Lord Ayappan Project

How the Swamy Ayyappan Sect Captures Rural Imagination in the South
(My Abstract)

One of the more popular deities revered and devotionally worshipped in non-urban areas in the south is
Lord Ayyappan. His rural followers are spread from Kerala, through Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil
Nadu, and are both caste and non-caste Hindus. Often given either scant mention or overlooked completely
in English language works on Hindu bhakti, Lord Ayyappan inspires great devotion, especially drawing
followers to his temple and annual pilgrimage deep in the forest of southern Kerala. The phenomenon
surrounding the deity, which is gaining in popularity in the rural south, inspires a convergence of
Vaishnava and Saiva practices, as well as gender subversion

The northern bhakti, Jnana-yoga and sannyas traditions make hardly a mention
of a rather significant and important diety popularly worshipped and revered in
the south, particularly in rural regions of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, but whose
presence and followings extend to Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and pockets
across the other states, right up to Assam - and indeed in the diaspora to Sri
Lanka, Malaysia, Washington DC, Pittsburgh and Troy, Minnesota as well. His
popularity in recent years however has been given a bit of an ummph through
the conversion of filmi/cinematic icons such as Nambiar in the south and
Amitabh Bachan in the north-west. Later for that neo-wood razzle-dazzle.

In this paper I present vignettes from my observations as I move between

Bangalore/Hyderabad, Chennai/Tirupathi and Chochin/Trivandrum of the sect
of Lord Ayyappa/Ayyappan Swamy that always intrigued me, especially their
household hairy-swamis clad in black lungis with large malas around their
necks, speeding across in heavily bedecked jeeps & vans in the winter months en
route to the their cherished pilgrimage site, Śabrimala in the forest near the
southern end of Kerala.
Who is this god, what are his origins, how is he related to the puranic and
folklore deities, the vast pantheon of devas/devatas, to agamic and textual
traditions? What is his status in the brahmanic hierarchy, caste status and
standing of the followers, called Appayyans or just Swamys, and so forth? As I
probed into this phenomenon with my scholarly spectacles on, I found are more
mysteries and unanswered questions than I had thought would be the case. So I
will share both knowns and he unknowns with you on this blessed day, in which
I remember also the 8th anniversary of Lauri Patton’s dedication of a Hinduism
panel to someone dear to my heart&soul I had traveled these regions with, and
who opened my eyes to lived traditions/religions, on the ground as it were, and
to the question of women in the subcontinent’s quaint religious hierarchies.

First confronting fact is that the name itself is obscure, has varied permutations, short-
hands, regional variations, and even scholastics nuances that defy philological clarity.
Quite an enigma actually. He would be Swami Appayya, to some, Ayyappan Swamy to
others, add to this: Dharma Śāsta, Hariharaputra, Bhoothanathan, Lankapuravidahaka15
Ayyappan, He Who Burnt Lanka
Lokapujya16
Ayyappan, Worshipped by the Universe; Kaliyugavaradhan12
Ayyappan, Protector in Kaliyug
Karunaasaagar13
Ayyappan, Merciful
and Manikantan, among other epithets. He could be depicted as a child,
as an ascetic-celibate sramanic yogi, a householder with consorts,
warrior-destroyer of demons and wild animals, a friend of sufis, a
comrade of kings, the forest-dwelling half-brother of Ganapati and
Skanda-Murugan. But he is not born of a wedlock of Shiva and Parvati, or
a tumeric paste, rather of a gender subversion as we shall note in a
moment. He does not stand in any one clear lineage, patronage, sectarian
parampara, such as Saivite, Vishnuite, Shakta, guru-avataras, Brahmanic-
Hindu, Buddhist or Jain – rather he appears to stand in-between all of
these and eclectically or ecumenically and denominationally
combine/converge just about all such divisions & divisiveness into
something more integral, even post-modern, especially in respect of caste
and creeds; the biggest weakness and stumbling block however in being
recognized as a truly post-secular unifying force is its attitude towards and
exclusion of women from certain key spiritual rites and as functionaries.
Sha’’ return to-is short’y.

Origins.

