national human
rights institutions and women human rights defenders - as individuals
and those working for NGOs. The questionnaire was divided into two
parts:the first was made up of nine questions aimed at identifying and
evaluating the different types of risks and challenges faced by WHRDs,
andanother series of questions sought to address the challenges to the
success of their work. The questionnaire also sought to identify existing
protection measures whose formulation and development had involved
women human rights defenders. The questionnaire was also sent to
State Parties, the African Court, NHRIs and the African Union (AU).
22. A total of twenty-eight (28) responses were received

fromseventeen (17) African countries: Central Africa (Democratic Republic
of Congo, Cameroonand Rwanda ), North Africa (Egypt, Libya, , and
Algeria), West Africa (Nigeria, Togo, Mali, Niger, and Côte-d'Ivoire), East
Africa (Kenya, Uganda, , Ethiopia andSudan) and Southern Africa (Malawi
,Tanzania South Africa). Two (2) of the twenty-eight (28) responses were
from States: the Ministry of Women, Children and Youth in Ethiopia and
Côte-d'Ivoire. Two (2) other responses came from national human rights
institutions (NHRIs), namely the National Commission on Human Rights
in Algeria and the Commission on Human Rights in Malawi, and (1)
answer came from an independent institution created by the State, the
Egyptian Council for Women. Two(2) women human rights defenders
18
not belonging to any organization also responded.
23. The report's analysis is based on information provided inthe

questionnaire, communications received by the Office of the Special
Rapporteur in 2012 and research reports produced by women human
rights defenders in Africa on the basis of their experiences and those of
their colleagues.
24. The examples provided by the respondents are cited

toillustrate the main points mentioned in the report. The names or places
of residence of individual respondents are not provided. The responses
to the questionnaire, in terms of violations and existing protection
measures, are consistent with results from other sources, including
Communications sent to the Office of the Rapporteur. The questionnaire
responses and other contributions may be considered as reliable sources
on the experiences and trends described. Due to the similarity of the
experiences in the regions, this report does not provide a breakdown by
region, and only describes the trends.
19
20
II - AFRICAN AND INTERNATIONAL HUMAN

RIGHTS LEGAL INSTRUMENTS RELATED
TO THE PROMOTION AND PROTECTION
OFTHE RIGHTS OF WOMEN HUMAN RIGHTS
DEFENDERS
25. African and international legal instruments for the promotion

and protection of human rights clearly set out the rights of women human
rights defenders to carry out their activities safely without discrimination
and the obligation of States to take measures to respect, protect and
give effect to those rights.
26. It should be noted that the observance of the principle of

non-discrimination and the principle of equality is fundamental in terms
of the ability of women human rights defenders to carry out their work
without fear of being attacked or hindered regardless of the area in which
they have chosen to operate.
27. International and regional human rights standards and

commitments relating to the elimination of all forms of discrimination
against women and the right to protect human rights are relevant to the
protection and promotion of the work of women human rights defenders.
The international legal framework.
28. These rights are enshrined in several international treaties,

including the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR),
the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(ICESCR) and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW).
21
29. The equality of all in respect of rights - without distinction -

is affirmed in Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(UDHR), which states that "all human beings are born free and equal in
dignity and rights". The Declaration goes on to assert the right of all,
without "distinction of any kind, such as [...] sex ... or other status" to
enjoy the rights enshrined in the Declaration. These include freedom of
expression, association and assembly and participation in public affairs.
In addition, equal rights are affirmed in Articles 2 and 26 of the ICCPR
and Article 2 of the ICESCR.
30. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of

Discrimination Against Women is one of the legal instruments specifically
dedicated to women's rights and its provisions logically apply to women
human rights defenders. It is the first international legal instrument to
recognize and articulate women's rights to freedom of expression,
association, non-discrimination and non-violence. Article 1 establishes
the principle of non-discrimination against women. In Article 7, CEDAW
urges State Parties to: "take all appropriate measures to eliminate
discrimination against women in the political and public life of the country
and, in particular, [...] ensure to women, on equal terms with men, the
right [...] to participate in non-governmental organizations and
associations concerned with the public and political life of the country".
31. Further, the Convention established a Committee which,

under the Optional Protocol adopted in 1999, can be approached by
women human rights defenders if they feel they are victims of a violation
by a State Party of any of the rights mentioned in the Convention.
32. The 1998 United Nations Declaration on the Right and
22
Responsibility of Individuals, Groups and Organs of Society to Promote

and Protect Universally Recognized Human Rights and Fundamental
Freedoms (known as the United Nations Declaration on Human Rights
Defenders) recognizes that the defence of human rights is a right in
itself. It states that every human being has the right to promote and
protect human rights and provides a framework for the protection of human
rights defenders by States that is informed by the principles of universality,
non-violence and non-discrimination.
33. Pursuant to Article 2 of the UN Declaration on Human Rights

Defenders, every state has a: "responsibility and duty ... to [adopt] such
steps as may be necessary to create all conditions necessary in the
social, economic, political and other fields, as well as the legal
guarantees required to ensure that all persons under its jurisdiction,
individually and in association with others, are able to enjoy all those
rights and freedoms in practice".
34. The adoption of the Declaration by consensus by the UN

member States was a clear recognition of the legitimate role of human
rights defenders on the one hand, and the obligations of the State to
promote their work and protect them, on the other hand. Pursuant to
Article 3 of the United Nations Declaration, national law, by which human
rights and fundamental freedoms are implemented and respected, should
be compatible with the United Nations Charter and other international
obligations of the State in the field of human rights and fundamental
freedoms.
35. The United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of

Violence Against Women, adopted on 20 December 1993, is part of
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other UN declarations containing provisions relevant to the activities of

women human rights defenders.
The African Legal Framework
36. Article 2 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples'

Rights ("African Charter" or "Charter") states that "Every individual should
be entitled to the enjoyment of the rights and freedoms recognised and
guaranteed in the present Charter without distinction of any kind". This
principle of non-discrimination and the obligation to work actively to
promote this principle clearly applies to the situation of women human
rights defenders.
37. The Charter guarantees the rights of human rights defenders

and their equal protection under the law in Articles 3 and 4, as well as
the respect for the life and integrity of every human being. Further, the
right to liberty and security of every person is protected (Article 6), as is
the right of everyone to receive information, express and disseminate
opinions (Article 9), the rights to freedom of association and assembly
(Articles 10 and 11) and the right to freedom of movement (art. 12).
38. The Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples

'Rights on the Rights of Women (Maputo Protocol) adopted in 2003
imposes obligations that are highly relevant to women human rights
defenders. These include the obligation of States to fight against all
forms of discrimination against women through legislative, institutional
and other means and through the integration of a gender perspective in
their programs and legislation and "in all other spheres of life" Article 2
(1).
24
39. The Protocol contains several provisions relating to the

elimination of harmful cultural, traditional and discriminatory practices
Article 2 (2), the fight against all forms of exploitation, inhuman and
degrading treatment, Article 4 (1). In Article 4 (2) (e), the Protocol requires
State Parties to take all appropriate measures to punish the perpetrators
of violence against women and implement programs for the rehabilitation
of women victims. Article 9 refers specifically to the right to participate
in political processes and decision-making, and paragraph (c) states
that "women [should] be equal partners with men at all levels of
development and implementation of State policies and development
programs".
40. The entire protocol is designed to enable women to claim

their rights, including the right to defence. However, while 46 State Parties
to the African Charter have signed the Protocol, only 36 have ratified it to
date.
41. In addition to these texts, the AU adopted statements

thataffirm the rights of human rights defenders in their activities.
42. Paragraph 19 of the Declaration of Grand-Bay (1999) notes

that the adoption of the UN Declaration on human rights "marks a
significant turning point" and called on African governments to take
measures to implement the Declaration in Africa. It also recognizes that
the "observance of human rights is a key tool for promoting collective
security, durable peace and sustainable development" and emphasizes
the vital role played by human rights defenders in the process leading to
these goals.
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43. The Kigali Declaration adopted by the Ministerial

