See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/33934456

Careers in the knowledge economy and the web-based career support

[electronic resource] : new challenges and opportunities /

Article
Source: OAI

CITATIONS READS

5 215

1 author:

Svetlana N. Khapova
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam
94 PUBLICATIONS   2,921 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

⚛ Dynamic perspectives on career management strategies View project

Transfer of soft skills training View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Svetlana N. Khapova on 24 February 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

CAREERS IN THE KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY
AND WEB-BASED CAREER SUPPORT

NEW CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

Svetlana N. Khapova
Graduation Committee:

Prof. dr. M. J. F. Wouters (chairman) University of Twente

Prof. dr. C. P. M. Wilderom (promotor) University of Twente
Prof. dr. M. B. Arthur Suffolk University (USA)
Prof. dr. J. Van Hillegersberg University of Twente
Prof. dr. M. C. Van der Wende University of Twente & Vrije
Universiteit Amsterdam
Prof. dr. Y. Baruch University of East Anglia (UK)
Dr. J. Svensson University of Twente

Cover design: Dave Cutler

Printed by PrintPartners Ipskamp B.V., Enschede, The Netherlands

© S. N. Khapova, Enschede, 2006

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced by print, photocopy or
any other means without the written permission of the writer or the publishers of
the research essays

ISBN: 90-365-2393-1
CAREERS IN THE KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY
AND WEB-BASED CAREER SUPPORT

NEW CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

DISSERTATION

to obtain
the doctor’s degree at the University of Twente,
on the authority of the rector magnificus,
prof.dr. W.H.M. Zijm,
on account of the decision of the graduation committee,
to be publicly defended
on Wednesday, 5th July 2006 at 13.15

by

Svetlana Nikola’yevna Khapova

born on 9th June 1976
in Stavropol, Russian Federation
This dissertation has been approved by:

Prof. dr. C.P.M. Wilderom (promotor)

4
 SUMMARY

Increasing emergence of the knowledge economy invites consideration of its

implications for career theory and research. The economy’s increasing focus on
professional and intellectual capabilities, as well as the continuous emergence of
new technologies that assist people in their life and work suggest many new
opportunities not only for individuals, but also for researchers. However, these
implications also raise challenges. This PhD thesis addresses some of these
opportunities and challenges aiming at a better understanding of individual
careers and new technological possibilities for career support in the knowledge
economy.
Given the breadth of the research topic, this thesis focuses on the
examination of six pressing issues: (i) an increasing ascription of more importance
to the subjective career, and what it means for contemporary career research; (ii)
the divergence between contemporary career theory and career success research,
and what rapprochement between the two can be attained; (iii) the key cognitions
predicting boundaryless career intentions of contemporary professionals; (iv) the
provision of computer-based career support; (v) individuals’ usage of one
particular kind of such support - integrated web-based career support; and (vi)
individuals’ beliefs that may predict people’s usage of a web-based career support
system. Each issue serves as the leading theme in each of the six essays included in
this thesis.
In order to address this wide spectrum of topics, various approaches were
used. One essay is a conceptual paper. Two essays are based on an extensive
literature review. The other three essays are empirical papers reporting on tests of
different hypotheses on a sample of aspiring IT professionals: users of a web-based
career support system, Change2IT. Below we briefly summarize results and key
contributions per essay.
Essay 1 addresses implications of increasing ascription of higher
importance to the subjective career for career research. The essay shows that to
focus on the subjective career means to accommodate four basic properties of the
subjective career in future research: to use interdisciplinary approaches in that
research and to focus on careers not only within or between organizations, but also

5
in a larger economic context. This context reflects not only the knowledge economy
but also the influences of both the Internet and globalization in shaping that
economy, and reaffirms the importance of interdisciplinary approaches.
Essay 2 compares contemporary career theory with the theory applied in
recent career success research. Analysis of 68 articles published between 1992 and
2002 showed that research makes inconsistent use of career theory, and in
particular neglects the interdependence of the objective and subjective careers, and
boundaryless career issues of inter-organizational mobility and extra-
organizational support. The essay offers new guidelines for bringing about a
rapprochement between career theory and career success research. These
guidelines cover: adequacy of research designs, further dimensions of career
success, broader peer group comparisons, deeper investigation of the subjectively
driven person, and seeing new connections between boundaryless career theory
and career success research.
Essay 3 offers an examination of IT professionals’ career intentions and
beliefs underlying these intentions. A new construct - boundaryless career
intention – is identified as the relevant career intention. The essay further offers an
examination of the relation between professional identity and boundaryless career
intention, which lead to the novel empirical finding of professional identity’s
statistically significant relation to boundaryless career intention. This finding
contributes to both future theorizing and new research on boundaryless careers.
Essay 4 defines computer-based career support, and presents challenges
related to research on the actual usage of such systems. It also presents a summary
of current challenges related to doing research on computer- and web-based career
support provision.
Essay 5 addresses challenges related to one kind of computer-based career
support systems, that is integrated web-based career support systems. Although
such systems are increasingly emerging on the market of career support services,
their actual usage is unclear. The essay presents the results of an examination of an
integrated, web-based career support system – Change2IT. This first of its kind
system, developed in Europe by a (European-Commission) consortium of
European IT firms, research institutions and universities, was examined on a
sample of 2089 aspiring IT professionals from four countries: Austria, Greece, Italy
and The Netherlands. The study provides a unique analysis of usage patterns,
motives and satisfaction with this career support system.
Finally, Essay 6 addresses beliefs that lead people to use web-based career
support systems. Given an increasing integration of the Internet in people’s lives,

6
its usage for attaining career support seems logical. We wondered to what extent
individuals’ career beliefs predict their usage of an integrated web-based career
support system. The results of the empirical study show a significant relationship
between boundaryless career intention and WBCS usage. This finding suggests
that people’s intention to use a web-based career support system is motivated by
their interest in new career opportunities. This finding also invites information
systems designers to reconsider their ideas on what predicts usage of Internet-
based systems.
In sum, this thesis provides theorizing and a set of new empirical findings
aiming to contribute to new research on careers in the knowledge economy,
including study of the - increasingly needed- technology-enabled career support.

7
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many people have contributed with their supervision, mentoring, friendship and
love to my PhD thesis. I thank everyone endlessly! However, there are a few dear
to me people to whom I owe special appreciation.
First of all, I am indebted to Prof. dr. Celeste Wilderom, my promotor, for
being an inspiring supervisor, a great teacher and a career mentor! She not only
taught me what it means to be a top-class researcher, she also opened doors for me
to the academic community. I also thank her for encouraging me to stay in
academia. On my new position at the Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam, I am
discovering that an academic career is really for me. Moreover, I thank Celeste for
being a friend to me. I deeply enjoyed every moment of work and travel that we
did together.
I am equally indebted to Prof. dr. Michael Arthur who has guided me
through career studies during the past four years. I thank him for being a
dedicated mentor, source of inspiration and also a friend. Thanks to him I made a
start of my ‘intelligent career’ developing knowing-why, knowing-how and
knowing-whom in the fascinating field of careers. I would like to thank him for the
time he invested in working with me. The learning I received from the lengthy
conversations with him is priceless!
Next, I would like to thank Dr. Jörgen Svensson, who has been not only a
great colleague to me, but also an informal supervisor of my research and an SPSS
mentor. Together with Ronald and Bärbel, Jörgen selected me for a PhD position at
the University of Twente. I thank you all for your belief in me.
My colleagues and friends at the University of Twente (Jos, Fons, Marian,
Chintan, Alea, Jeroen, Mehmet, Boriana, Jeff, Hanneke, Joost, Tanya, Anna, Gert-
Jan, Monique, Katia, Ron, Marc, Liudvika, Tanya, Reynoud, Dusko and many
more) deserve a special thank you, as well. Together with Marija and Michel, who
have not only agreed to be my paranimphen, but who also have been devoted
friends through these years, they have contributed to a pleasant and intellectually
challenging environment at the University of Twente. I also would like to thank
Prof. dr. Wouter van Rossum, Jacqueline Weppelman and Linda de Kleijn for their
positive attitude toward my research. Without their assistance in finding resources

8
I would not be able to finalize my research, nor to present findings at the Academy
of Management conferences.
I am also grateful to my current colleagues at the Vrije Universiteit in
Amsterdam (Paul, Claartje, Josje, Annet, Donna, Lidewey, Bart, Lisette, etc.) for
making it possible for me to finish my PhD thesis while occupying a new position
at their department (of Management and Organization).
Finally, I would like to thank my family – my parents, my sister and my
husband Igor, as well as Frits and Gonnie (my Dutch family) – for their love,
understanding, patience and support, all of which made it possible for me to bring
this thesis to an end.

Svetlana Khapova
Amsterdam, 15 June 2006

9
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW 12

Introduction........................................................................................................... 12
Focus and Key Research Questions.................................................................... 14
Methodology ......................................................................................................... 18
Academic Output Per Essay................................................................................ 19
Structure of This Thesis ....................................................................................... 21
References .............................................................................................................. 22
PART I CAREERS IN THE KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY
ESSAY 1
THE SUBJECTIVE CAREER IN THE KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY 24
Introduction........................................................................................................... 24
The Subjective Career in Behavioral Science Theories .................................... 25
Careers in the Knowledge Economy.................................................................. 32
Approaches to Career Research in the Knowledge Economy ........................ 35
New Research Challenges ................................................................................... 40
Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 45
References .............................................................................................................. 46

ESSAY 2
CAREER SUCCESS IN A BOUNDARYLESS CAREER WORLD 52
Introduction........................................................................................................... 52
Theory Underlying Career Success .................................................................... 54
Empirical Research on Career Success............................................................... 61
Guidelines for Future Research .......................................................................... 74
Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 79
Acknowledgements.............................................................................................. 80
Notes....................................................................................................................... 80
References .............................................................................................................. 81

ESSAY 3
PROFESSIONAL IDENTITY AS THE KEY TO IT PROFESSIONALS’ BOUNDARYLESS
CAREER INTENTIONS 91
Introduction........................................................................................................... 91
Theoretical Framework........................................................................................ 93
Methodology ......................................................................................................... 98

10
Results .................................................................................................................. 101
Discussion............................................................................................................ 104
Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 106
References ............................................................................................................ 107
PART II TECHNOLOGY-ENABLED CAREER SUPPORT
ESSAY 4
COMPUTER-BASED CAREER SUPPORT 114
References ............................................................................................................ 117

ESSAY 5
USAGE OF WEB-BASED CAREER SUPPORT 119
Introduction......................................................................................................... 119
Change2IT: A WBCS System for IT Professionals.......................................... 121
Research Design and Measurements ............................................................... 124
Empirical Results ................................................................................................ 125
Discussion............................................................................................................ 131
Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 136
References ............................................................................................................ 137

ESSAY 6
BOUNDARYLESS CAREER INTENTION AS A PREDICTOR OF WEB-BASED CAREER
SUPPORT USAGE 139
Introduction......................................................................................................... 139
Theoretical Framework...................................................................................... 140
Empirical Examination ...................................................................................... 144
Results .................................................................................................................. 146
Discussion............................................................................................................ 148
Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 150
References ............................................................................................................ 151

KEY FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 154

Introduction......................................................................................................... 154
Summary of Key Findings................................................................................. 154
Key Contributions of This Thesis ..................................................................... 160
Limitations........................................................................................................... 162
Implications for Career Theory and Research ................................................ 163
References ............................................................................................................ 168

ABOUT THE AUTHOR 170

11
 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

INTRODUCTION

An underlying assumption of this PhD thesis is that an increasing emergence of the

knowledge economy raises new challenges for career theory and research. The knowledge
economy is defined as “production and services based on knowledge-intensive
activities that contribute to an accelerated pace of technological and scientific
advance as well as equally rapid obsolescence” (Powell and Snellman, 2004, p.
201). This definition suggests at least two important opportunities for careers. One
opportunity is that the knowledge economy relies heavily on professional and
intellectual capabilities of individuals, thus giving individuals’ careers a more
central role in economic processes. The other opportunity is a growing number of
technologies that offer more possibilities for individuals’ careers, such as to find
new jobs, and to get support through emerging, novel Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) applications.
However, these opportunities mean fresh challenges for career theory and
research. The purpose of this thesis is to address some of the challenges prompted
by the emergence of the knowledge economy. In particular, we focus on challenges
related to the two sides of the knowledge economy definition, namely (a) the
economy’s greater reliance on professional and intellectual capabilities, and (b) the
emergence of technology-enabled career support. This dual focus of the thesis
helps to better understand the increasing interdependence of careers and emerging
technologies.
The cornerstones of this thesis are recent elaborations of Arthur (see
Arthur and Rousseau, 1996; Arthur, Claman and DeFillippi, 1995; and Arthur,
Inkson and Pringle, 1999), Weick (see Weick, 1996; Weick and Berlinger, 1989) and
Cappelli (1999). The authors recognized the earlier signals of the knowledge
economy emergence, and responded by offering new conceptualizations of the
contemporary world of work and careers. For example, Arthur and Rousseau
(1996) introduced the “boundaryless career” conception (that is a career