Since there is no purana dedicated to this deva, nor any mention as such (apart
from hindsight claims of his coming), it is difficult to place faith on any one of
half-a-dozen stories that circulates around, especially among the devotees.
Scholars, of whom there have been no more than a handful, particularly Clothey
and Radhika Sekar (RS), seem suspicious of almost all accounts, except perhaps
for the assimilation of Buddhist and Jain imageries and practices. That makes this
deva, in my view, even more of a candidate for the post-secular, if not in
postcolonial philosophy of religion. As Radhika notes ‘The only Sanskrit text that
recounts the story in any detail is the obscure Bhuta-natha-upākhyānam,’ (p23). But
it does not explain how Manikanthan makes transition to Hariharaputra and Sasta!

The origins are in Yakṣa in as much as Vedic yakṣas & yakṣinis were benevolent
warrior-like natural forces that fought against dasyus, asuras, demons and demi-
gods, etc. Think of matsya; Hariti in Buddhist lore (RS p23). One of his names:
maṇikaṇṭha (bell- neck) (Ayyappa wears a bell around his neck) is arguably of
yakṣa pedigree. But let us look at the name itself for some clues (this is all by the
way sepcualtive); ‘Ay’ was a ruler or chieftain associated with Nayars; there was
a horsemen god in Tamil Nadu, Ayyanār (at best a tutelary diety); which in turn
appears to be a corruption of Aryan, Arya Tatha; Tatha is also associated with
Appa/n meaning father, or teacher, or protector, which nuance slides into Sasta,
which is used for Vishu as well as dharma-shasta. So Arya-Appa between Tamil
and Malayalam colloquially becomes Ayyappa, Ayyappan, Sasta gets rendered
in popular Hinduism as Swami [even Avatarhood-claimants can be called
Swami’s], so you have Ayyappan Swamy (with a ‘y’). But there might be a
Buddhist etymology as well; Buddha is also an Arya; in pali this sounds like
ayyo (ayy’ayo karo me kiya suko suko); combine with suffixed ‘an’ to ‘appa’
become Ayyappan; Sasta and Dharma Sasta, which also applies to the Buddha
especially after he is inducted into the legion of 9 avataras (Gita-govinda), this
with the wide of śaranam, in chanting, in resounding evocation as the pilgrim;s
make progress up the step hill and the 18-legendary steps to the temple, or
greeting each other, reminiscent of Buddha śaranam, hence Swami Saranam,
Saranam Ayyappa-swamiye… There are other spaces where Buddhist and to
lesser extent Jain motifs appear to have been assimilated. And this is in the
practices, rites and demonour of ascetic simplicity, parsimony and reduction in
the other elaborate paraphernalia of worship, as well self-rather-than-other
sarcifice, and ahimsa, non-violence and a certain egalitarian humanism (even if it
did not extend all the way to women).

Genealogical stories
Kerala

It is interesting to note that the `Pratishtas' (Idols) at these temples vary from
each other in its representative forms, i.e the Kulathupuzha on the bacnks of
Kalladi idol depicts Sastha as a child (bālaka), Aryankavu idol depicts Sastha as
an adolescent youth (brahmacarin), thoiugh dressed as a prince. Achankovil idol
depicted as householder (grhastha), seated on a horse, bearing a sword and
flanked by two consorts Purna and Pushkala while the idol at Sabarimala depicts
Sastha as a vanaprastha, torn away from secular callings; in the lost firth temple
– from where the laser light spectacle emanates ones a year on Makara Sankranti
day, he is ‘in the form of the highest yogi (sannyasin) (Vaidyanatham 1982: 70-71
in RS 19), totally celibate, deep in meditation.

Tamilnadu

Achankovil

In the temple at Achankovil, Lord Dharma Shasta is worshipped in the aspect of

Manikanda Shastha with His two Divine Consorts, Poorna and Pushkala. Here
the Lord is depicted in the aspect of a householder. The names of the consorts
indicate they have symbolic meaning. Two priests offer the Poojas. According to
tradition the great sage Parasurama installed the idol in the temple at the time
when he installed the five Shastas and a Bagavathi to protect the Western Ghats
and the related regions.

1) What region and caste and former or parental Hindu background before they
became Ayyappan followers, and why? (PAvan Varma,
http://srimanikanta.blogspot.com/2009/09/list-of-ayyappan-temples-in-india-
and.html)
 Ayyappa worship which has always been popular in Kerala is much more
today. Perhaps one probable attribute to this popularity is the noble conception
of universal brother-hood among Ayyappa pilgrims.