Conference of the African Union on human rights in Africa, 8 May, 2003,
in paragraph 28 recognizes the role of human rights defenders, especially
in the "promotion and protection of human rights in Africa" and calls on
Member States and regional institutions to protect them.
44. Statements of the African Union also contain relevantarticles

on the elimination of discrimination against women and the confirmation
of their role in society. The Kigali Declaration builds on the commitments
and instruments to recognize women as actors with equal rights in public
life in African societies. Further, the 2004 Solemn Declaration on Gender
Equality in Africa notes that "low levels of women's representation in
social, economic and political decision-making structures and
feminisation of poverty impact negatively on women's ability to derive
full benefit from the economies of their countries and the democratization
process".
45. Regional economic communities have also created

variousin struments for the protection of women's rights, including in the
field of protection of the right to defend these rights - such as the SADC
Protocol on Gender and Development. This text echoes the Convention
on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women
(CEDAW), which requires in its Article 7 that all State Parties:
"take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against

women in the political and public life of the country and, in particular,
[...] ensure to women, on equal terms with men, the right [...] to
participate in non-governmental organizations and associations
concerned with the public and political life of the country".
26
46. A number of initiatives have been taken as part of the

implementation of the above-mentioned instruments to support the rights
of human rights defenders, both at international and regional levels.
United Nations Initiatives.
47. In his report to the Human Rights Council in 2010, the UN

Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders, Ms
Margaret Sekaggya, gave a description of the situation of women human
rights defenders in different parts of the world, including Africa, and
concluded that it was very serious.
48. Before the publication of that report, her predecessor,

MsHinaJilani, then Special Representative of the UN Secretary General,
noted the relative invisibility of the experience of women human rights
defenders, explaining that out of one hundred and sixty-one (161) human
rights complaints addressed to States, seventy (70) were related to the
experience of women human rights defenders. Similarly, about a third of
communications sent to States by the UN Special Rapporteur on human
rights between 2004 and 2009, including letters of allegations and urgent
appeals were related to women human rights defenders.
49. Therefore, it was necessary to pay special attention to the

situation of human rights defenders, including women. When renewing
the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on human rights, the Human
Rights Council asked for the inclusion of a gender perspective in its
work and to give prominence to the situation of women human rights
defenders. In its last report to the Human Rights Council, the Special
Rapporteur on human rights defenders focused on the key elements
required to enable defenders to operate in a safe and conducive
27
environment. In line with the gender perspective that the Special

Rapporteur adopted in her work, a section of the report was devoted to
the special attention required by the risks faced by WHRDs and the
challenges they encounter while working on women's rights and gender
issues.
50. In 2012, the Human Rights Council devoted its Annual Day
of Discussion on Women's Rights to the situation of women human
rights defenders. During the debate, two African countries, Algeria and
Sudan, recognized women human rights defenders as agents of social
change, while noting the existence of cultural constraints in their work.
These countries also affirmed their commitment to fight against all forms
of violence against WHRDs.
51. Since 2003, the General Assembly and the Human Rights
Council have adopted, often by consensus, resolutions on the protection
of human rights defenders and the promotion of their work.
52. More recently, in December 2013, the UN General

Assembly adopted by consensus its first resolution on the protection of
women human rights defenders. The resolution emphasizes that the
historical and structural inequalities in power relations and various forms
of extremism have direct implications on the status and treatment of
women. It notes that the rights of women human rights defenders are
violated and their work stigmatized because of discriminatory practices
and social norms or models that condone violence against women or
perpetuate practices involving such violence. The resolution mentions a
series of violations that women human rights defenders are subjected
to, including sexual violence, harassment, sexual abuse and character
28
assassination. It confirms that women human rights defenders are

subjected to multiple aggravated or intersecting forms of discrimination.
53. In approving this resolution, States agree to adopt a series

of measures to promote and protect women human rights defenders,
including all the necessary measures to ensure the protection of women
human rights defenders and the inclusion of a gender perspective in
their efforts to create a safe and enabling environment for women to
defend rights. States pledged to ensure that the promotion and protection
of human rights are not criminalized or restricted; otherwise they would
fail to fulfil their commitments under international human rights law. States
were asked to ensure that all legal, administrative and political provisions
affecting women human rights defenders, including those designed to
protect public morality are clearly defined, determinable, non-retroactive
and compatible with the relevant provisions of international human rights
law.
Initiatives within the African system
54. Initiatives have also been taken by the African Commission

for the implementation of the instruments protecting the rights of women
human rights defenders in Africa. Several mechanisms of the African
Commission are mandated to promote and protect human rights
defenders. They include the mechanism of the Special Rapporteur on
the Freedom of Expression and Access to Information in Africa, and
3
The resolution on "the protection of human rights defenders" (A/HRC/22/L.13) was adopted on 21
March 2013 during the 22nd Session of the United Nation Human Rights Council.
4
The resolution is titled "promotion of the Declaration on the Right and Responsibility of Individuals,
Groups and Organs of Society to Promote and Protect Universally Recognized Human Rights and
Fundamental Freedoms". It was tabled by Norway and co- sponsored by 35 countries.
29
that of the Special Rapporteur on Women's Rights in Africa. Specially

recognizing "the essential contribution of the work of human rights
defenders to the promotion of human rights, democracy and the rule of
law in Africa and concerned about the persistence of violations of their
rights ", the Commission established the mandate of the Special
Rapporteur on Human Rights Defenders in Africa in 2004.
55. The Special Rapporteur on HRDs in Africa's mandate is to

develop and make recommendations and put in place effective strategies
to better protect human rights defenders. The Special Rapporteur
requests, receives, examines and acts on information she receives on
the human rights situation across the continent. She cooperates with
Member States of the African Union, national human rights institutions
and international and regional mechanisms for the protection of human
rights defenders. The Special Rapporteur helps raise awareness and
promote the implementation of the United Nations Declaration on Human
Rights Defenders in Africa.
56. The African Commission has adopted several otherre

solutions relevant to the work of human rights defenders, including the
Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Fair Trial and Legal Assistance
in Africa (2001) and the Declaration of Principles on Freedom of
Expression in Africa. Furthermore, the African Commission's adoption,
of a Model Law for AU Member States on Access to Information in April
2013 is a highly relevant initiative for human rights defenders.
57. The African Commission has also been developing its

jurisprudence on issues related to the protection of HRDs. In 2003, it
5
ACHRP/Rés.41 (XXVI) 99.
30
took a clear position in favour of the right to defence in its Communication

Ghazi Suleiman v Sudan. Here it upheld the right of Mr Suleiman to
freedom of expression and the free exercise of his profession as a human
rights defender. The Commission pointed out in this communication the
added value of the work of human rights defenders and the special
attention they deserve. During the same year, the Commission delivered
a decision regarding violence against women in the exercise of their
rights to participate in public life in its Communication, Egyptian Initiative
for Personal Rights and Interights v Arab Republic of Egypt. In this
case, the Commission noted that the State party, Egypt, failed in its
obligation to protect women against sexual violence during a
demonstration in 2005. For the first time, the Commission handed down
a decision on the duty of States to protect women against violence, an
important indication of the potential of the protective mandate of the
Commission, including with regard to women human rights defenders.
58. During the opening ceremony of the 54th Ordinary Session

of the African Commission, the honourable Minister of Human Rights
and Civil Protection of the Republic of Burkina Faso, speaking on behalf
of the Member States of the African Union, mentioned the importance of
the role of women human rights defenders in maintaining peace and
security, securing democratic processes and ensuring the protection of
human rights
59. Promoting the work of women human rights defenders and

protecting them so that they are able to carry out their activities requires
concrete actions to fight against gender-based inequality and
6
ACHPR/Rés.62(XXXII) 02
Comm. 228/99 - Law Offices of Ghazi v. Soudan (33nd Ordinary Session, Niamey,
Niger)
31
discrimination. In addition, States have the responsibility to take specific

actions to provide an environment for all human rights and appropriate
measures to protect women human rights defenders in view of their
experiences.
8
Comm. 323/06- Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights and INTERIGHTS/ Egypt. (10th Extra-
Ordinary Session - The Gambia).
32
III. WHO ARE WOMEN HUMAN RIGHTS

DEFENDERS?
60. There is no precise definition of women human rights

defenders in the international and regional legal instruments for the
promotion and protection of human rights. However, in her report on the
situation of women human rights defenders, the UN Special Rapporteur
on the situation of human rights defenders refers to the activities of
WHRDs and individuals involved in issues related to gender and sexuality,
including those working on sexual orientation and gender identity. The
Special Rapporteur describes human rights defenders as "a very
heterogeneous group".
61. Based on its experiences in the field, the Special