12
independent of any employer) as the most relevant career conception in the
knowledge economy. Weick (1996) invited us to view careers as the main source of
organizing in contemporary organizations. Cappelli (1999), in turn, showed that
the contemporary world of work is more dynamic than ever, and thus requires
significant adaptation from both individuals and their employers.
The emergence of these literatures has significantly affected career studies
in the past decade. Today, almost every career researcher addresses one or another
side of the changing work relationships and practices, and their effects on
employees and their employing organizations. Many studies increasingly offer
confirmations of the predicted changes. However, very few of them address how
the predicted changes affect career theory. Moreover, very few career researchers
look at the possibilities and challenges deriving from people’s increasing use of
information and communication technologies. For example, hardly anyone
addresses the influences of the increasing use of these technologies on individual
careers and on their work practices and relationships. Not much is noted, typically,
about their effects on career theory.
This thesis capitalizes on the limitations of current studies, making a
number of important contributions. It addresses implications of the knowledge
economy and increasing technological developments for individual careers and
career theory. It also addresses the rapprochement between career theory and
research. Most importantly, this thesis integrates themes of careers and emerging
information and communication technologies into related challenges of the
knowledge economy.
In particular, this thesis may be said to make 6 important contributions to
contemporary career theory and research. It contributes (i) to the conceptualization
of the subjective career, (ii) to the conceptualization and research of career success,
(iii) to understanding important factors influencing people’s boundaryless career
intentions, (iv) to a better understanding of computer-based career support, (v) to a
better understanding of the usage of one particular kind of such support, that is
web-based career support, and (vi) to understanding people’s beliefs that may
predict people’s usage of a web-based career support system. All these
contributions serve as the leading themes of the 6 essays included in this thesis.
Below we specify research questions and methodology that guided our work
within each of the 6 essays. We also offer a brief overview of the key academic
output made per essay.

13
FOCUS AND KEY RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This thesis focuses on a number of new challenges for career theory and research
prompted by the emergence of the knowledge economy. In particular, it addresses
challenges related to
(i) the economy’s greater reliance on professional and intellectual
capabilities, and
(ii) the emergence of technology-enabled career support.
These two challenges concern a wide and complex domain of career theory
and research. It, therefore, is necessary to focus on more specific issues within
these areas. This thesis focuses on six pressing issues.
The first issue concerns the subjective career. Various literatures suggest
that in the knowledge economy, the subjective career has an elevated role. For
example, Friedman (2005) notes that individuals are more empowered in the
present economy. Weick (1996) views subjective careers as the key source of
organizing and design in contemporary organizations. The knowledge-economy
definition by itself stresses importance of people’s subjective careers. In Essay 1 we
argue that to better understand careers in the knowledge economy career
researchers need to ascribe more importance to the subjective career. Essay 1
therefore addresses: What does increasing ascription of more importance to the subjective
career mean for contemporary career theory and research?
Essay 2 addresses the growing divergence between contemporary career
theory and empirical career success research. On the one hand, we observe that
career theories speak more and more of boundaryless careers, where career
opportunities transcend any single employer, and of the personal meaning of
career success. On the other hand, a number of researchers continue to focus on
career success in terms of a person’s organizational position, or of attained
promotions between positions. This contrast is sharpened by a fragmented use of
underlying career theory. Essay 2 focuses on answering the following 2 questions:
What is the divergence between contemporary career theory and empirical career success
research? And What rapprochement between theory and research can be attained, and with
what advantages?
Essay 3 deals with cognitions predicting boundaryless career intention and
behavior. As recent literatures suggest, our times require from individuals to adopt
more responsibility for their careers, and to be open to changes in both life and
work. However, not many individuals experience such boundaryless career
orientation positively. Hence we need to know what it is that might influence or

14
predict individuals’ boundaryless career intentions. The research question
addressed in this essay is: What are the key cognitions that predict boundaryless career
intentions of contemporary professionals?
In order to assist individuals in their career management, various
computer-based applications are being developed. In general, such applications are
referred to as computer-based career support systems. Given the novelty of such
systems, Essay 4 defines the concept of computer-based career support systems,
and presents challenges related to research and the actual usage of such systems.
The key research question of this essay is: How to re-conceptualize the integrated
provision of Computer-Based Career Support in order to get accepted and used effectively?
Essay 5 addresses challenges related to one kind of computer-based career
support systems, that is integrated web-based career support systems. Although
such systems are increasingly emerging on the market of career support services,
their actual usage is not known. The question addressed in Essay 5 is: To what
extent do individuals make use of integrated web-based career support when offered to
them?
Finally, Essay 6 addresses beliefs that lead people to use web-based career
support systems. Given an increasing integration of the Internet in people’s lives,
its usage for attaining career support seems logical. The degree to which
individuals’ career beliefs predict their usage of an integrated web-based career
support system is intriguing. The specific research question addressed in this essay
is: To what extent does boundaryless career intention predict the usage of a web-based
career support system?
The challenges addressed in this thesis and their associated research
questions are depicted in Table 1.

15
 Table 1. Challenges Addressed in this Thesis and Associated Research Questions

Challenges Research Questions Essays

1. To better understand careers in the knowledge 1. What does increasing ascription of more Essay 1
economy we need to ascribe more importance to the importance to the subjective career mean for
subjective career. contemporary career theory and research?

2. Contemporary research on career success makes 2a. What is the divergence between contemporary Essay 2
inconsistent use of career theory. Urgent career theory
rapprochement between theory and career success and career success research?
research is needed. 2b. What rapprochement between theory and
research can be
attained, and with what advantages?
3. An increasing number of individuals is adopting 3. What are the key cognitions that predict Essay 3
boundaryless career behavior. Not everyone boundaryless career intentions of contemporary
experience it positively. To assist individuals in this professionals?
process more research that explains cognitions
behind boundaryless career intentions is needed.
4. The available studies on computer-based career 4. How to re-conceptualize the integrated provision Essay 4
support point to their underutilization. of computer-based career support in order to get
accepted and used effectively?
5. The use of the Internet for delivering career 5. To what extent do individuals make use of Essay 5
support services is growing. However, little is integrated web-based career support when offered
known about the actual usage and patterns of to them?
usage of such integrated web-based systems.
6. Increasing integration of the Internet in people’s 6. To what extent does boundaryless career intention Essay 6
lives suggests that there may be a positive predict the usage of a web-based career support
relationship between people’s boundaryless career system?
intentions and their usage of a web-based career
support system.
 METHODOLOGY

A wide spectrum of career topics addressed in this thesis requires the use of a mix
of approaches. As a result, the thesis consists of different types of essays:
published, forthcoming or submitted to different international academic (peer-
reviewed) journals and edited books. The following short overview of the essays
describes the various kinds of academic approaches taken.
Essay 1: Conceptual Paper. This essay examines how six fundamental social
science theories of career behavior accommodate the four basic properties of the
subjective career. The theories originate from a) Super and Hall in psychology, b)
Krumboltz and Bailyn in social psychology and c) Hughes and Giddens in
sociology. Next, it examines the concept of the self-designing organization in order
to understand new requirements imposed on the subjective career by the
knowledge economy. Three recent theories, such as Bandura’s (2001) Social
Cognitive Theory; Arthur, Claman and DeFillippi’s (1995) Intelligent Career
Theory; and Boyatzis and Kolb’s (2000) Theory of Growth and Adaptation, are also
examined on how they accommodate four career properties as well as the
requirements of the knowledge economy. Finally, a spectrum of recent literature
on globalization and the Internet is examined to understand the challenges and
opportunities these new contexts offer for future research on the subjective career.
Essay 2: Literature Review. This essay examines the divergence between
contemporary career theory and career success research by, first, reviewing key
attributes of career theory that are relevant to career success. Next it examines the
extent to which these attributes have been included in a sample of studies covering
eleven years of published career success research. A set of 68 research articles
representative of published work within a group of major, empirically-oriented
social science journals was included. The journals covered are Academy of
Management Journal, Administrative Science Quarterly, Career Development
Quarterly, Human Relations, Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Career
Development, Journal of Management, Journal of Management Studies, Journal of
Occupational and Organizational Psychology, Journal of Organizational Behavior,
Journal of Social Psychology, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Organization Science,
Organization Studies and Personnel Psychology. Finally, the essay builds on the
contrast between extant career theory and the outcomes of the analysis of the 68
articles offering guidelines for a rapprochement between career theory and career
success research.

18
 Essay 3: Empirical Research. This essay examines four cognitions
hypothesized to predict boundaryless career intentions of IT professionals.
Following Ajzen’s (1991) theory of planned behavior, three career beliefs – career
self-efficacy, perceived social pressure and “intelligent” career attitude – were
hypothesized to predict boundaryless career intentions of IT professionals.
Additionally, professional identity, suggested in Essay 1 as a highly relevant
concept for boundaryless career theory, was hypothesized to moderate the three
relationships between the three beliefs and boundaryless career intentions.
Cognitions were examined on a sample of 225 aspiring IT professionals from four
European countries: Austria, Greece, Italy and the Netherlands.
Essay 4: Literature Review. This essay offers a conceptual overview of a new
phenomenon: computer-based career support. Socio-technical and social
perspectives were used to conceptualize important issues regarding the effective
provision of such support.
Essay 5: Empirical Research. This essay examines both the actual usage and
patterns of usage of one integrated web-based career support system Change2IT.
2089 IT professionals from different countries in Europe became part of the study.
Their actual usage of the system was monitored electronically during a period of 6
months. At the end of this period, the users were assessed on their satisfaction with
the system via an electronic questionnaire. The essay discusses the findings and
offers an original explanation of people’s selective usage of the system’s
functionalities.
Essay 6: Empirical Research. This essay examines the relationship between
people’s boundaryless career intentions and their usage of a web-based career
support. The study uses a sample of 225 aspiring IT professionals from 4 countries.
The relationship between IT professionals’ boundaryless career intentions and
their usage of Change2IT involves correlation analyses between the variables,
regression and ANOVA analyses. Results are discussed in light of implications for
future research and development of web-based career support systems.

ACADEMIC OUTPUT PER ESSAY

Each of the essays included in this thesis were peer-reviewed, and presented to
different research audiences over the period of the past 4 years. Below, we provide
a brief overview of the exposure our work received per essay.

19
 Essay 1 will appear as part of the Handbook of Career Studies edited by H.
Gunz and M. Peiperl later this year. The future reference will be:
Khapova, S. N., Arthur, M. B. & Wilderom, C. P. M. (2006). The subjective
career in the knowledge economy, in H. Gunz and M. Peiperl (Eds.), Handbook of
Career Studies, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
The same paper is also accepted for a presentation at the 22st European
Group of Organizational Studies (EGOS) Colloquium, sub-theme 18 ”Careers as
Forms of Organizing,“ 6 July-8 July 2006, Bergen, Norway.
Essay 2, in its earlier version, was presented as part the Academy of
Management symposium “Unpacking and Reconceptualizing Career Success,” 9-
14 August 2002, Denver, Colorado, USA. The relevant reference is Arthur, M. B.,
Khapova, S. N. & Wilderom, C. P. M. “Who are the Gatekeepers of “Career
Success?”
A revised version of this paper appeared as Arthur, M. B., Khapova, S. N.
& Wilderom, C. P. M. (2005). Career success in a boundaryless career world. Journal
of Organizational Behaviour, 26 (2): 177-202.
Essay 3, in its earlier version, was presented at the 21st European Group of
Organizational Studies (EGOS) Colloquium, sub-theme 9 “Different Forms of
Careers: Keys for Switching the Organizational Lock?” 30 June-2 July 2005, Berlin,
Germany. The relevant reference is Khapova, S. N., Arthur, M. B., Wilderom, C. P.
M. & Svensson, J. S. “Boundaryless career intentions of IT professionals.”
Today, a revised version of this paper entitled “Professional identity as the
key to IT professionals’ boundaryless career intentions” is part of this thesis, and is
ready to be submitted to an international journal.
Essay 4 was written for the Encyclopedia of Career Development co-edited by
J. H. Greenhaus & G. A. Callanan. The relevant reference is Khapova, S. N. &
Wilderom, C. P. M. (2006). Computer-based career support. In J. H. Greenhaus &
G. A. Callanan (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Career Development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
The research reported in Essay 5 received the most exposure among
different academic and European Commission communities. First, the results of
the research appeared in research reports (deliverables) submitted to the European
Commission. The relevant references are:
Khapova S. N., Svensson, J. & Wilderom, C. P. M. (2004). “Evaluation
Results: User Experiences and Perceived Effectiveness,” MULTITRAIN Deliverable
7.2.