The most notable aspect of Ayyappa worship is the transcendence of all

barriers of castle and creed. Ayyappa is considered a deity of the Dravidians and
is a Shaivite. Certain rituals observed in the shrine have a Buddhist touch which
has given rise to a theory that Ayyappa is of Buddhist origin. In Tamilnadu,
Ayyanar is a village deity considered equivalent Ayyappa.

Since all cannot visit Sabarimala as pilgrims, every fortunate one who has
worn the black dress and 'Japamala' is seen off ceremoniously after a grand feast
in scores of village enroute.

There is a Vavar Thara very close to. The diety is Vavar, the friend of Ayyappa
and a sufi n honour of Muslim saint at the close proximity to the main temple. Ayyapa
cult gifts much importance for secularism and communal harmony and has turned out to
be a model for the whole world. another significant aspects of the pilgrimage is that all
the pilgrims whether rich or poor, literate or illiterate her all equal before lord ayyapa and
whole address each other as ayyappa or swamy.

Unlike in all other temples where daily Pooja is a must as followed by the
'Aganas', at Sabarimala, the worship and 'poojas' are done only five days in a
month. The schedule is so arranged that two successive five day periods are
dovetailed. This is evidently because of the difficult terrain.

2) History of the sect, How it started?

The conception of God has diverse interpretations in the Hindu philosophy. The
people of India saw in places of scenic splendour the very presence and manifestation of
God 's creative activity, which made them worship God at such places. These abound in
natural beauty, perennial rivers, water falls, forests, vegetation, etc. and as such became
important in the religious concepts of India.

One such place is Sabarimala temple of Sasta , popularly known as Ayyappa. It is

located in a deep valley in the high ranges of the western ghats in Kerala, the land which
is said to have been reclaimed by Parasurama from the Western sea. This mountain peak
is also supposed to have the ancient abode of the tribal lady Sabari, the mythical devotee
of Sri Rama. Great saints like Matanga are also associated with this hill.

Sabarimala had become famous from the ancient times due to other reasons also.
According to 'Keralotpathi', the legendary founder of Kerala, Parasurama is believed to
have established eighteen Sasta temples on various hills on the Sahya ranges. Similarly, it
is believed that he established eighteen Devi shrines also in the newly created coast to
protect the land and the people who had settled there.

Though it is not possible now to locate all these temples consecrated by

Parasurama, the Ayyappa temples of Sabarimala, Acchankoil, Aryankoil, Kulathupuzha
and Sasankotta have been identified. All there are on the hills. There is one shrine of
Sasta at Tagazhi which is 6 kms. from the sea.

Of all these Ayyappan temples. The one at Sabarimala in course of time became
very famous and important. It is located in the Rani Reserve forest of the Manimala
Range of Tiruvananthapuram. Each year, a few laks of devotees cover the arduous route
to Sabarimala and have 'Darshan' of Ayyappa Sasta. The shrine is an unimposing
structure situated about 300 metres high up, and the path traverses through precipitous
hill slopes and dense deciduous and evergreen forests infested with wild animals. The
distance has to be covered on foot and occasions when a pilgrim party is attacked by wild
elephants or tiger are not rare. In the olden days, the temples on the hills was not easily
accessible, being about 40 kms. south-east of the forest station at Peruthode. The journey
to the temple used to be very hard and though lightly equipped, would take three to four
days to cover the distance. During the last five decades, good roads have been made in
the interior and the approach distance on foot has been decreased. In the olden days, the
worship of Sasta was confined to the extreme south, particularly Kerala. During the last
fifty years, the cult has spread to many parts of South India and to some States of the
north also.

The origin of Sasta forms one of the delightful romances of Hindu mythology.
According to the epics, ambrosia (Amrutha) was required by the Gods so as to enable
them to overcome the demons (Rakshasas). When Amruta appeared, the Devas wanted to
take it away without the knowledge of the demons. Vishnu appeared in the form of
Mohini to do this job. it is said that Shiva became so much attracted towards Mohini and
out of their union was born the child Sasta.

Another story relates that Vishnu came in disguise as Mohini to destroy the
demon Bhasmasura who was chasing Shiva. After the destruction of Bhamasura, the
union between Shiva and Mohini resulted in the birth of Sasta. There is yet another
account which presents Sasta as a boy archer, spotted by a royal hunter in the desolate
forest and then adopted him as his son. The story further goes to say that the Pandyan
king who found the infant Sasta in the forest took him to the palace where he grew up as
Prince Manikanta.