Rapporteur on human rights in Africa suggests, for her part, that WHRDs
are "any women engaged, individually or in association with others, in
the promotion and protection of human rights and all those working for
women's rights and rights related to gender and sexuality, regardless of
their sexual orientation. This includes those who work in human rights
organizations and the activists of grassroots organizations".
62. Thus, in the absence of a doctrinal definition, or any

readymade definition, these two mechanisms attempt a definition of
their own in terms of the real-life experiences of women human rights
defenders. These definitions will be fine-tuned in the course of time and
developments in the field of human rights.
9
Sekaggya Margaret, A/HRC/13/22/Add.3, Report submitted by the UN Special
Rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders, 13th session of the Human
Rights Council, 4 March 2010.
33
63. Women human rights defenders can suffer backlash

because of their gender and the work they do in favour of human rights.
Because they are identified as women and human rights defenders,
they are perceived as a threat to the "status quo". Women human
rights defenders draw more hostility than their male colleagues because
they challenge cultural, religious or discriminatory social norms and
work to increase respect for the role of women in society. Their work is
considered contrary to the stereotypes and dominant social and cultural
constructs. The hostility and repression they face can take a specifically
gendered form, manifested through verbal abuse, sexual harassment
and rape.
34
IV. THE WORK OF WOMEN HUMAN RIGHTS

DEFENDERS IN AFRICA
64. Many individuals and organizations are striving to defend

human rights and justice on the continent. This has contributed
significantly to the changes observed at both the political and economic
levels in institutions. The same is true at the local level, in households
and interpersonal relationships where ideas are developed, shaped and
nurtured.
65. Women human rights defenders in Africa play a key role in

the promotion and protection of human rights and engage in a variety of
activities to promote the wellbeing of populations.
66. WHRDs in Africa work with States and other stakeholders

such as educators, religious and traditional leaders, the media, lawyers,
etc. Issues on which they work are generally considered to be human
rights priorities based on the realities of the contexts in which they
operate. They contribute significantly to the operation of State and civil
society in the field of human rights. They are involved in the development
of laws and institutional policies, infrastructure development, the provision
of basic social services and the facilitation of their access by populations.
They also participate in public and civil society programs and projects.
67. WHRDs have a special role in protecting the rights of

marginalized and disadvantaged groups, as well as individuals
stigmatized and excluded from social and public life for various reasons,
including prejudice and social and cultural stereotypes.
35
68. In some cases, the issues which WHRDs work on in Africa are
considered a risk and may constitute a threat to the interests of the
State, religious or traditional institutions or even the private sector. In
such situations, the work of these women is often criminalized, particularly
in the case of those who challenge anti-democratic and discriminatory
practices and poor political, economic and legal governance that worsen
the living and working conditions of poor and vulnerable groups.
69. For example, in Africa, WHRDs fight against patriarchy

and its harmful effects, despite considerable threats against them. As
discussed in Section V, patriarchy seeks to maintain the status of
inferiority and subordination of women. One of the respondents to the
questionnaire prepared for this report notes that "the weight of the family
and its influence is such that women's opportunities for action are reduced
compared to those of men''.
70. WHRDs working in Africa to overcome patriarchy and

heteronormativity also take up the issues related to sexuality, sexual
orientation and gender identity. These sexuality and gender-related rights
have to do with the issue of the exercise of choice and autonomy
regarding a number of options, such as the choice of one's sexual partner,
having children, choosing the number of children and when to have them.
WHRDs working on sexuality also deal with complex and sensitive issues
such as contraception, the right to abortion and access to appropriate
and qualified services. They also deal with the rights of those who provide
these services. One respondent to the questionnaire from West Africa
specifically mentioned how "organizations working on the right to
reproductive health and health issues in general suffer from attacks and
smear campaigns and slander".
36
71. Women human rights defenders are also striving to draw

attention to issues related to the sexuality of young women, including
their free and informed consent, their age at marriage, and their right to
sex education.
72. WHRDs also work on issues related to the vulnerability of

women living with HIV who are often stigmatized and accused of
"deliberate transmission of HIV". They also focus on the criminalization
of sex work and mobilize to ensure that sex workers can speak for
themselves in their struggle for public recognition of their work as a
professional activity in its own right.
73. Women human rights defenders work on issues of sexual

orientation and gender identity by raising public awareness and enabling
communities to access services and have their basic needs met. In
cases where individuals targeted by discrimination are forced to leave
their families, schools, religious institutions, workplaces and other public
and private spaces and institutions because of their sexual orientation
or gender identity, WHRDs can act alongside policy and decision-makers
to ensure the recognition, respect and appropriate response to the needs
and rights to protection against violence and other violations of the rights
of those suffering from discrimination. WHRDs work to put an end to the
exclusion and isolation of these individuals or groups.
74. For their part, WHRDs, journalists and media operate

inhigh-risk environments, because they deal with sensitive economic,
political and even sociological questions. Indeed, they push for information
to be made available and accessible to the public. Through their tenacity
and determination, WHRDs promote transparency to ensure the
enjoyment of freedom of expression and access to information.
37
75. WHRDs work on issues that include polygamy, inheritance

rights, widowhood rights, marriage and female genital mutilation. WHRDs
are activists who mobilize, influence laws and policies and develop and
implement programs and projects to strengthen institutions that can
provide quality services to women and all individuals.
76. WHRDs work in all sectors; they can be judges, lawyers,

community leaders and anonymous civil servants. They are found in the
organizations and movements promoting social justice, in academic
institutions where they propose ideas and concepts often considered
subversive but beneficial to the status of women.
77. In this regard, the UN Special Representative of the

Secretary General on human rights defenders stated that:
"as professionals and as mothers, sisters, daughters, wives, partners
and colleagues, women human rights defenders have led campaigns
against "disappearances". They have campaigned tirelessly for more
humane conditions of detention and have documented and exposed
human rights violations. Women human rights defenders have among
others affirmed the rights of ethnic and religious minorities and refugees
and protested against widespread impunity in cases of violence against
women; they have supported countless victims of human rights violations
and their families in their quest for justice; they have implemented projects
aimed at helping other women victims of sexual abuse to obtain
reparation. As victims of human rights violations themselves, they have
testified in court against alleged perpetrators. As union activists, they
have defended the rights of workers; as lawyers, they have played an
active role in the search for redress for victims of human rights violations
and in the fight against impunity, and they have also campaigned for the
38
rights of human rights defenders. This list could go on as a testimony to

their courage and their accomplishments."
78. African WHRDs are active on all fronts of the struggle for
the respect of human rights, and at all levels. Thus, they are present at
the local level across the entire continent as well as at the international
level by participating in international networks, coalitions and global social
movements where they position themselves as leading organizers in
the forefront of the struggles for social justice for all.
79. WHRDs work on all human rights issues affecting them,

their communities and the general population.
80. Like many others, women human rights defenders in Africa

work daily to defend human rights standards and principles where justice
for all is a reality, where the right to education, development and health
are progressively realised and where the principles of dignity, to equality
and freedom are recognized in all spheres of life.
81. These are key examples that illustrate the work of women
human rights defenders. WHRDs work on complex and diverse issues,
including the equitable distribution of resources and wealth, extractive
industries, health and environment.
39
40
V. CONTEXTUAL FACTORS THAT

CONTRIBUTE TO VIOLATIONS OF THE
RIGHTS OF WOMEN HUMAN RIGHTS
DEFENDERS
82. Various contextual factors affect the activism of women

human rights defenders differently. We mention five (5) such factors in
this report.
83. They are the global phenomena of patriarchy,

heteronormativity, militarization, religious and other forms of extremism
and globalization. All these phenomena have adverse effects on women's
rights and constitute obstacles to the promotion and protection of
WHRDs.
84. Patriarchy refers to relations where women are oppressed

and exploited and male power dominates in society. Patriarchy is
associated with a division of activities in both the public and private
sphere and reinforces the belief that there are specific roles for women.
Women who deviate from the preconceived norms and do not comply
with the tasks assigned to their gender may bear the brunt of the "law"
of the community and face severe punishment. Patriarchy is reinforced
by restrictions on the sexual autonomy of women and the argument that
violence against women is natural. These relations of superiority of the
so-called stronger sex over the weaker sex result in the systematic
violation of the fundamental rights of women. The 2010 Framework and
Guidelines on Land Policy in Africa of African Union recognizes the
negative impact of patriarchy on Women: "The system of patriarchy that
dominates the social organization has tended to discriminate against
women on issues of ownership and control of land resources".
41
85. Patriarchy is particularly relevant in understanding the

activism of women human rights defenders, because the structural gender
inequality and sexual division of labour partly explain the lack of protection
and the non-recognition of the importance of the activities of WHRDs.
While patriarchy is embedded in cultural beliefs, it is often codified and
entrenched in the law.
86. The concept of heteronormativity is related to the sex roles