20
 Khapova S. N., Svensson, J. & Wilderom, C. P. M. (2003). “Report on iCIS
Validation Results,” iCIS Deliverable 5.2.
Next, an earlier version of this paper was presented as part of the
symposium “Research Innovations in Technology-Enhanced Employment
Processes” at the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology Conference,
10-12 April 2003, Orlando, Florida, USA. The relevant reference is Khapova, S. N.
& Wilderom, C. P. M. “Web-Based Career Support: Two Longitudinal Field-
Experiments.”
The research also became an inspiration for organizing an Academy of
Management symposium “Effective Human E-Service Delivery?” organized and
chaired by Khapova, S. N., Svensson, J. S. & Wilderom, C. P. M., 6-11 August 2004,
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA.
It also became a contribution to this symposium. The relevant reference is
Khapova, S. N., Svensson, J. S., Wilderom, C. P. M. & Arthur, M. B. (2004), “What
undermines usage of e-career support?”
Finally, in its present version, the essay is published as: Khapova, S.N.,
Svensson, J. S. Wilderom, C.P.M. & Arthur, M. B. (2006). Usage of web-based
career support. In M. Anandarajan, T. Teo & C. Simmers (Eds.), Transformation of
the Workplace: The Web and Work in the 21st Century. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe Inc.
Essay 6, in its earlier form, was presented as part of the Academy of
Management Showcase symposium “IT Professionals, Careers and Organizational
Learning,” 1-6 August 2003, Seattle, Washington, USA. The relevant reference is
Khapova, S. N. & Wilderom, C. P. M., “Web-Based Career Support for IT
Professionals.”

STRUCTURE OF THIS THESIS

This thesis involves two parts. The first part accommodates three essays concerned
with careers in the knowledge economy. It includes essays on (1) The subjective
career in the knowledge economy, (2) Career success in a boundaryless career
world, and (3) Professional identity as the key to IT professionals’ boundaryless
career intentions. The second part is more practical and is concerned with
technology-enabled career support. It includes essays on (4) Computer-based
career support, (5) Usage of web-based career support, and (6) Boundaryless career
intention as a predictor of web-based career support usage. The thesis is concluded

21
with the chapter “Key Findings and Discussion,” which provides a discussion of
the key findings, their contributions, limitations and implications for future theory
and research.

REFERENCES

Ajzen, I. (1991), “The theory of planned behavior.” Organizational Behavior and

Human Decision Processes, Vol. 50, pp. 179-211.
Arthur, M. B., Claman, P. H., & DeFillippi, R. J. (1995). Intelligent enterprise,
intelligent careers. Academy of Management Executive, 9 (4): 7-20.
Arthur, M. B., Inkson, K., & Pringle, J. K. (1999). The New Careers: Individual
Action and Economic Change. London: Sage Publications.
Arthur, M. B., & Rousseau, D. M (1996). The Boundaryless Career. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Annual Review
of Psychology, 52, 1-26.
Boyatzis, R. E. & Kolb, D. A. (2000). Performance, learning, and development as
modes of growth and adaptation throughout our lives and careers. In M.
A. Peiperl, M. B. Arthur, R. Goffee, & T. Morris (Eds.), Career Frontiers: New
Conceptions of Working Lives, 76-98. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cappelli, P. (1999). The New Deal at Work: Managing the Market-Driven Workforce.
Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Friedman, T. (2005). The World is Flat. London: Allen Lane.
Hall, D. T. (2002). Careers In and Out of Organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Powell, W. W., & Snellman, K. (2004). The knowledge economy. Annual Review of
Sociology, 30: 199-220.
Weick, K. E. (1996). Enactment and the boundaryless career: organizing as we
work. In M. B. Arthur, & D. M. Rousseau (Eds.), The Boundaryless Career,
40-57. New York: Oxford University Press.
Weick, K. E., & Berlinger, L. (1989). Career improvisation in self-designing
organizations. In M. B. Arthur, D. T. Hall, & B. S. Lawrence (Eds.),
Handbook of Career Theory, 313-328. New York: Cambridge University
Press.

22
 PART I
_____________________________
CAREERS
IN THE KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY

23
ESSAY 1

THE SUBJECTIVE CAREER IN THE KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY1

INTRODUCTION

A re-examination of subjective careers is timely, given the economy’s emergent

reliance on knowledge-intensive professional and intellectual capabilities (Powell
and Snellman, 2004). In this chapter, we argue that to better understand careers in
the knowledge economy we need to ascribe more importance to the subjective
career. This is because in the knowledge economy, in which many of the walls that
limited the movement and reach of people are dissolving, people have more power
to influence both markets and nation-states than at any time in history (Giddens,
2003; Friedman, 2005). In these circumstances, people’s choosing to follow internal,
self-generated guidelines for their careers can lead to larger social transformation
(Feldman, 2000).
In this chapter we strive for better understanding of the traditional
conception of the subjective career and also of the conception we currently need.
For this purpose, we bring together ideas on (a) how fundamental theories have
traditionally conceived the subjective career; (b) what the knowledge economy
means for the conception of the subjective career; (c) what kind of approaches can
help us better understand career dynamics in the knowledge economy; and (d)
what issues the knowledge economy raises for future careers research.

1Forthcoming as:
Khapova, S. N., Arthur, M. B. & Wilderom, C. P. M. (2006). The subjective career in
the knowledge economy. In H. Gunz and M. Peiperl (Eds.), Handbook of Career
Studies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

24
 As our chapter shows, to focus on the subjective career means to
accommodate four basic properties of the subjective career in future research, to
use interdisciplinary approaches in that research and to focus on careers not only
within or between organizations, but also in a larger economic context. This
context reflects not only the knowledge economy but also the influences of both the
Internet and globalization in shaping that economy, and reaffirms the importance
of interdisciplinary approaches.

THE SUBJECTIVE CAREER IN BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE THEORIES

Let us first examine traditional approaches to the subjective career. This involves
reviewing definitions and properties relevant to the subjective career. It also
involves examination of how alternative behavioral science approaches have
accommodated these properties.

DEFINITIONS AND UNDERLYING PROPERTIES OF THE SUBJECTIVE CAREER

We define career, after Arthur, Hall and Lawrence (1989), as the unfolding
sequence of a person’s work experiences over time. Careers involve both subjective
and objective perspectives. We define the subjective career as the individual’s own
interpretation of his or her career situation at any given time. We define the
objective career as the parallel interpretation of any career provided by society and
its institutions (Barley, 1989).
Drawing on our earlier review of contemporary career research (Arthur,
Khapova and Wilderom, 2005), we submit that the subjective career entails four
important properties. The first property is concerned with the inherent duality
between the subjective and objective careers. This means that there are always two
sides to a career: a publicly observable (or objective) side and an intrinsic (or
subjective) side. Although both sides of the career exist together, they do not
necessarily correspond to each other. For example, managers who are successful
according to the objective criteria of pay and promotions may report less subjective
career satisfaction than objectively less successful colleagues (Judge, Cable,
Boudreau and Bretz, 1995).

25
 The second property concerns interdependence. Interdependence means that
the two sides of the career not only co-exist, but also influence one another. That is,
the objective career provides the work experiences that a theory may hypothesize
to influence the person’s subjective view of his or her career situation. Conversely,
the attitudes and motivation of the subjective career may be hypothesized to
influence a person’s objective career as it is seen by others.
The third property of the subjective career concerns a perspective on time.
Time complicates the nature of the interdependence between the subjective and
objective careers, and takes us beyond any simple notion of subjective-objective
career multicollinearity. Time is intrinsic to, for example, employment stability,
skills and experience gained, relationships developed, and opportunities
encountered (e.g., Washington and Zajac, 2005).

The fourth property of the subjective career is that we can anticipate that
the subjective career involves multiple dimensions. These dimensions will reflect
different aspects of people’s subjective careers, for example about pursuing a
professional calling, accumulating new learning, and finding time for families (e.g.,
Hall, 2002).
Our earlier review showed that contemporary career research often
disregarded one or more of these theoretically significant subjective career
properties (Arthur et al., 2005). We propose here that examination of the four
properties provides a basis for identifying both what is common ground and what
is unique to alternative theories. We now turn to examining how six selected
behavioral science theories address these four properties.

BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE PERSPECTIVES

Our examination of four subjective career properties intersects three behavioral

science disciplines, namely psychology, social psychology and sociology.
Specifically, we look at six theories that have been influential in contributing to the
development of career theory, originating from a) Super and Hall in psychology, b)
Krumboltz and Bailyn in social psychology and c) Hughes and Giddens in
sociology.
The choice of these theories may be explained as follows. All of them have
been influential within their separate behavioral science disciplines in contributing
to the development of career theory. Each of the theories provides insight into the
way the subjective career is viewed within its host discipline. Two lines of inquiry

26
per discipline allow us to learn about that discipline’s distinct perspective on the
subjective career.
Among psychological perspectives, Super’s (1980) theory of career
development extends earlier vocational guidance theories in looking at the
interaction of the subjective and the objective careers across the life span. His work
focuses on how subjective and objective careers interact in a person’s mind as he or
she lives through predictable life stages. A second psychological theory is that of
Hall (1976, 2002), whose protean career theory suggests that people may no longer
see their careers as unfolding in any one organization, or in any predictable way. It
proposes the notion of a protean career, characterized by adaptation to a shifting
environment and by frequent change, self-invention, autonomy and self-direction
(Hall, 2002).
Turning to social psychology, Krumboltz’s (1979) social learning theory
suggests that “the individual personalities and behavioral repertoires that persons
possess arise primarily from their unique learning experiences, rather than from
innate developmental or psychic processes” (Mitchell and Krumboltz, 1990). Put
simply, the theory focuses on how learning from past experiences in the social
world influences future career choices. In contrast, Bailyn’s (1984) theory of work and
family addresses the interplay of work and family systems. The work system
represents the arena for a person’s contractual relation to the external environment;
the family system represents a more internal, self-regulated, and private arena,
centered on a primary tie to another person or persons (Bailyn, 1984).
Finally, among sociological perspectives, Hughes’s (1937) theory of social
roles addresses how individuals experience their work roles within society. The
theory represents a larger set of work by the Chicago School of Sociology on the
nature and “working constitution” of a society. Of more recent origin is Giddens’s
(1984) theory of structuration. The theory looks at how people's everyday actions
reinforce and reproduce social structures “via the very means whereby they
express themselves as actors” (p. 2). The arena for action prominently involves
people’s careers.
Each of these theories provides insight into the way the subjective career is
viewed within its host discipline, and illustrates the different focuses that each of
the three disciplines provides. The choice of six theories does not, of course,
provide a complete review of theories that conceptualize the subjective career.
However, it does allow us to see some overall patterns.