In due course, he became the commandant of the army. The common ground in
all these stories is that the jealousy of the courtiers was excited by the superior
accomplishments of Manikanta in all the fields. The courtiers poisoned the mind of the
queen and induced her to pretend to suffer from a severe stomach ailment. This was used
as a pretext to set Manikantan on the perilous task of fetching the prescribed medicine for
the ailment for the queen, which was the milk from a tigress. Manikantan, however, by
his divinity brought a herd of tigers and tigresses and other wild animals into the palace.

The contrite queen and courtiers then realised the powers of Manikantan and
surrendered to him. But Manikantan bade them farewell, telling them that he would be
found in the forests. At the request of Parasurama, whom he met in the forest, he made
Sabarimala as his abode and revealed that he has Dharma Sasta. From then on, Manikanta
came to be known as ‘Harihara Putra' and ‘Ayyappa'.

The original temple of Ayyappa at Sabarimala was put up by the king at

Pandalam. Even today, a representative of the Pandalam ruler visits the temple every
year. In course of time, Sabarimala temple became the most important shrine of Ayyappa.
Here, Lord Ayyappa is resplendent facing east and is seated in ‘padmasana' in a yogic
posture for any deity in this country. At the north-western corner of the temple and
significantly outside is a small ‘Mandapam' for Malligapuram, the Mother Goddess.

Principles of Hindu philosophy are fully implied in the pilgrimage to Sabarimala to a

greater extent than any other pilgrimage. To see Vedanta in real life, it is found in these
Sabarimala pilgrims. In no other pilgrimage do we find the yogic austerities mentioned in
the Bhagavat Gita, so strictly followed. From the moment of taking the vow to undertake
the pilgrimage, everything that he sees, hears or experiences is believed to be the
manifestation of Ayyappa. The rich and the poor, the lord and the common man, the
Brahmin or the Harijan, all regard each other as Ayyappa, on a perfectly equal basis; this
is particularly important in a society so steeped in castes and sub-castes.

The pilgrim whose ego is effaced and who has submitted everything to Ayyappa
ascending the Karimala hill chanting ‘Saranam Ayyappa', presents the very picture of the
real seeker of truth. Nowhere else can we find a real follower of Hinduism than in the
Sabarimala pilgrim, who is withdrawn from the illusions of the world though for a short
period. It was the incarnation of Ayyappa that led the way to this transformation.

The pilgrimage to Sabarimala takes place thrice a year, the first during ‘Vishu' in
April, the Second (mandalam) in the month of December and third on ‘Makara
Sankramana' day of January. Of these pilgrimages, the Makara Sankramana is considered
as the most sacred pilgrimage.

It is significant that all along the pilgrimage the devotees spontaneously help each
other, maintaining perfect equality, both in status and in appearance, because all are clad
alike. There is no other centre of pilgrimage where such equality and the ideal of
socialism are maintained as a matter of principle and part of religious observance.
‘Service above self', tolerance and patience, come to play so naturally.

Climbing of the sacred eighteen steps from the foot of the temple to reach the
’sanctum sanctorum' for the ‘darshan' of the sacred jewellery (Thirvabharanam) is
considered to be an important privilege of every devotee. The Jewellery for the
decoration of the deity is brought all the way from pandalam on foot by specially deputed
priest who arrives at Sabarimala along with his guards just in time for the 'Pooja' at sunset
on Makara Sankramanam day. The priest who carries the box of jewels on his head
actually runs on foot without stopping anywhere on the way. This is the only day when
the idol is worshipped with the jewels.

It has been the experience that a person who visits Sabarimala temple once
observing the strict discipline is tempted every year to undertake the pilgrimage despite
the hardships involved. And this is the faith-giving factor, finding and acquiring
consolation and relief in absolute surrender.

[The temple at Sabarimala is an ancient one and said to be more than a thousand
years old. The temple is neither vast nor a treasure house of masterly sculpture as many
South Indian temples are. In the early years, the temple at this place was only of thatch,
covered with reeds and grass. Many years ago, accidentally, it caught fire when large
quantities of camphor was being lighted, and was totally destroyed. It was rebuilt in stone
masonry work. Again in 1950 following very bad desecration by Vandals, the temple was
reconstructed with strong stone and cement reinforcement and a new idol of Ayyappan
was installed. Originally, the temple and a new idol of Ayyappan was installed.
Originally, the temple was on a high platform without a parapet wall. Pilgrims going
there fifty years ago had to stay on the platform under open sky and were afraid of
coming down after sun set for fear of wild elephants and tigers.