defined by patriarchy. Heteronormativity is based on the assumption
that desire, behaviour and heterosexual identity are the norm in culture,
politics and society. Heteronormativity entails regulated practices that
are accepted as the norm and are subtly expressed in the society through
the media, legislation and other stakeholders. Hegemonic heterosexual
norms separate individuals into male or female and lead to specific ideas
about gender roles and activities appropriate to each sex.
87. Heteronormativity is also the basis of discrimination against

single women, divorced women and widows. The concept is also the
basis of discrimination against lesbians, bisexual women and transgender
persons because it creates a hierarchy of "normal" and "abnormal"
sexualities, which inevitably leads to human rights violations.
88. Militarization is a term that refers to the process by which

the army - through its codes and behaviours - and its institutions play
an increasingly powerful role in society through what is termed excessive
power. Military presence in civilian life and decision-making structures
is thus considered a normal situation. Militaristic states rely on their
security forces to ensure stability. The process is also accompanied by
the proliferation of weapons and the acceptance of violence as a common
42
method of social interaction. Militarization often reinforces patriarchal

practices because of the predominance given to male authority.
89. Militarization is a process that has far-reaching

consequences for women human rights defenders. The latter tend to be
more vulnerable and their work is often not recognized. In situations of
political instability, WHRDs can be targeted by paramilitary forces and
state officials for their activism. This makes them particularly vulnerable
and exposed to the risk of sexual violence.
90. Fundamentalism refers to political projects that use

nationalistic, cultural, ethnic, religious rhetoric to gain and maintain power
over communities. Fundamentalist actors often employ a selective
reading of texts to create the notion of a single "authentic" identity. Any
contestation of these ideologies is considered as "blasphemy." In these
environments, women are often assigned a subordinate role, and women's
rights are generally considered as a concept imposed by the West.
Fundamentalists create a framework that reinforces the subordination
of women and denies them control over their lives and bodies.
91. In such situations, women human rights defenders face many

threats in the course of their work. This is partly because they defend
human rights that are considered to be foreign ideas. In addition, as
women they are subject to social and gender norms promoted by
fundamentalists. These contribute to the backlash and reprisals women
human rights defenders can frequently experience. The Special
Rapporteur on human rights defenders in Africa noted in her report at
the 45th Ordinary Session of the African Commission that she talked to
human rights defenders who saw the "rise of religious fundamentalism"
43
as a permanent danger.
92. This situation is mentioned in one of the answers to the

questionnaire:
"Women human rights defenders are facing serious challenges,
particularly in certain regions of the country where Sharia law applies
and [in areas] where traditional practices and customs are stronger".
Another respondent, a woman defender from West Africa, stresses how
seriously "Islamic fundamentalism [...] affects women's activism"
The response also mentioned the effects on the laws, the protection of
women human rights defenders and the high levels of violence and stigma
they experience.
93. Globalization refers to a set of neo-liberal economic

processes that focus on economic growth, liberalization of national
economies, the privatization of public services and deregulation of trade
and finance. These policies lead to changes in the availability and
accessibility of basic services such as education and health. The
implementations of these economic policies exacerbate the competition
for scarce resources and, by extension, increase poverty and economic
inequality, pushing more people below the poverty line. Multinational
companies that thrive in this environment of privatization and profit
maximization exploit the labour of local populations who are often
displaced due to land acquisition for commercial purposes. This can
cause social tensions in the poorest and most marginalized communities.
94. In this context, the struggle for economic, social and cultural
rights is growing. Women human rights defenders work on a series of
rights: economic, social and cultural rights, the rights of workers in
44
general and migrant workers in particular, the rights of indigenous

populations, minority rights, health and reproductive health rights, to
name but a few. In addition, they struggle against the abuses perpetrated
by multinational and national companies, and State complicity towards
this end.
95. Poverty and inequality resulting from austerity measures

also affect women human rights defenders. Women generally have less
access to employment and decent jobs, yet they paradoxically bear the
greatest responsibilities for their families. WHRDs themselves, in these
situations, are less able to perform their work as human rights defenders
because of the difficult economic conditions of their families.
96. In the fight against major development projects, WHRDs

run serious risks and face threats that are often carried out. This is the
case when fighting from within these projects as employees, when
campaigning outside in protest against the policies and practices of
these institutions. Police forces are often sent against them, resulting
in scenes of police brutality experienced by WHRDs who are sometimes
forced to abandon demonstrations.
97. It is clear that knowledge of the factors of the violations

against women human rights defenders mentioned above is essential to
understand the risks and types of violations perpetrated against women
human rights defenders. We should therefore fight structural and systemic
discrimination, as well as attitudes and practices that result from them
in order to ensure full protection for WHRDs.
45
46
VI. TYPES OF VIOLATIONS OF THE RIGHTS

OF WOMEN HUMAN RIGHTS DEFENDERS
98. According to the analysis conducted by women human

rights defenders themselves, the trends of violations, threats, risks and
constraints experienced by WHRDs in Africa include general violations
and gender-specific violations.
99. The types of risks and vulnerabilities for women human

rights defenders are the same as those encountered by their male
counterparts and are therefore inherent to human rights work.
100. However, women human rights defenders in Africa also face

specific gender-based risks. Women human rights defenders are targeted
because they are women. Attacks against WHRDs can sometimes be
similar to those carried out against their male colleagues, but the
consequences of the attacks are very different.
101. As mentioned by one of the respondents to the

questionnaire:
"many women are considered by their communities to be an extension
of the community itself. If a woman human rights defender is raped
because of her human rights activities, [she] can be considered as
bringing shame not only on her family members but the whole community.
As a human rights defender, she has to bear the burden of the trauma of
the rape and also of the fact that it was her human rights activities that
brought shame on her family".
102. Women human rights defenders in Africa are exposed to

risks and vulnerable situations due to the nature of their work for the
47
promotion and protection of women's rights and because they do not

conform to the norms and cultural and religious stereotypes. It should
be noted that men who work on rights issues relating to women's rights,
equality and sexuality can also be the targets of intimidation and attacks.
103. The work and activism of women human rights defenders

in Africa expose them to hostility and social, political and economic
sanctions. These sanctions are designed to restrict their autonomy and
commitment.
104. In 2012, the Office of the Special Rapporteur on human

rights defenders in Africa received fifty (50) urgent appeals, fourteen (14)
of which concerned women human rights defenders and nine (9) were
filed by women. The communications were related to arbitrary arrests
and detentions, two (2) cases involved threats of rape and murder and
two (2) were related to intimidation and "judicial harassment". The appeals
were related especially to women NGO leaders, human rights defenders
dealing with sexual orientation and gender identity and members of
women's organizations, human rights activists and journalists.
105. In 2013, the Office of the Special Rapporteur sent to the

Member States twenty-eight (28) urgent appeals, including six (6) involving
the situation of women human rights defenders. These six (6) urgent
appeals were related to a total of thirty-one (31) cases of individual women
106. It is clear from these figures that the amount of information

reaching the Special Rapporteur on human rights in Africa regarding
violations and abuses against women human rights defenders is still
low.
48
107. The laws of different countries show that the reality of

violations against women human rights defenders depends on whether
or not there is a legal vacuum. This is the case in the transition countries
of North Africa or in conflict or post-conflict situations, such as the
Democratic Republic of Congo and Sierra Leone. National laws may
allow violations to occur, sometimes in spite of other laws designed to
prevent the violations.
108. None of the respondents mentioned laws, policies or

programs specifically designed for the protection and defence of human
rights defenders in accordance with the UN Declaration on human rights
defenders.
109. Thus, there is a strong tendency to impunity on the

continent, as evidenced by the failure of existing laws and policies, the
release without trial of perpetrators of violence and rape, police records
that disappear and deliberate delays in legal proceedings. The low
conviction rate in respect of these harmful practices against women and
women human rights defenders is an indicator of the persistence of the
culture of impunity.
110. Below is a typology of violations, risks and constraints

illustrated by examples mentioned by respondents and other sources:
111. Violations of the right to life, physical and mental

integrity occur frequently and include murder and attempted murder,
enforced disappearances, torture, cruel, inhuman and degrading
treatment, rape, assault and sexual abuse, domestic violence (including
psychological and physical violence) and excessive use of force.
49
112. The people approached in this study linked some deaths

to cases of sexual assault or rape. One respondent noted that "some
women human rights defenders have been physically assaulted in police
stations while assisting victims of domestic violence. They were accused
of destroying the harmony of households and causing disorder". One
respondent from North Africa cited the case of a defender who was
kidnapped by state agents and ended up with "as haved head and visible
signs of physical and moral torture".
113. Another documented case is that of an activist working on