27
PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES

In Super’s psychological theory of careers, duality refers to “concepts of self and of

roles in society” (Super, 1990, p. 203). Interdependence between the subjective and
objective careers is seen to take place in the mind of the person, “the decision
maker in whom all of the personal and social forces are brought together” (Super,
1990, p. 203). People are described as mentally filtering objective work experiences
into subjective career interpretations and, in turn, projecting these interpretations
back onto the world of work. Time is accommodated in the conception of a
sequence of career stages, namely growth, exploration, establishment,
maintenance, and decline (Super, 1990). Multiple dimensions come from enacting
one or more of the six distinct identities in everyday life - of the child, the student,
the leisure seeker, the citizen, the worker and the homemaker.
In Hall’s psychological approach, the subjective career reflects changes in
values, attitudes, and motivation that occur as a person ages, and the objective
career reflects observable choices made and the activities in which the person
engages (Hall, 2002, p. 11). Hall’s approach to interdependence is signaled in his
underlying definition of the career as “the individually perceived … attitudes and
behaviors associated with work-related experiences and activities” (2002, p. 12).
The key term “perceived” once more indicates that interdependence is located
inside the person’s mind. Time organizes the subjective-objective career interaction
in a series of learning mini-stages “of exploration-trail-mastery-exit” through
which people adjust to the world and develop their identities (Hall, 2002, p. 118).
Multiple dimensions involve the development of a series of career “sub-identities,”
that are “aspects of one’s self (skills, interests, etc.)” which answer not only to
“who I am,” but also to “what I do” (Hall, 2002, p. 73).

SOCIAL-PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES

Turning to social-psychological theories, Krumboltz (1979) addresses duality by

noting that both internal (subjective) and external (objective) influencers shape the
nature and number of career options and the way in which individuals respond.
The objective influencers include past learning experiences defined by
environmental conditions and events. The subjective influencers incorporate
genetic factors and the cognitive and emotional responses (in a form of decisions)
to learning experiences. Interdependence is about the interaction between people’s
learning experiences and people’s cognitive responses. That is, people respond to

28
the contingencies that surround them, and seek to control their environments to
suit their own purposes and needs (Mitchell and Krumboltz, 1990, p. 147). Time
organizes this interaction in a sequence of new learning experiences and career
behaviors. Multiple dimensions involve variation in the social roles that people
experience, as well as different responses to those roles.
In Bailyn’s social-psychological theory, duality constitutes the coexistence
of the objective career - representing “the arena for a person’s contractual relation
to the external environment, a place where activities are externally regulated and
monitored, and where one is held publicly accountable for one’s performance” -
and the subjective career - that “represents a more internal, more self-regulated,
and more private arena, centered on a primary tie to another person or persons.”
Interdependence between the subjective and objective careers is described in terms
of the influence the family or private arena has on the work arena, and of the
reverse influence that the work arena has on the family or private arena. Time is
accommodated in Bailyn’s views on how people’s career investments vary as time
unfolds, as work and family demands change. Multiple dimensions of the person’s
subjective career involve the experiencing of multiple roles, of for example being a
worker and a parent (Bailyn, 1993), and of being a representative of the male or
female gender (Rapoport, Bailyn, Fletcher and Pruitt, 2002).

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES

Turning to sociological theory, Hughes (1937) theory of social roles views the duality
of the subjective and objective careers, that is the career’s “two-sidedness,” as a
critical property (Barley, 1989, p. 49). The career is seen as a “Janus-like concept,”
pointing on the one hand to the meanings individuals make of their career
situations, and on the other hand to institutional forms of career participation
(Barley, 1989). Interdependence is underscored in the notion of a series of “status
passages,” which on the one hand connote a shift from one social role to another,
and on the other hand involve a change in the person’s conception of self. Within
each shift “role look(s) outward toward a pattern of situated activity, whereas
identity look(s) inward toward the actor’s subjective experience of that situated
being” (Barley, 1989, p. 50). Time underlies the unfolding of successive status
passages. Multiple dimensions are reflected in the multiple roles through which
people exercise influence, take responsibility and receive recognition in their
careers (Hughes, 1937).

29
 In Giddens’ sociological theory, duality stems from the subjective career
giving rise to “knowledgeable activities” (activities based on what people know),
while the objective career is reflected in the way social roles are performed
(Giddens, 1984, p. 2). Interdependence is reflected in the way institutional forms
influence how people respond to available social roles in the short term, and how
people reproduce or modify those social roles in the long term (Giddens, 1984, p.
26). Time is fundamental to Giddens’ view of the production, reproduction and
evolution of social life. Time frames both the relatively reversible interactions
between the person and society in everyday life, as well as the irreversible
character of human life over the life course (Giddens, 1984, p. 35). Multiple
dimensions of an individual’s career reflect social roles through which individuals
produce and reproduce society, which Giddens calls roles of signification,
domination and legitimation (Giddens, 1984, p. 29).
In sum, all six selected behavioral science theories accommodate the four
basic properties in their conceptualizations of the subjective career. However, as
summarized in Table 2, they all offer very distinct perspectives on those properties.
The six theories are closest to one another in acknowledging the duality of the
subjective and the objective career. However, psychologists view subjective-
objective career interdependence as occurring in the mind. Social psychologists see
this interdependence occurring between the person and his or her everyday work
experience. Sociologists see interdependence occurring over the long term as
people’s career behavior eventually reinforces or modifies the overall social
structure. Similar distinctions are evident in the theories’ separate approaches to
the role of time (as it affects the mind, or everyday workplace interaction, or the
evolution of society) and to the multiple dimensions of the subjective career (as
they also affect the mind, everyday workplace interaction, or the evolution of
society).

30
 Table 2. Four Properties of the Subjective Career as Reflected in Six Behavioral Science Theories
Behavioral Science Duality with Objective Career Interdependence with Objective Perspective on Time Multiple Dimensions
Theories Career
Psychology
Super (1974, 1990) The subjective career involves Mentally filtered objective work Sequential individual career stages Distinct identities in daily life -
concepts of self, the objective career experiences interact with subjective - growth, exploration, child, student, leisure seeker,
concepts of roles in society. career interpretations. establishment, maintenance and citizen, worker and the
decline. homemaker.
Hall (1976, 2002) The subjective career involves Individual perception links A series of learning mini-stages Outcomes of the development of
values, attitudes, etc., the objective between attitudes and behaviors through which people adjust to the career sub-identities about both
career observable career choices. and work-related experiences. world and develop their identities. “who I am” and “what I do.”
Social Psychology
Krumboltz (1979) The objective career reflects past The interaction of everyday Sequences of successive learning A variety of social roles through
experiences, the subjective career learning experiences with people’s experiences that shape subsequent which individual’s experiences
genetic and cognitive factors. cognitive responses to those career behavior. meet social expectations.
experiences.
Bailyn (1984) The objective career reflects Private life and working life co- Variation in people’s career Life and work roles as separately
employment experience, the exist, and underlie people’s choices investments as time unfolds, and as experienced by the individual and
subjective career reflects personal in acting out those lives. work and family demands change. by society.
and family values.
Sociology
Hughes (1937, The objective career reflects The interplay between a person’s A series of status passages or Social roles, through which people
1997) institutional roles, the subjective social roles and conceptions of the temporally-staged shifts from one exercise influence, take
career people’s adjustment to those self, as work experience unfolds. social role to another, throughout responsibility and receive
roles. life. recognition.
Giddens (1984) The subjective career drives how People enact social roles, and Underlies both reversible short- Social roles through which
people perform social roles, the thereby contribute to reproduction term behavior as well as the individuals shape society by
objective career reflects those roles. and evolution of society. irreversible character of human life. signification, domination and
legitimation.
 The separation of career theory into largely disconnected behavioral
science disciplines may work well in a relatively stable world. However, in a more
dynamic, knowledge-driven world, we can raise fresh questions about the
connections between the disciplines. It is that world to which we now turn.

CAREERS IN THE KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY

Over the past several decades, we have witnessed what has been often referred to
as a shift from an industrial-based to a knowledge-based economy (Bell, 1973;
Hirschorn, 1984, Block, 1990). The knowledge economy may be defined as
“production and services based on knowledge-intensive activities that contribute
to an accelerated pace of technological and scientific advance as well as equally
rapid obsolescence” (Powell and Snellman, 2004, p. 201). The definition points out
two important shifts. First, the economy relies heavily on intellectual capabilities
rather than on physical inputs or natural resources. Second, a high pace of
technological and scientific advancement requires organizations to continually
adjust to this advancement. In this section, we briefly outline (a) how the model of
more adaptable “self-designing” organizations, previously seen as an exceptional
model, became a mainstream model in the knowledge economy; (b) the new role of
careers in this circumstances, and (c) theoretical approaches to career research that
respond to these changes.

CAREERS IN SELF-DESIGNING ORGANIZATIONS

Beginning in the 1960s, scholars began to observe the impact of changing

environments on the organizations hosting people’s careers. The more dynamic
and complex the environment, the more “organic” (rather than “mechanistic”) and
the more “differentiated” the firm needed to be to succeed. Moreover the more
organic and differentiated the organization, the greater the problems of integration
of people’s work contributions (Burns and Stalker, 1961; Lawrence and Lorsch,
1967).” These observations -which may be seen as early signals of the impending
knowledge economy - were picked up by Karl Weick and his colleagues, who were
interested in the consequences for the underlying design of organizations. They
developed a conception of the “self-designing organization” which, they argued,
was better suited for a changing world. The self-designing organization would

32
maintain itself in a state of frequent, nearly continuous change in its structures,
processes and goals in order to optimize the organization’s capacity to adapt
(Nystrom et al., 1976; Hedberg et al., 1976; Weick, 1977).
At the most elementary level, “self-design involves generating alternatives
and testing them against the requirements and constraints perceived by people in
the organization” (Weick, 1977, p. 37). That is, the system may be referred to as
self-designing “if it contains the norms, resources, willingness, and mandate to
monitor and evaluate its ongoing design, generate alternative designs, and
implement the alternatives that are expected to generate a different set of
reasonable consequences” (p. 38). Hedberg et al. (1976) argued that operating in
this mode is helpful, perhaps necessary, for survival in fast changing and
unpredictable environments. They reasoned that the probable consequences of an
ongoing state of experimentation are that organizations learn about a variety of
design features, and thereby remain flexible (Malhotra, 1996).
According to Weick and Berlinger (1989) the process of self-design is
largely dependent on an organization’s participants and their ability to continually
redesign internal processes. The self-designing organization relies on individuals’
willingness to learn and explore, their ability to review their experiences regularly
– and even to review their ways of reviewing. The design assumption is that
people are better in creating new approaches if they perform within relatively
underspecified conditions. The self-designing organization therefore discourages
any long-term commitment to its current structure, tasks and products, and prefers
local decision-making and flat structures in the interest of more rapid adaptation.
In self-designing organizations the “typical markers of the external career such as
titles, advancement up a hierarchy, and stable career paths are rare” (Weick and
Berlinger, 1989, p. 321). In the absence of these, people need to focus on their
subjective careers as a framework for career growth (Weick and Berlinger, 1989, p.
321). That is, people need to “pursue processes rather than outcomes, competencies
rather than titles, fulfillment rather than advancement, and roles rather than
positions” (Weick and Berlinger, 1989, p. 320).
More specifically, Weick and Berlinger (1989) recommend that individuals
(a) cultivate “spiral” career concepts that involve changing visions of oneself and
of different work and non-work experiences, (b) decouple identities from jobs, and
instead emphasize professional identities that transcend any particular job, (c)
preserve discretion that enables the recognition of new choices for one’s career, (d)
identify distinctive competences - abilities and expertise that have the potential to
contribute to the self-designing organization’s primary goal (namely its own

33
continuing redesign); and e) synthesize complex information, since only people
able to integrate such information and articulate larger visions can help the self-
designing organization to succeed. All of these recommendations implicate the
subjective career, which therefore “assumes special importance” in the self-
designing organization (Weick and Berlinger, 1989, p. 321).