Since then, a deep moat has been dug and a parapet wall erected. Eighteen steps of shrine
made in a solid cube of rock has been chiseled diagonally to form the steps which are
narrow and steep to prevent elephants from coming up.

A few other shrines are also found near the Sabarimala temple. The are Bhadra Kali,
Vavaru Swamy and Kadutha Swamy. The latter two are said to be Muslim devotees
worshipped by all the pilgrims. Even now, a Muslim representative of Vavaru Swamy
waits in the forest route and guides the pilgrims to Sabarimala]

3) What is their form of worship?

The customs of the pilgrims to Sabarimala are based on five

worshipping methods; those of Shaivites, Shaktists, Vaishnavites,
 Buddhists and Jainists. At first, there were three sections of devotees –
the devotees of Shakti who used meat, liquor and other drugs to
worship their deity, the devotees of Vishnu who followed strict
penance and continence, and the devotees of Shiva who partly
followed these two methods. It was then that the Buddhists and Jainists
entered, spreading the concepts of Ahimsa. Another name of Lord
Ayyappa is Sastha which means Buddha. This is a prime example of
the reach of the Buddhist beliefs to this part of the world. All these can
be seen merged into the beliefs of pilgrims to Sabarimala. The chain
the pilgrims wear comes from the Rudraksha chain of the Shaivites.
The strict fasting, penance and continence is taken out of the beliefs of
the Vaishnavites. Ahimsa is taken from the Jainists. The constant and
repeated utterance of prayers reminds one of the Buddhists. The
offering of tobacco to Kaduthaswamy can be considered to be taken
from the Shaktists.

The devotees of Ayyappa have to undergo a period of discipline, known as

'Vritam'. Sasta is very frigid in his tastes and a stern disciplinarian. A man can qualify
himself as a votary by being under a vow for forty one days from the fist day of
Vrischigam (middle of November), the date of commencement of the 'Mandalam'. the
Ayyappa devotee wears the 'Mudra' of 'Japamala' as a token of his vow and determination
for the observance of celibacy. He should lead a clean life and avoid meat and drinks of
alcohol and spirits. From that day he is expected to consider every other follow pilgrim as
Ayyappa, according to the conception that a Bhakta becomes one with the Bhagavan.
Wherever pilgrims meet, they great each other saying 'Swami Saranam'. This deciliter
gives the pilgrim sufficient stamina to with stand the rigours and arduous journey to
Sabarimala.

All the pilgrims to Sabarimala are dressed in black or blue, growing beards,
proceed on foot up to the main temple through the thick forests. They carry on their head
the sacred bundles known as 'Irumudi Kettu'- a two compartment cloth bag, one side of
which contains the coconut filled with ghee for 'Abhishekam' to the deity and the other
containing the pilgrim frugal necessities for the severe austerity and penance. A woman
also is bound by the same injunctions. Besides only girls below the age of twelve years
and old women are allowed to go on a pilgrimage to Sabarimala. Women votaries are
called Malikapurams.

During the period of the vow, they propitiate the Sasta, Karuppaswamy,
Kochukadutha, Vavar, Ganapati and crests of hill with Vellamandi. It is intended to avoid
all mishaps on the way to the hill and to attract more votaries. Discipline permeates in
another way among the rank and file of the votaries, who go in batches, led by the most
senior man. Seniority is reckoned on the largest number of times a votary has gone to
Sabarimala. All the votaries are called Ayyappans or swamis, and the head of the
fraternity is called 'Peria Swami', whose word is law. First, Kanni Ayyappans are
initiates; the Periaswami leads the initiates. Any disobedience is visited with fine or
repeating Sasta's name a certain number of times. The fraternity of Ayyappan is not hide-
bound by any caste distinction and their fraternal greetings are worthy of emulation.

Ayyappan swamy stands in no terms of indebtedness to others during his march to

the hills. He is self contained, and with the Kettu on his head, he wends his way to the
hills and goes by measured stages. Every pilgrim, no matter his status, he should carry
this load; he should not engage any servant. Convention demands new pilgrims, 'Kanni
Ayyappans' to take the Erumeli route.