sexual orientation and gender identity, founder and director of an
association for the promotion and protection of the rights of homosexuals,
Fannyann Eddy, who was found dead in her office in Freetown, Sierra
Leone. The Criminal Investigation Division of the Police Department did
not clearly establish that the motive was hatred against her activism in
favour of the rights of lesbians and gays. A man was arrested for the
murder but later escaped from prison. He is still at large.
114. Physical and psychological deprivation of liberty,

another category of violations suffered by women human rights defenders
in Africa, includes arbitrary arrests and detentions, which are common
to all the sub-regions of the continent.
115. Cases of arbitrary arrests were cited by several women

human rights defenders in their responses to the questionnaires. One
respondent stated that during their detention, she and her colleagues
"encountered difficulties with their personal hygiene and were not given
any sanitary napkins despite their pleas. This was psychologically
painful for many of them."
50
116. Character assassination occurs frequently and is reported

by many women human rights defenders in various contexts across the
continent, together with threats, warnings and ultimatums, bullying,
blackmail and extortion, sexual harassment, "sexuality-baiting", slander,
defamation, "labelling", categorization, smear campaigns, incitement
to hatred, stigmatization, segregation and ostracism.
117. One respondent stated that: "As members of women's

rights organisations, we have been labelled as bitter, divorced women
aiming to destroy the institution of marriage, without any respect for the
culture and place of women in society." Another noted that, because of
their work in promoting human rights, "women have been called all sorts
of names like 'impossibles' or 'tomboys'. Another respondent reported
that women human rights defenders are considered as 'pariahs.'"
118. Violations of the right to privacy and personal relationships

are also common. They include raids of offices or homes, confiscation
of the working tools of WHRDs, attacks and intimidation by family
members and the community, body searches and virginity tests.
119. Reports on violations of the rights of women human rights

defenders in North Africa include cases of the arrests of several women
following sit-in strikes like, for example, the case in Egypt. The press
reported that an army general publicly admitted that army officers had
conducted virginity tests on the arrested women. The officers asked the
(virgin) girls to stand to one side and the (non-virgin) women to stand on
the other side. Such an order is a threat in itself because of the stigma
associated with unmarried and non-virgin women, which can lead to
honour crimes. In this case, the girls were humiliated, beaten, insulted
and tortured with electric shocks.
51
120. Several respondents to the questionnaire pointed out that

attacks against the family are a strategy to discourage women human
rights defenders. The families of defenders are often targeted to put
pressure on women and force them to abandon their activism. In their
response to the questionnaire, the members of a North African NGOs
reported the case of a woman defender whose mother and sister were
forced to flee their homes following constant threats. Other cases have
also been reported.
121. Certain laws and practices reduce women's activism to

its simplest expression. This is the case with the restrictive use of
customary law and legal frameworks based on religion as well as laws
restricting the work of NGOs, both financially and legally.
122. It was also stressed that in the absence of legal remedies,

women human rights defenders are highly exposed to harassment and
other risks such as enforced disappearances and death.
123. The Strategic Initiative for Women in the Horn of Africa

(SIHA), in its information document focused on the effect of public order
laws, which result in what is described as "unlimited authority, the scope
of the interpretation of the public order laws and non-accountability of
law enforcement officers." Due to the content and application of these
laws, SIHA argued that violence against women is legitimized and several
restrictions on women's rights limit the space of their human rights
protection work.
124. Violations of the right to freedom of expression,

association and assembly of women human rights defenders remain
a challenge to be overcome. WHRDs face huge restrictions and
52
harassment when they want to register their organizations, receive

funding, and access information necessary to manage their structures.
125. The Special Rapporteur on human rights defenders and

the Special Rapporteur on Women's Rights, in their joint press release
on the arrest and detention of women human rights defenders in Sudan
in July 2012, expressed deep concern over the persecution, arbitrary
arrests and detention of women human rights defenders in the country.
These acts are considered by the Rapporteurs as "a serious violation of
the right to dignity and physical integrity and freedom of opinion,
expression and peaceful demonstration."
126. A response to the questionnaire indicated that the members

of a Central African network of women human rights defenders that
supports and informs young women and raises the awareness of
communities on women's rights, particularly rights relating to sexual
violence and rape, were attacked during the celebration of the International
Day of Action for Women's Health, though they had in fact obtained the
necessary authorization. The attack was described by one woman human
rights defender who was a victim of the attack as: "A mass of human
beings" with "hundreds of hands tearing at her clothes" and "violating
her body with their fingers".
127. Another respondent stated"while they were doing their work

as defenders, the women often saw police officers targeting sensitive
parts of their bodies."
128. Gender-based restrictions on freedom of movement

means that women are refused permission to travel beyond the borders
or even to parts of the country, or they are denied visas or are deported.
53
129. The last category of violations is related to the non-

recognition of the violations against women human rights
defenders, the justification of these violations and impunity that prevails
in Africa. In this regard, a woman HRD from the SADC who responded to
the questionnaire stated "the police continue to believe that women HRDs
who claim that they are victims of domestic violence are liars".
130. These main trends observed in the types of violations, legal

frameworks and the issue of impunity are found in all the sub-regions of
the continent (North, South, East, West and Central Africa). Similarly,
the perpetrators of the violations are the same everywhere.
131. Different sources approached in the context of this report

emphasize the fact that, among the perpetrators of the violations of the
rights of women human rights defenders, the state is the principal violator
and is strongly represented by the police, heads of the security and
intelligence services, judges and politicians. Next are the non-state
actors, including armed groups, family and friends, as well as members
of the community.
132. One respondent from West Africa noted that the threats
from non-state actors include "death threats by village or community
elders and intimidation by traditional leaders." A South African organization
mentioned that defenders of sexual rights "have had their offices and
homes burned by alleged members of the ruling party." Another South
African woman stated that "the violations are committed by non-state
actors. However, the inability to address and eliminate the inequalities
and vulnerabilities [we face] means that States are accomplices of these
acts."
54
VII. THE IMPACT OF THE VIOLATIONS OF

THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN HUMAN RIGHTS
DEFENDERS
133. The human rights violations suffered by WHRDs certainly

have a negative moral, physical and material impact.
134. Regarding the physical impact, women human rights

defenders suffer bodily harm in violation of Article 4 of the African Charter
which stipulates that "human beings are inviolable. Every human being
should be entitled to respect for his life and the integrity of his person.
No one should be arbitrarily deprived of this right." Human rights violations
perpetrated against women human rights defenders may have lasting
gender-specific consequences. For example, sexual abuse or rape can
lead to pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV/
AIDS. Pregnancies resulting from rape are clearly the result of gender-
based human rights violations that call for a very specific understanding
and response.
135. The moral impact on women human rights defenders is

related to the stigma and criticism they suffer. This causes the loss of
self-confidence, self-esteem and fear.
136. The material impact especially affects the work of women

human rights defenders and remains a crucial factor of financial and
economic destabilization. Just like the moral impact, the material impact
should be seriously taken into account in measures put in place to
support women human rights defenders.
137. Another significant negative impact that could be mentioned

55
is one that affects the whole community because it is the very absence
of the work of WHRDs. This impact will slow down the progress of human
rights and the development of laws and policies designed to promote a
prosperous continent whose people live in dignity and freedom as provided
for in the Constitutive Act of the African Union.
138. States are expected to support women human rights

defenders and facilitate their work. However, the violations, the lapses in
protection and the lack of redress for the violations described in this
report send a negative message, suggesting that defending human rights
is a punishable offence.
139. Nevertheless, one fact highlighted by this study is that

despite the serious risks faced by WHRDs, they still believe in their
activities. This courage should be honoured by the creation and
implementation of adequate safeguards for their benefit.
56
VIII. MEASURES FOR THE PROTECTION OF

WOMEN HUMAN RIGHTS DEFENDERS
State instruments for the protection of women human

rights defenders
140. African and international human rights instruments

recognize the rights of women human rights defenders to carry out their
work without discrimination, as well as the need for States to ensure
respect for and protection of these rights.
141. The various regional and international initiatives that focuson

the challenges faced by women human rights defenders indicate a real
concern about the violations and risks faced by women human rights
defenders and the need for States to take measures to ensure their
protection.
142. As noted above, Article 2 of the UN Declaration on Human