THE SHIFT TO A KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY

By the 1990s, the changes envisaged in the 1960s and 1970s had become
commonplace. Open markets and technology had led to a widespread focus on
intellectual capabilities rather than on physical inputs or natural resources. The
idea of the “boundaryless organization” (Ashkenas, Ulrich, Jick and Kerr, 1995)
emerged in which:
“[P]eople do multiple jobs, constantly learn new skills, and frequently shift
to new assignments and different locations. Instead of subdividing tasks, such
organizations have learned how to pull together diverse activities and people on
an as-needed basis, and to focus more on the streamlined process than on the
specialized pieces. They champion the new and different, and set up processes and
environments that encourage and reward creativity and innovation” (Ashkenas,
1999, p. 6).
The boundaryless organization, as well as other similar contemporary
views (Hedberg, Baumard and Yakhlef, 2002; Feldman, 2000; Haeckel, 1999) reads
much like the self-designing organization pioneered by Weick and his colleagues.
In these views, individual input assumes higher importance, emphasizing
individual influence upon the larger institutions of work and society (Peiperl,
Arthur and Anand, 2002). The process of organizations and careers shaping each
other is viewed as happening both more broadly and more continuously than in
the industrial economy.
Weick’s (1996) response to the widespread emergence of the knowledge
economy was to ascribe a more generalized importance to the subjective career, to
“place more control over the design of the organization in the hands of the people
who are building subjective careers” (p. 41). He argued that as organizations
become “weaker” – that is, more ambiguous, more unstructured, and with fewer
salient guides for action, they dissolve “external guides for sequences of work
experience, such as advancement in a hierarchy” (p. 40). The new situation obliges

34
people to begin to rely more “on internal, self-generated guides, such as growth,
learning, and integration” (Weick, 1996, p. 40).
The circumstances described above emphasize a psychological view of the
subjective career. However, the enactment of careers leads individuals to
contribute to the shaping of social systems. People act as “agents of their own
development [and] organize cooperatively in order to learn” (Weick, 1996, p. 45).
Weick therefore begins with a psychological view - about internally-driven career
behavior - then transforms it into a social psychological view – about cooperative
organizing – as events unfold.
Weick (1996) further argues that as individuals organize, they organize
weak situations into stronger ones. As individuals work, they learn, and make
sense of uncertainty. They then “enact this sense back into the world to make that
world more orderly” (Weick, Sutcliffe and Obstfeld, 2005, p. 410). Learning
processes become turned into scripts that impose structures around previously
ambiguous situations. Cooperative behavior over time re-shapes a weak situation
according to people’s career preferences (Weick, 1996, p. 43-44). This argument
transforms a social psychological argument into a sociological one, as we come to
face the emergent structure of the organizations that self-designing careers have
built.
In sum, Weick calls successively on the three behavioral science disciplines
of psychology, social psychology and sociology in explaining contemporary
careers. In doing so, he implicitly challenges the utility to career theory of any one
discipline on its own. Rather, he suggests a greater utility for interdisciplinary
theory in the knowledge economy, where psychological, social psychological and
sociological perspectives constructively inform one another.

APPROACHES TO CAREER RESEARCH IN THE KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY

A number of contemporary career theories have already responded to the

emergence of the knowledge economy. Among them are new ideas about not only
protean careers (Hall, 2002), but also of “zigzag” (Bateson, 1994), “boundaryless”
(Arthur and Rousseau, 1996), “post-corporate” (Peiperl and Baruch, 1997), “new”
(Arthur, Inkson and Pringle, 1999), and “kaleidoscope” careers (Mainiero and
Sullivan, 2005). However, the preceding discussion raises a new question for these

35
theories. Do they respond to Weick’s implicit call for an interdisciplinary
approach?
In this section we will pursue the above question by exploring three
contemporary theories more deeply. They are the revised social cognitive theory of
Bandura (2001), the “intelligent career” conception of Arthur, Claman and
DeFillippi (1995), and the theory of growth and adaptation of Boyatzis and Kolb
(2000). Our purpose in doing so is to demonstrate how interdisciplinary
approaches can respond to the knowledge economy. For each theory, we describe
(a) how it accommodates the basic properties of the subjective career, and (b) how
it draws on different behavioral science perspectives. We then demonstrate briefly
how current career research has utilized each theory, and comment on the
opportunities for further research.

SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY

Bandura’s (2001) revised social cognitive theory builds on his vision of the individual
as an emergent interactive agent. In line with Weick’s (1996) ideas, individuals are
seen as “agentic operators” or proactive agents that are capable of intentionally
organizing their own lives, as well as shaping the character of the social systems
around them. Bandura (2001) explains that “through agentic action, people devise
ways of adapting flexibly to remarkably diverse geographic, climatic and social
environments; they figure out ways to circumvent physical and environmental
constraints, redesign and construct environments to their liking, create styles of
behavior that enable them to realize desired outcomes, and pass on the effective
ones to others by social modeling and other experiential modes of influence” (p.
22).
The theory takes account of the four basic properties of the subjective
career. Duality is reflected in the notions of personal agency and social structure.
Interdependence involves their interaction, in which “social structures are created
by human activity, and sociostructural practices, in turn, impose constrains and
provide enabling resources and opportunity structures for personal development
and functioning” (Bandura, 2001, p. 15). Time is accommodated in the theory’s
core features of human agency (Bandura, 2001, p. 6). These include the individual’s
capability to orient on the future, present and past through (a) forethought and
intentionality (creating courses of action likely to produce desired outcomes), (b)
self-reactiveness (giving shape to appropriate courses of action and their
execution) and (c) self-reflectiveness (self-examining one’s motivation, values and

36
life pursuits), correspondingly. Multiple dimensions involve outcomes from the
enactment of agency’s core features, and occur in the forms of self-development,
adaptation, and self-renewal.
Bandura draws on psychology in his conceptualization of individuals’ core
features of forethought, intentionality, self-reactiveness and self-reflectiveness,
which enable people to play a part in their self-development, adaptation, and self-
renewal. He draws on social psychology in his notion of self-efficacy - whereby
people believe in their capabilities to perform in ways that give them some control
over events that affect their lives and the lives of others. He relates to sociology in
his conceptualization of the ways in which people bring their influence to bear on
the social structure and the environment. These ways include the personal mode
(that involves direct influence), the proxy mode (that is carried out through others),
and – especially relevant to a sociological perspective - the collective mode (that is
exercised through socially coordinated and interdependent efforts) (Bandura,
2001).
Bandura’s revised social cognitive theory has been already claimed to be
one of the three most important approaches to work motivation in the last 30 years
(Latham and Pinder, 2005). However, most current career studies draw on a more
focused social-psychological adaptation of Bandura’s earlier theory by Lent, Brown
and Hackett (1994; see for example Fouad and Guillen, 2006; Gainor, 2006, and
Lent and Brown, 2006). Among the few exceptions are studies concerned with the
examination of self-efficacy and collective-efficacy beliefs as main determinants of
teachers’ job satisfaction (Caprara, Barbaranelli, Borgogni and Steca, 2003), and
with effects of perceived self-efficacy and personal goals on motivation and
performance attainments (Bandura and Locke, 2003). A contemporary perspective
on the subjective career calls for fresh application of Bandura’s (2001) latest
rendition of social cognitive theory.

“INTELLIGENT CAREER” THEORY

The “intelligent career” concept (Arthur, Claman and DeFillippi, 1995; DeFillippi
and Arthur, 1996) was developed with the emerging knowledge economy in mind.
The intelligent career was first proposed as a response to Quinn’s (1992) concept of
the “intelligent enterprise,” that is of the knowledge-driven organization. Just as
Quinn and subsequent authors saw the knowledge-driven organization
developing through its culture, know-how and networks, so does intelligent career
theory see individuals developing through three corresponding “ways of

37
knowing.” These are knowing-why (reflecting an individual’s motivation and
identity), knowing-how (reflecting an individual’s skills and expertise), and knowing-
whom (reflecting an individual’s relationships and networks) respectively. The
approach responds to Weick’s emphasis on the subjective career in the knowledge
economy by placing the subjective career, rather than any one organizational or
societal view of the objective career, in charge of the direction and purpose of
career development.
Intelligent career theory accommodates the previously described
properties of the subjective career. Duality links the objective requirements of the
job (the knowing-how skills needed) and the person’s subjective response to the
job (the knowing-why motivation to perform the job). Interdependence occurs
through the interaction among these ways of knowing as, for example, knowing-
why motivation influences a person’s choice of work, the knowing-how
experiences that come with the work, and the knowing-whom relationships that
grow through the work. It is also fundamental to the intelligent career approach
that interdependence among the three ways of knowing occurs over time. In
addition, knowing-why involves various dimensions of a person’s inner self - such
as the person’s temperament and values - just as knowing-how and knowing-
whom involve various dimensions of the skills and social relationships people
develop through their work (Parker et al., 2004).
Through the three ways of knowing and the interaction between them, the
intelligent career approach responds to all three behavioral science perspectives
previously addressed. From a psychological viewpoint, knowing-why investments
reflect the underlying self-concepts, aptitudes, values, etc. that people bring to
their work and careers. From a social psychological viewpoint, individual
knowing-why investments interact with both knowing-how and knowing-whom
investments, which cover the social role (the job) and social connections a person
takes on. From a sociological viewpoint, knowing-whom investments reflect the
influence of society on both the person (knowing-why) and his or her work
behavior (knowing-how), as well as contributing to the further evolution of that
society over time.
Since its introduction, the intelligent career model has been successfully
used, for example, to examine patterns of career adaptation within a changing
national context (Arthur, Inkson and Pringle, 1999; Cadin, Bender, and Saint-
Giniez, 2000) to explore gender- and family-related differences in career adaptation
(Valcour and Tolbert, 2003), to explore ways people can develop more effective
mentor networks, and to determine predictors of managerial success (Eddleston,

38
Baldridge and Veiga, 2004). One study has demonstrated a strong connection
between people’s investments in all three ways of knowing and subjective career
success (Eby, Butts and Lockwood, 2004). This work points to a range of new
research possibilities that link the subjective career to the emerging knowledge
economy.

THE THEORY OF GROWTH AND ADAPTATION

Boyatzis and Kolb’s (2000) theory of growth and adaptation is another example
that responds to the above ideas about the subjective career. It is concerned with
understanding the dynamics of lifelong career development in the contemporary
world through three unique modes of individual growth and adaptation. The
modes describe growth and adaptation in terms of quests: a) a quest for mastery in
the performance mode (how we perform in the work role); b) a quest for novelty in
the learning mode (what we learn from the work role); and c) a quest for meaning
in the development mode (how we develop as people through the accumulation of
work experiences). These modes integrate the authors’ earlier conceptualizations of
experiential learning as it is applied to lifelong adaptation (Kolb, 1984) and to
competency acquisition and development (Boyatzis, 1982).
Like the social cognitive and intelligent career theories, the theory of
growth and adaptation takes into account the four basic properties of the
subjective career. Duality involves people’s subjective adaptation to the objective
environment that provides them with work. Interdependence involves interaction
between a person’s subjective quest (for mastery, novelty or meaning) with the
objective circumstances of his or her employment. For example, a quest for mastery
will interact with the time and opportunity that circumstances make available for
the quest to be pursued. The notion of time is incorporated in the life span in which
the three modes of performance, learning and development are played out.
Multiple dimensions are reflected in, for example, the self-validation that is sought
under the performance mode, the self-improvement sought under the learning
mode, and the self-fulfillment sought under the development mode.
Each of the theory’s three modes may be associated with a particular
behavioral science emphasis. The development mode emphasizes a psychological
perspective focusing on a person’s fulfillment and personal quest for meaning. The
learning mode emphasizes a social-psychological perspective in focusing on a
person’s learning and the social setting in which learning occurs. Finally, the
performance mode brings a sociological perspective by focusing on the social roles

39
that people undertake, and on how those roles can influence the larger social
environment, such as for example when an influential manager leads his or her
company along a path of rapid innovation (Boyatzis and Kolb, 2000).
Empirical examination of the theory of growth and adaptation is yet to
come. At this time of writing, we have been able to track only one journal
publication by Mainemelis, Boyatzis and Kolb (2002) that reports on the empirical
examination of one integral element of their theory – experiential learning theory
(Kolb, 1984). However, as Boyatzis and Kolb (2000, p.90) make clear, there are
other elements and implications to consider (see Boyatzis and Kolb, 2000, p. 90 for
details). Among them are ideas for helping individuals grow and adapt
throughout their careers and life, and for addressing the potential conflicts
between an individual in each of the modes and the environment through which
he or she is pursuing a career.
For all three of the above examples, the interdisciplinary range of the
underlying theory appears encouraging, but the empirical evidence behind any
theory is still very limited. One problem may be that interdisciplinary research is
more difficult to design and conduct. However, it seems important that theory
drives research designs, rather than the other way around.
A further problem with interdisciplinary approaches may be a question of
how to more fully engage with the key challenges of our times. These include two
particular challenges associated with the knowledge economy, stemming from the
Internet and continuing globalization. We turn to these in the next section.

NEW RESEARCH CHALLENGES

The knowledge economy’s utilization of information technology (IT) is

transforming both economic systems and social processes. In particular, the
phenomena of a) the Internet and b) globalization offer fresh possibilities for
individuals as well as invite more attention of career researchers. We briefly
discuss these possibilities according to the overlapping psychological, social-
psychological and sociological perspectives previously discussed.