'Petta Thullal' is an important function at Erumeli. It is related to the rejoicing of

the people at the killing of the demon 'Mahisha' by Ayyappa. From Erumeli the first stop
is generally at 'Azutha' from where the pilgrims proceeds to Pamba. One of the base
camps is on the banks of the Pamba river, which will resemble small town ship during
these days. From here, to Sabarimala, one has to negotiate the steep ascent of
'Neelimalai'. Most of the pilgrims take this traditional route. To the elders pilgrimage to
sabarimala is the consummation of a long cherished vow. To the younger elements, there
is also the thrill of an adventures journey. The pilgrim's journey has now been reentered
less strenuous with the laying of new roads through forests to reach the temple.

The 'Pamban Vilakku' forms one further most enchanting scenes at right. It is said
to be in honour of Sasta, who is supposed to be present there among the Ayyappans is
disguise and resting there for the night on this way to Sabarimala. Ayyappans set a float
domes of reeds over which are lit tabloids of camphor in rows. Myriads of such domes
are set afloat in the waters of the Pamba at Pambakadavu. Thousands of glittering oil
lamps also are let into the stream by the pilgrims. After performing oblations to the
ancestors and enjoying a grand feast, the devotees march to Sabarimala.

At the temple, the initiated pilgrims gain entry into the shrine up the steep
'Paththinettu Padi'- eighteen steps. These eighteen steps, represent the eighteen stages
every man has to pass through to attain salvation (moksha). Before climbing the sacred
steps, every pilgrim has to break a coconut in dedication at the first step.-a symbolism of
attaining salvation.

4) Some sample kirtan or chantings?

Popular Kirtan:

"Harivarasanam swami viswamohanam....

Kalabhakesari aaradhya padukam...

Saranamayyappa swami saranamayyappa....

Sabari giri naatha swami saranamayyappa...."

In all South Indian languages have many chanting.

Popular Bhajan: “Swamiyye Sharanam Ayyappa”

5) Women: What is their role? If they feel part of it or left out by the men?

The male pilgrims are called "Ayyappans" and female pilgrims are called
"Malikappuram".

Women have no role. They are strictly prohibited in their menstruation period.
But they have the chance to go before the age of ten and after the age of 50.

[Young women are not allowed, because they may not having the stamina to cross the
forest region in their journey, their night stay in the forest - may cause to some
malpractices, their period may affect to their easy journey that is the why they restrict the
young women are not allowed, the aged those who crossed the menopauses stage are
allowed to the main shrine]
6) How many go to Sabarimala for pilgrimage? How many seen the "Light"?

Last year more than 55 million pilgrims visited Sabarimala.

The most spectacular event at Sabarimala is the sighting of 'Makara Jyothi

(Light)' on evening of Makara Sankramana after the last 'Pooja'. The location of this
phenomenon is not yet known, and yet it appears as a bright light between the distant
mountains on the east at dusk. This is a very strange phenomenon observed only in
Sabarimala, the Divine Light to be seen far off Ponnanbala Medu. Lakhs of pilgrims
assemble at the temple to see the Jyoti. Such a light is never repeated on any other day
either at Sabarimala or anywhere else in the world.

7) Do they follow other gurus: e.g. Shankaracharyyas, Ramanujacharrya,

Lingayats, Taralabalu Swami, Sathya Sai Baba, and Sri Venkateshwara? How do
they see these as "different forms of same God"?

They have no such type of gurus. But if they go by group, they have a guru
(leader) for leading them. He may be an elder or experienced one among the group. He is
known as "GURUSWAMI".

Radhika Sekar, _Śabarimalai pilgrimage and Ayyappan cultus_. Delhi

: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1992

Fred W. Clothey,_Skanda-Sasti: a Festival in Tamil India_. Chicago:

The University of Chicago Press, 1969. (Since Skanda and Ayyappan
are odd cousins Ayyappan gets a treatment also.)

Fred W. Clothey, "Theogony and Power in South India: Clues from

the Aiyappa Cult," in Religion and the Legitimation of Power in
South Asia, ed. Bardwell L. Smith (Leiden: Brill Academic
Publishers, 1978),

Horse Shrines in Tamil India Reflections on Modernity

Mark
Jarzombek; http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/future_anterior/v006/6.
1.jarzombek.html
Lars Kjaerholm, "Aiyanar and Aiyappan in Tamil Nadu: Change and
Continuity in South Indian Hinduism,"
http://www.hindu.dk/1d/ar/Ai-Ai1200.pdf.