Rights Defenders emphasizes the obligations of the State to protect
defenders. It mentions that States may be accountable, either by
"commission " or "omission" for violations against those engaged in
human rights work and "should adopt legislative, administrative or other
measures as may be necessary" to guarantee the rights and freedoms
contained in the Declaration. Regarding the responses received by the
Special Rapporteur, it is necessary to note that while legislative measures
have been taken in some places, the question of their effectiveness and
10
Law No. 2014-388 of 20 June 2014 on the protection of defenders of human rights
was adopted after the adoption of this study by the African Commission on Human
and Peoples' Rights in its extraordinary session in March 2014. It grants in art 9 a
specific protection for women human rights defenders against all forms of discrimi-
nation and violence.
57
applicability remains.
Legislative measures
143. These measures are relevant to the global legislative

framework and that of women HRDs.
The global legislative framework
144. The study found generally that the legal framework for the
protection of WHRDs is "inadequate" and indicates that existing laws
are often incompatible with the human rights standards.
145. It is essential for the legal and judicial framework to enable

women human rights defenders victims of violations and their families to
take legal action, either individually or collectively.
146. When violations are committed against women human

rights defenders, mechanisms should be able to ensure access to fair
judicial proceedings under Article 7 of the African Charter. Any person or
non-governmental organization with a legitimate interest in a case should
be guaranteed the legal status necessary to seek judicial remedies for
violations committed against them or their families and colleagues.
Legislation to protect human rights defenders,

including women human rights defenders
147. This study found that some state actors (such as the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ethiopia) have adopted legislative measures,
58
particularly in the field of gender mainstreaming:

"Starting with the Constitution, the fundamental law of the nation,
continuing with the ratification of international conventions and other
human rights instruments dealing with the rights of women, the review
of Federal and Regional Family Laws, and criminal law, the Government
has done its best to mainstream gender in all activities related to the
Law."
148. In Côte d'Ivoire, for example, there is still no legislation

specifically designed to protect women human rights defenders, even
though a bill on "human rights defenders" is being developed at the
initiative of the Ministry of Justice and Human Rights. In Cote d'Ivoire,
the Constitution also stipulates that "the State has the duty to protect
individuals against the violation of their fundamental rights", "There may
be laws, policies, strategies or specific programs or national institutions,
including monitoring mechanisms".
149. In Côte-d'Ivoire, some civil society organisations

recommend that the Ivorian legal framework be amended to comply with
the rights contained in the 1998 UN Declaration on Human Rights
Defenders. They also recommend the rapid adoption of the Law on the
protection of HRDs and its enforcement.
150. The Algerian Human Rights Committee stated that "national

legislation has established quotas for the representation of women in all
elected assemblies to better defend their rights," but makes no reference
to the existence of laws, policies or specific protection programs for
women human rights defenders. The National Human Rights Commission
of Malawi, for its part, explicitly stated that such provisions do not exist
59
in Malawi.
151. None of the women defenders who responded to the

Rapporteur's questionnaire have noted the existence of mechanisms to
protect women human rights defenders or human rights defenders in
general.
152. One woman defender said:

"We believe that no specific measures for the promotion and protection
of women human rights defenders exist. As a result, women human
rights defenders, activists working on women's rights and gender issues
are not taken into account in the design and implementation of measures
against violations of the rights of women human rights defenders and
other actors."
Laws restricting the work of human rights defenders,

including women
153. A woman human rights defender from Central Africa

responded as follows: "not only is there no law or regulation to support
their work", "strict rules are [enforced] to limit the scope of that work."
154. There are also the Public Order Laws that sometimes
confine and punish women human rights defenders. The necessary
legislative reforms proposed should aim to remove legal provisions that
limit the ability of women human rights defenders to carry out their
activities. The law should serve and protect everyone without
discrimination. It should be impersonal and general.
60
155. Women defenders are also particularly vulnerable to

"emergency" legal measures. Although these emergency legal measures
do not necessarily target women defenders specifically, the authorities
often use them through backward sexist behaviours to bully WHRDs in
public.
National mechanisms for the protection of women human rights

defenders
156. Although the question was asked, none of the women

defenders who answered mentioned any mechanisms put in place at
national level to protect WHRDs. Some respondents indicated that their
national human rights institutions do not have a specific mandate on
women human rights defenders and therefore have no protection programs
for them. A woman defender from South Africa mentioned that despite
the existence of the National Human Rights Commission and the
Commission for Gender Equality (both institutions provided by the
Constitution) the high rate of rape reported in the country is an indicator
of the poor performance of these commissions due to the lack of material
or financial means and even the "traditional perception of the status of
women based on their gender".
Emergency response mechanisms financed by the

State
157. Clearly, States have the primary responsibility to protect

human rights defenders and women defenders. The latter face specific
violations because of their physical status and place assigned to them
by society.
61
158. Among the mechanisms that can be developed by States,

it is necessary to put in place an early warning mechanism whose design
and method of operation remain to be defined.
159. A former Special Representative of the UN Secretary General

on the situation of human rights defenders stated that:
"Certain categories of defenders are more likely to be targeted during
certain periods [...] based on the political agendas in their country [...].
These "seasonal" changes in the vulnerability of human rights defenders
could be the basis for the adoption of protective strategies that are
particularly active for the benefit of certain defenders during the relevant
periods of vulnerability."
160. Best practices for the protection of human rights have been
identified in some countries including Colombia and Guatemala.
Protection programs developed in these countries include an evaluation
of the main risks based on an analysis of the likelihood of aggression
and its impact. The risk assessment is followed by a risk management
phase, which involves strategic decisions on how best to deal with the
different levels of risk. It is important to note that the protection programs
do not focus on strictly objective risk measurements, but on an
interpretation from the defender's perspective.
Ending impunity for human rights violations
161. States also have the special responsibility to end impunity

for acts of violence against women human rights defenders. This assumes
that all stakeholders including teachers at all levels, lawyers, law
enforcement officers, military personnel and civil servants, etc. are
62
sensitized, informed and educate others. In other words, it is necessary

to include human rights in educational curricula and training programs.
State representatives should publicly pledge to end impunity and ensure
that human rights violations, including those committed against women
human rights defenders, are investigated and perpetrators prosecuted
in accordance with international standards.
Other measures:
162. States have the responsibility to promote, protect and

ensure respect for human rights. This requires the creation of an enabling
environment among other things for the work of WHRDs because they
contribute to the development of their community. It is also necessary
to facilitate their participation in decision-making and adopt measures,
including relevant laws and policies.
163. The State has the duty to create institutions and ensure
their accessibility to ensure the effective protection of the work of women
human rights defenders, including prosecuting those who violate their
rights, and establishing adequate judicial remedies at the local level.
164. In 2005 in Colombo, an International Consultation on

women human rights defenders led to the creation of the Women Human
Rights Defenders' International Coalition to raise awareness about the
situation of WHRDs. Indeed, WHRDs worldwide can, as this study
reveals, face serious challenges, and it is therefore necessary for strong
and appropriate solutions to be recommended at the international, regional
and national level to enable them to devote themselves fully to the service
of humanity.
63
165. In Africa, several countries, after Liberia, Sierra Leone and

Togo, have continued this campaign and have focused their actions on
the work of WHRDs, the violence they suffer and the risks they face in
their social and professional environment.
166. However, it should be noted that, although the specific

mechanisms promoted by the States for the protection of women are
virtually non-existent, a number of mechanisms exist for the benefit of
African women, set up by women and associations for the protection
and promotion of women's rights, which is one of the best practices that
can be cited. In South Africa, for example, women's participation in the
demonstrations of 9 August 1960 against the unjust policy that
dehumanized and violated the dignity of women, led to the establishment
of ''Women's Month," an initiative to mark women's struggle for their
political rights in the country every August. Other promising initiatives
have been conducted by women in Togo, Benin and Malawi with the
creation of shelters and counselling centres for women victims of violence.
167. These mechanisms often make up for the weakness of the

state in this area. This shows the unconditional commitment of women
human rights defenders to their work despite the lack of specific
instruments to promote and protect their rights.
168. The significant contribution of women human rights

defenders and various stakeholders to the preparation of this report has
made it possible to draw the following conclusions and make
recommendations.
64
IX. CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS
A. Conclusions
169. With the completion of this study, we can conclude that

Africa is still developing: politically, economically, socially and culturally,
as well as in regard to the respect of human rights. The respect of
human rights is critically important. Persons deprived of liberty, suffering
from hunger and poverty, constrained by social and cultural prejudices
cannot make a meaningful contribution to the sustainable development
of the continent.
170. Women human rights defenders work to ensure that all