40
CAREERS AND THE INTERNET

From a psychological standpoint, the Internet offers a new medium for creating and
experiencing human identity. Users of the Internet have been described as
“dwellers on the threshold between the real and the virtual, unsure of our footing,
inventing ourselves as we go along” (Turkle, 1995, p. 10). Moreover, once people
have invented their online personae they can use them to become more aware of
how they project themselves, that is they can “use the virtual to reflect
constructively on the real” (Turkle, 2004, p. 22). For example, scientists have been
already observed to use the Internet to enhance their identities by defining new
research areas, and finding opportunities to make unique contributions (Lamb and
Davidson, 2005). There are also individuals, who use the Internet to “masquerade”
in to professionals (Harshman, Gilsinan, Fisher and Yeager, 2005).
The Internet also offers a wider marketplace for expertise. For example,
scientists can now develop and collaborate around more specialized areas of
knowledge (Lamb and Davidson, 2005, p. 1). Hackers can trade expertise by
collaborating over open source software (Castells, 2001). The generalized
opportunity is one of “becoming your own self-directed and self-empowered
researcher, editor, and selector of entertainment” (Friedman, 2005, p. 153) – that is,
of exercising your own subjective career. These changes in collaboration,
interaction and data collection challenge in turn traditional definitions of expertise
and professional identity (Lamb and Davidson, 2005).
From a social-psychological perspective, the Internet’s ability to connect
offers new possibilities for (a) information exchange and b) further collaboration
among participants. For example, one person’s online search for help from other
programmers led to the rapid growth of an online community to support and
develop the Linux operating system (Castells, 2001; DeFillippi and Arthur, 2002).
Such virtual communities, organized around common interests and values, take
advantage of new forms of virtual communication such as messaging, mailing lists,
chat rooms, etc. (Boczkowski, 1999), and increasingly of voice and video
communications.
The Internet also provides opportunities for giving and receiving more
traditional forms of career support. It fosters the proliferation of weak ties: persons
and groups with whom one does not have strong relationships around any of
work, kinship, or sociability, but which are useful for information exchange
(Wellman and Hampton, 1999). It provides for stronger ties among spatially

41
distant actors too (Wellman and Hampton, 1999), and for the provision of social
support in online communities organized around shared values and interests
(Castells, 2001). Support is also increasingly available through IT-based career
services, such as online counseling and career guidance (Harris-Bowlsbey and
Sampson, 2005).
From a sociological perspective the Internet offers new possibilities for
institutional initiatives. One such initiative is that of Professions Australia, an
umbrella web-based association of professional associations that seeks to promote
new communities of practice both within and across its separate member
associations (DeFillippi, Arthur and Lindsay, in press). In a similar vein, the U.S.
National Cancer Institute’s “consortia and networks” program seeks to accelerate
both performance improvements and learning outcomes in alternative cancer
treatments by means of virtual collaboration among specialists from different
locations (DeFillippi, Arthur and Lindsay, in press).
Another sociological phenomenon is emergence of new frameworks for the
integration of work. One such new framework is the open-source approach,
associated with the Linux operating system described above, which has been
suggested to represent a “new, post-capitalist model of production” (Friedman,
2005, p. 103). Another new framework involves institutionalization and
empowerment of social movements. The Internet is now seen as the “main way” in
which social movements “can reach out to those who would adhere to their values,
and from there to affect the consciousness of society as a whole” (Castells, 2001, p.
140).
In sum, the emergence of the Internet, and its associated proliferation of
information and communication technologies, offers fresh opportunities for the
subjective career. Moreover, these opportunities span all three behavioral science
perspectives reviewed earlier. The emergence of the Internet also points to the
greater significance of virtual space, and therefore of globalization, to which we
now turn.

CAREERS AND GLOBALIZATION

From a psychological perspective globalization is diminishing the significance of

national identity, while adding to the significance of professional identity (Arnett,
2002). The traditional skill-centered basis of professional identity does not follow
the old rules of immigration laws, wages, and working conditions (Castells, 2000),
and global workers are less frequently citizens of the U.S.A. and Western Europe

42
(Harris, Brewster & Sparrow, 2003). Instead, “anyone with the capacity to generate
exceptional value added in any market enjoys the chance to shop around the globe
– and to be shopped around, as well” (Castells, 2000, p. 130). New identities are
“based less on prescribed social roles and more on individual choices, on decisions
that each person makes about what values to embrace and what paths to pursue in
love and work” (Arnett, 2002, p. 781).
Globalization also stresses the development of new – global –
competencies to be able to collaborate and compete globally. They include (a)
developing of a “global mindset” in order to meet the challenges of globalization
(Rhinesmith, 1996); and (b) changing from a local to a global identity, or to a
successful combination of two (Kohonen, 2005). “Cosmopolitanism,” reflecting a
global rather than a local consciousness, is also an increasingly relevant concept
(Hannerz, 1996, p. 103). It involves both “a state of readiness” to make one’s way in
other cultures, and “a built-up skill” to behave more or less expertly within a
particular system of meaning (Kohonen, 2005).
From a social-psychological perspective, globalization stresses new
possibilities for global collaboration. Friedman (2005, p. 81) observes “people
around the world coming together online to collaborate in writing everything from
their own software to their own operating systems to their own dictionary to their
own recipe for cola.” One prominent group is the scientists mentioned earlier,
developing new ideas, reviewing one another’s work, and introducing their
colleagues to new research partners (Lamb and Davidson, 2005; Sargent and
Waters, 2004). The previously mentioned groups of Linux programmers and social
activists also communicate across geographically separate locations to develop
better software, or more powerful collective voices (Castells, 2003).
Businesses benefit from opportunities to bring on board people from
anywhere in the world at any time, and thereby to access the most knowledgeable
and competent workers. They also benefit from an opportunity to work on the
same product, service or project up to twenty-four hours a day using workers from
different time zones. Where the economy was once largely limited to local
collaboration in physical space, it is now open to, and largely driven by global
collaborations in virtual space (Qureshi, Liu and Vogel, 2006).
From a sociological standpoint, globalization reflects the emergence of fresh
institutional arrangements, involving outsourcing (of particular parts or services),
offshoring (of complete manufacturing or service delivery systems), or inter-
organizational alliances in research and development (Friedman, 2005). Although
there are fresh opportunities for large corporations, globalization also creates

43
possibilities for small companies to offer their products and services in a much
larger global marketplace (Friedman, 2005). Scientists, IT professionals and social
activists not only collaborate around the globe, they build new infrastructures to
help them to do so (DeFillipi, Arthur and Lindsay, 2006).
In sum, globalization is both a further consequence of the Internet and a
catalyst of new opportunities for the subjective career. Also, globalization involves
all three of the disciplinary perspectives covered earlier. However, while both the
Internet and globalization appear to be major influences over the unfolding of
people’s subjective careers, they have so far been lightly studied.

EXPANDING THE SUBJECTIVE CAREER AGENDA

Our story so far is that we need to make greater use of interdisciplinary theories in
future work on the subjective career, and that such work needs to take into account
the emergence of both the Internet and globalization. What are the prospects for
this kind of work? One place to begin is with the earlier examples of
interdisciplinary theory. How do these stand up to the new research challenges
described?
Bandura (2002) suggests that his social cognitive theory may be usefully
employed to study the subjective careers of global social activists. Specifically, he
suggests that his psychological concepts of forethought, intentionality, self-
reactiveness and self-reflectiveness can help to explain the meanings and values
that drive these activists. His social-psychological notion of self-efficacy can help to
explain individuals’ beliefs in their ability to influence the world and to reach
others who share the same values. It can also help to explain how individual self-
efficacy contributes to the collective efficacy of a social movement (Bandura, 2002).
Finally, the theory suggests how modes of influence (personal, proxy and
collective) may help to explain ways that social change across the globe can be
achieved.
Arthur, Claman and DeFillippi’s (1995) intelligent career theory can be
used to explore people’s psychological (knowing-why) motivations to join web-
based communities. Preliminary work has already examined how interactions
among knowing-why, knowing-how and knowing-whom investments contribute
to the social-psychological exchanges that take place inside these communities
(DeFillippi, Arthur and Parker, 2003). The effects of virtual knowing-whom
investments in particular, have been suggested to underlie the development of
new sociological forms of global cooperation and its related institutions

44
(DeFillippi, Arthur and Lindsay, 2006). However, much more research needs to be
done on the further implications of these kinds of subjective career investments in
the contemporary economy.
Boyatzis and Kolb’s (2000) theory of growth and adaptation may be
usefully employed to study the subjective career dynamics of participants in global
virtual communities. The theory’s developmental mode may help to explain
cognitions behind workers’ motivation for new international projects. The learning
mode may help explain the learning dynamics within such cross-cultural
collaborations. In turn, the performance mode may help to explain the assumption
of social roles within the virtual communities (which may be different from roles of
physically close cooperation), as well as to explain how these roles affect virtual
cooperation and its consequent outcome. However, major research on these kind of
relationships has yet to be undertaken.
In summary, the above three approaches, and prospectively other
interdisciplinary approaches to the subjective career, have further potential. They
can help us to more fully examine the subjective career as it engages with both the
Internet and globalization. That examination is urgent if our understanding of the
subjective career is to keep pace with the pace of change in the knowledge
economy. Much work still lies ahead.

CONCLUSION

The emergence of the knowledge economy suggests a range of new challenges for
career theory and research. A key challenge is to address the subjective career’s
increased importance, and the related appropriateness of existing theoretical
approaches to subjective career research. Our analysis of six major behavioral
science theories, across the disciplines of psychology, social psychology and
sociology, has shown that all of these remain relevant. However, their separate
uni-disciplinary orientation is of greater concern in a dynamic, knowledge-driven
world. Moreover, our review of the work of Weick and his colleagues confirms the
importance of an interdisciplinary perspective.
The second part of this chapter turned to examine alternative theoretical
approaches. Three illustrative approaches - revised social cognitive theory,
intelligent career theory, and the theory of growth and adaptation – all
demonstrate a capacity for interdisciplinary application. However, new ideas

45
about the subjective career also need to respond to new challenges brought about
by both the Internet and globalization. The three approaches examined have only
begun to be applied to these critical aspects of the knowledge economy. Further
research into the contemporary circumstances of the subjective career is vital for
our greater understanding, as well as for better supporting the people involved.

REFERENCES

Arnett, J. J. (2002). The psychology of globalization. American Psychologist, 57 (10):

774-783.
Arthur, M. B., Claman, P. H., & DeFillippi, R. J. (1995). Intelligent enterprise,
intelligent careers. Academy of Management Executive, 9 (4): 7-20.
Arthur, M. B., Khapova, S. N., & Wilderom, C. P. M. (2005). Career success in a
boundaryless career world. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26 (2): 177-
202.
Arthur, M. B., Hall, D. T., & Lawrence, B. S. (1989). Handbook of Career Theory. New
York: Cambridge University Press.
Arthur, M. B., Inkson, K., & Pringle, J. K. (1999). The New Careers: Individual Action
and Economic Change. London: Sage Publications.
Arthur, M. B., & Rousseau, D. M (1996). The Boundaryless Career. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Ashkenas, R. (1999). Creating the boundaryless organization. Business Horizons,
42(5): 5-10.
Ashkenas, R., Ulrich, D., Jick, T., & Kerr, S. (1995). The Boundaryless Organization:
Breaking the Chains of Organizational Structure. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Publishers.
Bailyn, L. (1993). Breaking the mold: Women, men and time in the new corporate world.
New York: Free Press.
Bailyn, L. (1984). Issues of work and family in organizations: Responding to social
diversity. In M. B. Arthur, Working with Careers, 75-98. New York: Center
for Research in Career Development, Graduate school of Business,
Columbia University.
Bandura, A. & Locke, E. A. (2003). Negative self-efficacy and goal effects revisited.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 88 (1): 87-99.