Africans and people around the world enjoy all their human rights. This
fight should encourage all stakeholders to work in positive synergy to
create the necessary conditions for the promotion of all human rights.
171. In this regard, States Parties to the African Charter on

Human are the primary duty bearers. Nevertheless, the international
community, the African Commission, the national human rights
institutions, human rights defenders and civil society should contribute
to the protection and promotion of women human rights defenders.
B. Recommendations
172. In light of our analysis and given the serious challenges

faced by women human rights defenders on the African continent, the
65
African Commission recommends urgent and sustained action by all

parties under the strong leadership of States and national human rights
institutions.
173. These recommendations are presented first to the States

that have the primary responsibility and duty to promote and protect the
human rights and fundamental freedoms of all persons within their
territories. Recommendations are made to the national human rights
institutions, which play a key role in monitoring and calling to account
those who abuse and/or violate the human rights of others.
174. We include recommendations to the African Commission,

as part of its mandate and that of the Special Rapporteur on human
rights defenders in Africa.
175. Finally, recommendations are addressed to civil society

and women human rights defenders as well as to the donors who support
the work of women human rights defenders and the efforts of States.
176. Although these recommendations are related to specific

protection measures provided for women human rights defenders, the
Special Rapporteur wishes to remind all State Parties of their obligations
to protect all m human rights defenders and to create a conducive
environment for their work.
RECOMMENDATIONS TO STATE PARTIES
1. National framework
66
a) Political commitment
177. State Parties should demonstrate their political commitment

by fulfilling their obligations and commitments to protect and defend
women human rights defenders at the local and national levels.
b) Responsibility
178. State Parties should demonstrate leadership and

responsibility by monitoring the situation of women human rights
defenders and filling the gaps in political, institutional, legislative and
administrative measures to ensure their protection.
c) A safe and conducive environment
179. State Parties should take political, administrative and

legislative measures to ensure that the environment in which women
human rights defenders operate is enabling to the protection of all human
rights, including women's rights. These measures should provide a
response to the religious and cultural norms that subjugate women in
general and women human rights defenders in particular. They may
include an open dialogue with leaders and groups of traditional and
cultural institutions, religious institutions, educational institutions and
the media.
180. State Parties should publicly affirm the legitimacy of the

work of WHRDs, denounce attacks against WHRDs and affirm the
commitment of the State to protect the work of WHRDs.
67
d) Urgent Measures to address the issue of violence against women

181. State Parties should take immediate steps to end all forms
of violence suffered by women human rights defenders, end impunity
and hold the perpetrators accountable..
2. Legislative reform
a) A) Enabling legislation and national policies
182. State Parties should adopt a specific law to promote and

protect the work of human rights defenders in a broader framework for
protecting and promoting all human rights, with specific provisions for
the recognition and protection of women human rights defenders. This
law should be consistent with the principles contained in the UN
Declaration on human rights defenders 1998, the Declaration of Grand
Bay and the Kigali Declaration respectively.
b) Ratification and domestication of human rights instruments
183. State Parties should sign and ratify the Protocol to the
African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights on the Rights of Women
in Africa, the "Maputo Protocol", to demonstrate their commitment to
end discrimination, inequalities and violations of women's rights as an
important step for the promotion and protection of the rights of women
human rights defenders in Africa.
c) Elimination of legal and political obstacles
68
184. State Parties should take immediate steps to identify and

eliminate all legal and political obstacles to the right to equality of women
and the full and effective participation in public and political life.
3. Protection mechanisms
a) Mechanisms to guarantee protection of Women Human

Rights Defenders
185. State Parties should establish and maintain a mechanism

to coordinate, monitor and evaluate the measures that aim to prevent
and address violations and discrimination against women human rights
defenders and their families. This mechanism should be developed and
implemented with the full participation of women human rights defenders,
national human rights institutions and any other appropriate organisation.
The mechanism could, for example, be backed by an NHRI.
b) Financing National Human Rights Institutions
186. State Parties should ensure the adequate funding of national

human rights institutions in order to enable them to fully discharge their
mandate of planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of
initiatives designed to protect women human rights defenders.
c) Access to the protection of women human rights defenders
187. State Parties should ensure the provision of emergency

response and protection mechanisms for women human rights defenders
who are attacked or threatened, at risk or in imminent danger.
69
d) Meaningful participation of women human rights defenders
188. State Parties should ensure the participation, protection

and safety of women human rights defenders in the development of these
national mechanisms and policies that respond to the specific needs of
the women human rights defenders.
e) Protection of the families of women human rights defenders
189. State Parties should ensure that appropriate and relevant

protection measures are available for the family members of women
human rights defenders and make them available at national and
community levels.
f) Communication on measures and remedies for women

190. State Parties should ensure that measures to protect

women human rights defenders are clearly and regularly communicated
between national human rights institutions and women human rights
defenders and their families.
4. Ending impunity for the violations against women human

rights defenders
a) Recognition of the situation of women human rights

defenders
70
191. State Parties should recognize, document and investigate

the violations and discrimination against women human rights defenders
and commit to ending impunity for these violations.
b) Institutionalization of the protection of women human rights

defenders by the State
192. State Parties should develop plans and allocate resources

to support the criminal courts in order to ensure that the rights of women
human rights defenders in particular are respected and protected.
c) Effective and comprehensive investigations
193. State Parties should ensure prompt, impartial and thorough

investigations into discrimination and human rights violations against
women human rights defenders.
d) Right to access remedies
194. State Parties should guarantee the right to effective remedies

for women human rights defenders victims of serious violations, including
the right to reparation.
e) Jurisdiction and immunity
195. State Parties should ensure that government officials and

members of the security forces do not enjoy immunity from prosecution.
Ordinary national courts should have jurisdiction in cases where violations
are committed by military personnel.
71
f) Disclosure of the findings of investigations
196. State Parties should ensure full disclosure of the findings

of investigations into violations of the rights of women human rights
defenders, including in all cases of torture, sexual abuse, especially
rape committed by agents of the State.
g) Awareness and capacity building of State officials
197. State Parties should ensure that state officials, including

the judiciary, the police and security forces are sensitized and understand
the rights of women human rights defenders and undergo training so
that they can implement the policies and frameworks put in place to
72
protect women human rights defenders.
RECOMMENDATIONS TO THE AFRICAN

COMMISSION ON HUMAN AND PEOPLES' RIGHTS
1. Guidelines on the protection of the rights of women human

rights defenders in Africa
198. The African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights

should establish guidelines to set the standards for the protection of
women human rights defenders in Africa. The Commission should
establish indicators for monitoring and ascertaining the measures taken
by States to ensure the protection of women human rights defenders on
the basis of these guidelines.
2. Monitoring compliance
199. The Commission should ensure compliance with the State's

obligations to protect women human rights defenders through existing
processes, such as state periodic reports to the Commission, country
visits, the adoption of resolutions and communication on the situation of
women human rights defenders and engage in a dialogue with States on
progress, obstacles, plans and other measures to ensure the effective
protection of women human rights defenders.
3. Obligations of States to end impunity
200. The African Commission should take active measures to

hold State Parties accountable for their obligations to end impunity for
73
violations against women human rights defenders.
4. Response to reprisals
201. The African Commission should ensure the systematic

monitoring, communication and reporting of any reprisals committed
against women human rights defenders who collaborate with it.
5. Dialogue and engagement with women human rights

defenders
202. The African Commission should work closely with women

human rights defenders in a sustainable and systematic manner to
ensure that WHRDs are heard and consulted and that their experiences
are shared.
203. The African Commission should promote the sensitization

of all the mechanisms available to women human rights defenders,
including communication procedures among themselves.
6. Approach to the participation of women human rights

defenders
204. The African Commission should ensure that its own

monitoring and response to human rights violations, including reprisals
against those who collaborate with the Commission, are sensitive to
the experience of women human rights defenders.
7. Dialogue with stakeholders
74
205. The African Commission should work with all stakeholders

on the continent to institutionalize formal processes of dialogue with
women human rights defenders and develop concrete protection and
monitoring mechanisms at national and regional levels.
RECOMMENDATIONS TO NATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS

INSTITUTIONS
1. Systematization and responsibility for the protection of

the rights of women rights defenders
206. National human rights institutions should develop plans

and allocate resources to ensure that they are able to document, monitor
and deal with violations of the rights of women human rights defenders.
They should ensure that the plans are implemented, monitored and
evaluated, and that the results of these evaluations are shared with
WHRDs, States and the public.
2. Monitoring the implementation of the Guidelines on

the Protection of the rights of Women Rights Defenders in Africa
207. National human rights institutions should monitor the

situation of the rights of women human rights defenders on the basis of
the Guidelines and Indicators on the Protection of the Rights of Women
Human Rights Defenders in Africa to be established by the African
Commission.
3. Focal point and working group staff
75
208. National human rights institutions should establish focal

points consisting of staff, Commissioners and women human rights
defenders to guide the work of the institutions on women human rights
defenders, especially defenders in danger.
4. Standards for focal point staff
209. National human rights institutions should ensure that the

focal points are allocated sufficient resources are familiar with the role
played by women human rights defenders and the specific challenges
they face. National human rights institutions should ensure that their
staffs consult women human rights defenders so that they can promptly
respond to violations, abuse and discrimination against them.
5. Women human rights defenders are faced with greater

risks
210. National human rights institutions should pay particular

attention to women human rights defenders in particularly difficult
situations in their countries, including, but not limited to, poor women
defending their rights to land, inheritance and other resources, women
defending rights in connection with major development projects, women
media professionals, those working in conflict and post-conflict situations
and in failed States, as well as those working on issues and contexts of
criminalized identities, such as the rights of sex workers, women living
with HIV accused of deliberate transmission and sexual orientation and
gender identity.
6. Women human rights defenders, criminalized because of
76
who they are and their human rights activities
211. National human rights institutions should pay special

attention to the work of women human rights defenders working on issues
that are criminalized in their countries. These defenders face constraints
as women and human rights defenders, but also suffer from being
considered and treated as criminals.
RECOMMENDATIONS TO WOMEN HUMAN RIGHTS

DEFENDERS
1. Networking and sharing
212. Women human rights defenders should strengthen

networking at national, regional and international levels in order to share
and exchange information and experiences in defending women's rights
and rights related to sexuality and gender. Where appropriate and where
relevant, women human rights defenders should consider the
establishment of national and regional networks for the same purpose.
2. Lobbying for ratification
213. Women human rights defenders should continue to bring

pressure to bear on States to ratify human rights instruments, particularly
the Maputo Protocol.
3. Sensitization
214. Women human rights defenders should continue to raise
77
the awareness of populations on the rights of WHRDs to defend human

rights in accordance with the UN Declaration on human rights defenders,
the Great Bay declarations and the Kigali Declaration.
4. Lobbying States on the situation of women human rights

defenders
215. Women human rights defenders should bring pressure to

bear on governments and national human rights institutions so that they
ensure that WHRDs have access to protection and support services.
5. Documentation and Research
216. Women human rights defenders should continue to provide

documentation and research on violations and discrimination against
women human rights defenders and use it to put pressure on government
authorities and institutions national human rights.
6. Engaging the African Commission
217. Women human rights defenders should strengthen the use

of all available mechanisms within the African Commission, including
the Communications procedure of the African Commission as a remedy
when States fail to take action regarding violations of the rights of women
7. Model law its adoption by countries
218. Women human rights defenders should push for the
78
development of a model law that addresses issues specific to women

human rights defenders within a broader law on human rights defenders
and the adoption of these laws at the national level.
RECOMMENDATIONS TO DONORS AND PARTNERS
1. Risks related to the work of women human rights defenders
219. Donors should ensure that all grants and funding provided
to States, national human rights institutions and women human rights
defenders provide for, anticipate, plan and budget the negative
consequences and risks associated with human rights work.
2. Gendered analysis
220. Donors should undertake their own gendered analysis of

the work of human rights defenders in order to understand the specific
challenges and risks faced by women human rights defenders and those
working on issues related to sexuality and sexual and reproductive rights.
3. Priorities for resource allocation
221. Donors should consider the recommendations of this report

to identify priorities for allocating grants to WHRDs, their organizations
and networks, national human rights institutions and States.
79
Postface
In this, the first-ever report by the African Commission on Human

and Peoples' Rights, we are given a clear and chilling view of the situation
of women human rights defenders across the African continent.
I warmly congratulate the Special Rapporteur on human rights in

Africa, Mme Reine Alapini Gansou and the Commission on their bold
step in highlighting the continuing discriminatory practices that impede
the work of these vital defenders and make their task an ordeal. It is
truly alarming to recognize the extent to which the provisions of the
African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights are being violated with
impunity.
This report highlights the work of women human rights defenders

and their leading role in protecting vulnerable and under-privileged groups,
including those working on rights associated with sexual orientation
and gender identity. It urges States Parties to the African Charter on
Human and Peoples' Rights to be visionary, and to consider women
defenders as partners in securing respect for human rights.
I recommend this report to all who wish to understand better the

many challenges faced by women human rights defenders. I very much
hope it will be widely disseminated and used as the basis for protecting
women human rights defenders in Africa, and enhancing the effectiveness
of their work.
I also hope that other human rights mechanisms will be inspired

to focus similarly on the situation of women defenders.
81
The situation of women rights defenders in Africa and in the world

at large remains precarious. They continue to experience institutionalized
inequality and structural violence and discrimination, as well as a range
of more direct threats and attacks from State and non-State actors. The
study alarmingly shows that women defenders experience existing
legislation as limiting their activity rather than supporting them.
Who will defend the defenders? Ultimately the obligation for the
protection of women defenders lies with States. I hope that States Parties
to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights will use the
recommendations contained in this report to take concrete steps to
ensure that women human rights defenders are able to work without fear
of threat or attack.
I am very pleased to add my voice to those calling urgently and

loudly for effective protection of all those struggling to achieve an Africa
free from social, physical and psychological violence. Women human
rights defenders are in the front lines of that struggle and must have our
full and explicit support.
Ms Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka, Executive Director, UN

Women
82
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Report of the Study on the Situation of Women Human Rights Defenders in Africa

Report of the Study on the

I appreciate the efforts of the African Commission on Human and

This report highlights the work of women human rights defenders

I therefore support the conclusions of this report, reflecting as

I hope this report will be widely disseminated and used as the

I recommend this report to States Parties to the African Charter

The Special Rapporteur on Human Rights Defenders in Africa,

Tilder Kumichii, Development Consultant/Coordinator Gender

Djingarey Maiga, Women and Human Rights, Mali

Eleanor Openshaw, Pooja Patel, Clement N. Voulé; International

Hannah Forster; African Centre for Democracy and Human Rights

Lúcia Da Silveira; Associaçao Justiça, Paz e Democracia (AJPD),

Rachel Nicholson; East and Horn of Africa Human Rights Defenders

Corlett Letlojane; Human Rights Institute of South Africa (HURISA)

Masa Amir, Amal Elmohandes, Samah Hadid, Rasha Mohamed;

Solange Fiaty, Estelle Nkounkou; West Africa Human Rights

Maximilienne Ngo Mbe; Queen Biseng CarineLe Réseau des

The Special Rapporteur also expressed her thanks to her

The development of this study was made possible thanks to the

Finally, the Special Rapporteur is grateful to Bread for the World,

A. Background and rationale

II. African and international human rights instruments related

III. Who are women human rights defenders?

IV. The work of women human rights defenders in Africa

V. Contextual factors that contribute to violations of the

VI. Types of violations of the rights of women human rights

VII. The impact of the violations of the rights of women

VIII. Measures for the protection of women human rights

IX. Conclusions and recommendations

1. Women Human Rights Defenders (WHRDs) break norms

2. Our governments should therefore make an effort to create

3. This report is therefore part of the aim, well justified by the

4. The findings of this study are aimed at contributing to efforts

5. In this report, the various instruments for the promotion

6. The report also contains the contributions of women human

7. It is also my hope that the recommendations made to States

8. Finally, I wish to express my deep gratitude to all those

9. The synergy of actions between political actors, national

10. In this report, the Special Rapporteur on Human Rights

A. Background and rationale

11. Since the establishment of mechanism of the Special

12. There has been significant progress made by human rights

defenders are generally targeted because of their gender and because

13. Many women human rights defenders in Africa arestruggling

14. The environment in which WHRDs operate is characterizedin

15. The African context of the work of WHRDs is complex

16. The main objectives of this report are twofold, in line

withresolution ACHPR/Rés. 230 (LII) 12:

. To help improve the working conditions of women humanrights

17. Through this report, the African Commission shows

18. Specifically, the report presents a number of

20. The committee was composed of members of the

committed to providing greater visibility to the experience of WHRDs

21. Strategically, a questionnaire was developed and

22. A total of twenty-eight (28) responses were received

not belonging to any organization also responded.

23. The report's analysis is based on information provided inthe

24. The examples provided by the respondents are cited