46
Bandura, A. (2002). Social cognitive theory in cultural context. Applied Psychology,
51(2): 269-290.
Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Annual Review
of Psychology, 52, 1-26.
Barley, S. R. (1989). Careers, identities, and institutions: The legacy of the Chicago
School of Sociology. In M. B. Arthur, D. T. Hall, & B. S. Lawrence (Eds.),
Handbook of Career Theory, 41-65. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Bateson, M. C. (1994). Peripheral Visions: Learning Along the Way. New York: Harper
Collins.
Block, F. (1990). Postindustrial Possibilities: A Critique of Economic Discourse. Berkeley:
University California Press.
Bell, D. (1973). The Coming of Post-Industrial Society. New York: Basic Books.
Boczkowski, P. J. (1999). Mutual shaping of users and technologies in a national
virtual community. Journal of Communication, 49 (2): 86-108.
Boyatzis, R. E. & Kolb, D. A. (2000). Performance, learning, and development as
modes of growth and adaptation throughout our lives and careers. In M.
A. Peiperl, M. B. Arthur, R. Goffee, & T. Morris (Eds.), Career Frontiers: New
Conceptions of Working Lives, 76-98. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Boyatzis, R. E. (1982). The Competent Manager: A Model for Effective
Performance. New York: John Wiley.
Cadin, L., Bender, A. F., & Saint-Giniez, V. (2000). Carrières nomads: Les
enseignements d’une comparison internationale. Paris, Viubert.
Burns, T., & Stalker, G. M. (1961). The Management of Innovation. London: Tavistock.
Caprara, G. V., Barbaranelli, C., Borgogni, L. & Steca, P. (2003). Efficacy beliefs as
determinants of teachers’ job satisfaction. Journal of Educational Psychology,
95 (4): 821-832.
Castells, M. (2001). The Internet Galaxy: Reflections on the Internet, Business, and
Society. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Castells, M. (2000). The Power of Identity. Oxford: Blackwell.
DeFillippi, R. J., Arthur, M. B. & Lindsay, V. J. (in press). Knowledge at Work:
Creative Collaboration in the Global Economy. Oxford: Blackwell.
DeFillippi, R. J. & Arthur, M. B. (2002) Career Creativity to Industry Influence: A
Blueprint for the Knowledge Economy? In M. A. Peiperl, M. B. Arthur and
N. Anand (Eds.) Career Creativity, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp 298-
313.

47
DeFillippi, R. J., & Arthur, M. B. (1996). Boundaryless contexts and careers: a
competency-based perspective. In M. B. Arthur & D. M. Rousseau (Eds.),
The Boundaryless Career, 116-132. New York: Oxford University Press.
Eddleston, K. A., Baldridge, D. C. & Veiga, J. F. (2004). Toward modeling the
predictors of managerial career success: does gender matter? Journal of
Managerial Psychology, 19 (4): 360-385.
Eby, L. T., Butts, M., & Lockwood, A. (2003). Predictors of success in the era of the
boundaryless career. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 24: 689-708.
Feldman, M. S. (2000). Organizational routines as a source of continues change.
Organization Science, 11 (6): 611-629.
Fouad, N. A. & Guillen, A. (2006). Outcome expectations: Looking to the past and
potential future. Journal of Career Assessment, 14 (1): 130-142.
Friedman, T. (2005). The World is Flat. London: Allen Lane.
Gainor, K. A. (2006). Twenty-five years of self-efficacy in career assessment and
practice. Journal of Career Assessment, 14 (1): 161-178.
Giddens, A. (2003). Runaway World. London: Routledge.
Giddens, A. (1984). The Constitution of Society. Berkley, CA: University of California
Press.
Haeckel, S. H. (1999). Adaptive Enterprise: Creating and Leading, Sense-and-Respond
Organizations. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Hall, D. T. (2002). Careers In and Out of Organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Hall, D. T. (1976). Careers in Organizations. Pacific Palisades, CA: Goodyear.
Hannerz, U. (1996). Transnational Connections. London and New York: Routledge
Harris, H., Sparrow, P. & Brewster, C. (2003). International Human Resource
Management. Wimbledon: CIPD.
Harris-Bowlsbey, J. & Sampson, J. P. (2005). Use of technology in delivering career
services worldwide. The Career Development Quarterly, 54 (1): 48-55.
Harshman, E. M., Gilsinan, J. F., Fisher, J. E., Yeager, F. C. (2005). Professional
ethics in a virtual world: The impact of the internet on traditional notions
of professionalism. Journal of Business Ethics,58 (1): 227-236.
Hedberg, B. L. T., Baumard, P., & Yakhlef, A. (2002). Managing Imaginary
Organizations: A New Perspective on Business. Amsterdam: Pergamon.
Hedberg, B. L. T., Nystrom, P. C., & Starbuck, W. H. (1976). Designing
organizations to match tomorrow. In P. C. Nystrom, & W. H. Starbuck
(Eds.), Prescriptive Models of Organizations, 171-181. Amsterdam: North-
Holland.

48
Hirschorn, L. (1984). Beyond Mechanization: Work and Technology in a Postindustrial
Age. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Hughes, E. C. (1937). Institutional office and the person. American Journal of
Sociology, 1: 404-413.
Judge, T. A., Cable, D. M., Boudreau, J. W., & Bretz, R. D. (1995). An empirical
investigation of the predictors of executive career success. Personnel
Psychology, 48: 485-519.
Kohonen, E. (2005). Developing global leaders through international assignments:
An identity construction perspective. Personnel Review, 34 (1): 22-36.
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and
Development. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Krumboltz, J. D. (1979). A social learning theory of career decision making. In A.
M. Mitchell, G. B. Jones & J. D. Krumboltz (Eds.), Social Learning and Career
Decision Making, 19-49. Cranston, R. I.: Carroll Press.
Lamb, R. & Davidson, E. (2005). Information and communication technology
challenges to scientific professional identity. Information Society, 21 (1): 1-
24.
Latham, G.P. & Pinder, C.C.(2005) Work motivation theory and research at the
dawn of the twenty-first century, Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 485–516.
Lawrence, P. R., & Lorsch, J. W. (1967). Organization and Environment: Managing
Differentiation and Integration. Boston: Harvard University.
Lent, R. W. & Brown, S. D. (2006). On conceptualizing and assessing social
cognitive constructs in career research: A measurement guide. Journal of
Career Assessment, 14 (1): 12-35.
Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D. & Hackett, G. (1994). Toward a unifying social cognitive
theory of career and academic interest, choice, and performance. Journal of
Vocational Behavior, 45, 79-122.
Mainemelis, C., Boyatzis, R. E. & Kolb, D. A. (2002). Learning styles and adaptive
flexibility: Testing experiential learning theory. Management Learning, 33(1):
5-33.
Mainiero, L. A., & Sullivan, S. E. (2005). Kaleidoscope careers: An alternative
explanation for the “opt-out” revolution. Academy of Management Executive,
19 (1): 106-123.
Malhotra, Y. (1996). Organizational learning and learning organizations: An
overview. URL http://www.kmbook.com/orglrng.htm.
Mitchell, L. K., & Krumboltz, J. D. (1990). Social learning approach to career
decision making: Krumboltz’s Theory. In D. Brown, L. Brooks and

49
 Associates (Eds.), Career Choice and Development, 145-196. San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Nystrom , P. C., Hedberg, B., & Starbuck, W. (1976). Interacting processes as
organizational designs. In I. R. H., Kilmann, L. R. Pondy & D. P. Slevin, The
Management of Organizational Design, New York: American Elsevier.
Parker, P., Arthur, M. B. & Inkson, K. (2004). Career communities: A preliminary
exploration of member-defined career support structures. Journal of
Organizational Behavior, 25 (4): 489-514.
Peiperl, M. A., Arthur, M. B. & Anand, N. (2002). Career Creativity: Explorations in
the Remaking of Work. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Peiperl M. & Baruch Y. (1997). Back to square zero: The post-corporate career,
Organization Dynamics, 25 (4): 7-22.
Powell, W.W., & Snellman, K. (2004). The knowledge economy. Annual Review of
Sociology, 30: 199-220.
Rapoport, R., Bailyn, L., Fletcher, J. K., & Pruitt, B. H. (2002). Beyond work-family
balance: Advancing gender equality and work performance, Leadership &
Organization Development Journal, 23: 293-299.
Rhinesmith, S. H. (1996). A Manager’s Guide to Globalization. Chicago: Irwin.
Quinn, J. B. (1992). Intelligent Enterprise. New York, NY: Free Press.
Qureshi, S., Liu, M. & Vogel, D. (2006). The effects of electronic collaboration in
distributed project management. Group Decision and Negotiation, 15 (1): 55-
75.
Sargent, L. D. & Waters, L. E. (2004). Careers and academic research collaborations:
An inductive process framework for understanding successful
collaborations. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 64: 308-319.
Super, D. E. (1990). A life-span, life-space approach to career development. In D.
Brown, L. Brooks and Associates (Eds.), Career Choice and Development, 197-
261. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Super, D. E. (1980). A life-span, life-space approach to career development. Journal
of Vocational Behavior, 16: 282-298.
Turkel, S. (2004). Whither psychoanalysis in computer culture? Psychoanalytic
Psychology, 21 (1): 16-30.
Turkel, S. (1995). Life on the Screen: Identity in the Age of the Internet. New York:
Touchstone.
Valcour, P. M. & Tolbert, P. S. (2003). Gender, family and career in the era of
boundarylessness: Determinants and effects of intra- and inter-

50
 organizational mobility. International Journal of Human Resource
Management, 14 (5): 768-787.
Washington, M. & Zajac, E. L. (2005). Status evolution and competition: Theory
and evidence. Academy of Management Journal, 48 (2): 282-296.
Weick K. E., Sutcliffe, K. M. & Obstfeld, D. (2005). Organizing and the process of
sensemaking. Organization Science, 16 (4): 409-421.
Weick, K. E. (1996). Enactment and the boundaryless career: organizing as we
work. In M. B. Arthur, & D. M. Rousseau (Eds.), The Boundaryless Career,
40-57. New York: Oxford University Press.
Weick, K. E. (1977). Organization design: Organizations as self-designing systems.
Organizational Dynamics, Autumn: 38-39.
Weick, K. E., & Berlinger, L. (1989). Career improvisation in self-designing
organizations. In M. B. Arthur, D. T. Hall, & B. S. Lawrence (Eds.),
Handbook of Career Theory, 313-328. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Wellman, B. & Hampton, K. N. (1999). Living networked on and off line.
Contemporary Sociology, 28 (6): 648-654.

51
ESSAY 2

CAREER SUCCESS IN A BOUNDARYLESS CAREER WORLD2

INTRODUCTION

In this paper we argue for rapprochement between career theory and career
success research. On the one hand, career theorists speak increasingly of
boundaryless careers, where career opportunities transcend any single employer
(Arthur and Rousseau, 1996), and of the personal meaning of career success (Hall,
2002). On the other hand, a number of researchers continue to focus on career
success in terms of a person’s organizational position, or of attained promotions
between positions. This contrast is sharpened by further reports that traditional
vehicles for organizational career success, namely hierarchies, have been flattening
(Littler et al., 2003), and that external labor markets have gained increasing
influence over today’s employment landscape (Cappelli, 1999).
There are several reasons why rapprochement is important. First, there are
grounds beware fragmentation of underlying theory. As this paper will show, one
body of research relies on an argument that objective career success affects
subjective career success (e.g., Poole et al., 1993). Another group of papers elevates
the role of subjective career success over objective career success (e.g., Aryee et al.,
1994). A third group of papers insists that the subjective and objective sides of

2
Appeared as:
Arthur, M. B., Khapova, S. N. & Wilderom, C. P. M. (2005). Career success in a
boundaryless career world. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26 (2): 177-202.

52
career success are interdependent (e.g., Seibert et al., 2001b). In each body of
research authors have often used cross-sectional designs and relied on what is
statistically measurable. This selective emphasis on different phenomena makes it
difficult to reconcile the results obtained, and leaves questions about how to
develop established career theory.
A second reason for rapprochement concerns the interpretation of career
success. Most studies of career success rely on key variables such as number of
promotions, salary increases, or scales of career satisfaction (e.g. Seibert et al.,
2001b; Turban and Dougherty, 1994). However, career theory suggests a broader
range of interpretations, based not only on success within any organization but
also on success within other, for example occupational or cultural, contexts. Career
success may also be assessed by peer groups either within or outside the
individual’s present organization, or may be idiosyncratic to the person, not only
in terms of personal preferences but also in terms of accommodating work and
family or other issues of life-work balance (Clark, 2001; Thompson et al., 1999).
A third reason for rapprochement is that the employment context in which
careers evolve is rapidly changing. Contemporary employment contexts call for
careers to be more “boundaryless” (Arthur and Rousseau, 1996), to reflect a “new
deal” that has the career actor more concerned with independent rather than
organizational goals (Cappelli, 1999), and to involve the kind of
“metacompetencies” that allow for easier mobility between successive employers
(Hall, 2002). There is evidence that people who exhibit boundaryless career
behavior report considerably higher levels of career success (e.g., Eby et al., 2003).
However, much career success research, including some recent research, neglects
boundaryless career theory. This calls into question the further utility of the results
obtained.
In this paper we examine the degree of divergence between contemporary
career theory and career success research. The argument is divided into three parts.
The first part reviews key attributes of career theory that are relevant to career
success. The second part looks at the extent to which these attributes have been
included in a sample of studies covering eleven years of published career success
research. The third part builds on the contrast between the first two parts, and
offers guidelines for rapprochement between career theory and career success
research. The guidelines cover a range of issues from the underlying theoretical
adequacy of research designs to the incorporation of new challenges associated
with a boundaryless career world.

53
THEORY UNDERLYING CAREER SUCCESS

Career success research draws on career theory, and therefore on the ideas –
underlying definitions, concepts, relationships and assumptions – included in
career theory. We note below six definitions and five attributes that are especially
relevant to career success research. The definitions cover the key terms career,
subjective career, objective career and related definitions of career success. The
first three attributes concern the duality of the subjective and objective sides of the
career, the interdependence between these two sides, and the theoretical adequacy
of the research model adopted. From a boundaryless career theory perspective we
propose two further attributes related to career success concerned with a) inter-
organizational mobility, and b) extra-organizational career support.

DEFINITIONS

An established definition of career is the unfolding sequence of a person’s work

experiences over time (Arthur, Hall and Lawrence, 1989). This definition insists on
the relevance of time, rather than adopting any static view of work arrangements.
It also avoids any constraining assumptions about where people work or what
represents career success. It accommodates a view of career success based on an
individual’s upward mobility within a single organization, but only as a special
case of broader possibilities. These can include upward, horizontal or in some
cases downward mobility within recognized organizational, occupational,
industrial or national contexts, or mobility between any of these contexts.
Careers can also be described in two fundamentally different ways. On the
one hand there are subjective careers, reflecting the individual’s own sense of his or
her career and what it is becoming (Stebbins, 1970). On the other hand there are
objective careers, reflecting the more or less publicly observable positions, situations
and status “that serve as landmarks for gauging a person’s movement through the
social milieu” (Barley, 1989, p. 49).
Career success is an outcome of a person’s career experiences. Career
success may be defined as the accomplishment of desirable work-related outcomes
at any point in a person’s work experiences over time. This accommodates the
definition of career provided above. It also accommodates two meanings of success
suggested by the Oxford English Dictionary (1989) namely “the attainment of an

54
object according to one’s desire,” and “the prosperous achievement of something
attempted.” The first meaning suggests a form of success that is personally (i.e.
subjectively) desirable, while the second suggests a form of success - prosperity -
that is likely to rely on (largely objective) social comparisons. These alternative
meanings suggest that, as with careers, there are two distinct ways of viewing
career success.
Subjective career success may be defined as the individual’s internal
apprehension and evaluation of his or her career, across any dimensions that are
important to that individual (Van Maanen, 1977, p. 9). People have different career
aspirations, and place different values on such factors as income, employment
security, the location of work, status, progression through different jobs, access to
learning, the importance of work versus personal and family time and so on. The
subjective careers of people in similar social and employment circumstances - such
as women, minorities, white males, doctors, secretaries, construction workers -
may overlap, but “it would be a mistake… to assume that all members in a
particular social category” would share the same subjective career orientations
(Bailyn, 1989, p. 482).
In contrast, objective career success may be defined as an external
perspective that delineates more or less tangible indicators of an individual’s
career situation. These may involve occupation, family situation, mobility, task
attributes, income and job level (Van Maanen, 1977, p. 9). The objective career is
publicly accessible, and concerned with social role and official position. Writers
who see career success from this perspective view it in structural terms (Wilensky,
1961) and emphasize people’s propensity to organize around status differences
(Nicholson, 1998). Objective career success reflects shared social understanding
rather than distinctive individual understanding.
The above definitions reflect mainstream ideas within contemporary career
theory. They provide a point of departure for the various attributes of career
theory that we discuss next.

SUBJECTIVE-OBJECTIVE CAREER DUALITY

Career theory not only suggests that there are subjective and objective views of
careers, but also proposes an inherent “two-sidedness” of the career concept
(Goffman, 1961). This two-sidedness stems from the observation that “there is
little reason to assume the [subjective and objective careers] coincide on any
dimension,” and that the degree of coincidence is a crucial issue for careers

55
research (Van Maanen, 1977, p. 9). For example, artists who perform “art for art’s
sake” (Caves, 2000, p. 4) are likely to define success more in terms of the subjective
gratification they receive from their work than in terms of objective rewards from
the sale of their work. In contrast, salespeople may be likely to define success more
in terms of the money they earn rather than in terms of the intrinsic rewards of the
work itself. More generally, career success may be expected to involve both
subjective and objective aspects (Melamed, 1995).
Subjective-objective career duality has been a traditional concern of those
who have studied the tradeoffs between work and family or work and leisure
activities. The depiction of “career success, personal failure” (Korman and
Korman, 1980) suggests a kind of career actor who pursues objective career success
at the cost of subjective ends, such as the gratification from time spent with friends
or family. Various approaches to the balance between work and family or work
and leisure activities grapple with a similar tradeoff between the objective career
expectations of employing organizations and the subjective career preferences of
the individual worker (Rapoport et al., 2002).
This is not to suggest that work only involves the objective career and non-
work only the subjective career. It is to note that observing career success through
either a purely objective lens or a purely subjective lens offers a limited picture.
The depth of the career success construct can be better seen from looking through
both lenses at the same time.

INTERDEPENDENCE BETWEEN THE SUBJECTIVE AND OBJECTIVE SIDES

Not only are there both subjective and objective sides to the career, but these two
sides are seen to be persistently interdependent. This reflects an important tenet
behind Everett Hughes’ (1958) tutelage of Chicago School scholars that the concept
of career could be broadly employed to explore the interdependence of individual
roles and identities, on the one hand, and institutional positions and expectations,
on the other hand. As Barley (1989) has emphasized, focusing on only one side of
any career violates “the integrity of Hughes’s original conception” that the two
sides were inseparable. Only through conceiving both sides could the researcher
grasp the social processes that lie behind careers, and behind career success. A
classical example involves the adaptation of inner-city schoolteachers to relatively
disadvantaged situations. Instead of seeing themselves as unsuccessful because of
the low-status schools in which they were employed, the teachers found subjective

56
career success by seeing their work as socially useful, and in turn found objective
career success through “positions of influence and prestige in the informal
colleague structure” (Becker, 1952, p. 474).
An interdependent perspective sees individuals “are not mere puppets
responding to the firm tug of social strings” (Van Maanen, 1977, p. 18). Rather,
they are continually interpreting and re-interpreting the work experiences and
career success they have had. Objective career experience as both a scientist and a
manager may generate a feeling of career success in one role but not the other.
This may lead the individual to seek further career success in the same role (for
example, as a scientist) but to forgo any further pursuit of career success in the
other role (to continue the example, as a manager). More generally, the career
success a person has experienced will influence further “enactment” of that career
in search of future success (Weick, 1966).
Finally, interdependence occurs over time. People experience objective
reality, create understandings about what constitutes career success, and then
individually act on those understandings, regardless of their predictive accuracy.
For example Lawrence (1984, 1996) reports on how organizational “age norms” –
shared understandings among peers about the usual ages at which people get
promoted to different job levels – unfold. The process whereby a person a) joins an
organization, b) socializes with peers, c) participates in developing a shared
understanding about age norms, d) internalizes that shared understanding in the
subjective career, and e) experiences the eventual objective career experience of
either receiving a promotion or not is largely a sequential one. Steps in this
sequence, or in the sequence of events through which Chicago schoolteachers come
to settle for what they have, or in the way people incrementally enact their careers
based on past experience, can only be observed over time.

THEORETICAL ADEQUACY

The duality and interdependence of subjective and objective career success

described above offer a substantial theoretical platform for further research.
However, as Bacharach (1989) notes, underlying theory must be both logically and
empirically adequate. Regarding logical adequacy, which concerns us here, the
previous discussion calls for (a) inclusion of both the objective and subjective sides
of career success and (b) specification of the nature of the relationship between
these two sides of career success.

57
 It is straightforward to observe whether any research endeavor includes
both the objective and subjective sides of career success, but it is more complicated
to assess the adequacy of the relationship between the two sides. A popular
approach in the literature has been to rely on cross-sectional designs, and within
them on the analysis of correlation (Bray and Howard, 1980; Judge and Bretz,
1994). However, this kind of analysis neglects the role of time, and the
interdependence between the subjective and objective careers expected to occur
over time. Correlation analysis can be useful for certain kinds of inquiry, but to
derive conclusions from cross-sectional research about relationships that unfold
over time is clearly risky. Even the most sophisticated statistical techniques
“cannot rectify for lack of theory, for poor logic or for inadequate research designs”
(Bozionelos, 2003).
Beyond the relationship between objective and subjective career success,
career theory also raises questions about other outcome variables. For example, in
one research project we witnessed “employment opportunities” were included as a
third dependent variable, distinct from both objective and subjective career
success. Yet, it is reasonable to expect that employment opportunities will
influence career outcomes, as will other contextual variables such as government
policy and a person’s social situation. It is also reasonable to expect that these
contextual variables will influence both the subjective career (if, for example,
employment opportunities exist in the eye of the career actor) and the objective
career (if, for example, actual employment opportunities exist in the outside
world). It is therefore difficult to envision employment opportunities, or any other
work-related variables, as independent of either subjective career success or
objective career success.

INTER-ORGANIZATIONAL MOBILITY

We turn now to two attributes of boundaryless career theory that have a particular
significance in the study of career success. The first one, inter-organizational
mobility, concerns the fundamental shift in the psychological contract at work.
This shift undermines any assumption that an organization will be able to provide
lifetime employment, and brings on a new deal where “both parties know that the
[employment] relationship is unlikely to last forever” (Cappelli, 1999, p. 3). Our
focus here is on the opportunity for inter-organizational mobility rather than explicit
changes of employer. This is consistent with views of boundaryless careers as
involving “opportunities that go beyond any single employer (DeFillippi and

58
Arthur, 1996, p. 116) and reflecting greater “independence from, rather than
dependence on, traditional organizational career arrangements” (Arthur and
Rousseau, 1996, p. 6). A person may take advantage of an opportunity to move
without physically moving, for example by leveraging highly marketable skills to
re-negotiate his or her contract with the current employer.
A related phenomenon is the reshaping of organizations into flatter, less
hierarchical structures better suited for adaptation to a changing world (e.g., Littler
et al., 2003), which may also turn people’s attention to other employment
opportunities. Accordingly, boundaryless career theory suggests that indicators of
objective career success may be emerging as less significant to career actors than
indicators of subjective career success. The latter may involve such things as
experienced increases in competence, affirmations from respected others and
opportunities for new learning (Weick, 1996). In these situations, the overall
significance of the subjective career is elevated (Arthur, Inkson and Pringle, 1999;
Hall, 2002). So, in turn, is the importance of alternative employment opportunities
that the subjective career is likely to consider.
The increasing unpredictability of employment and career futures is likely
to bring about an even more dynamic relationship between subjective and
objective career success. Greater fluctuation in objective career circumstances will
call for more frequent responses from the subjective career. These responses will
not necessarily result in inter-organizational mobility, but they are likely to lead to
more frequent consideration of opportunities that may involve such mobility.

EXTRA-ORGANIZATIONAL SUPPORT

People develop their careers and seek career success by orienting themselves to
certain relevant peer groups or work-related communities. These provide a natural
vehicle for individuals to identify with, and find shared meaning through,
overlapping work experiences (Van Maanen and Barley, 1984). Such groups
support people in their work roles, and help them make sense of what kind of
career success they have attained (Van Maanen, 1980). Moreover, this sense-
making need not refer to any advancement through formal positions. Through the
eyes of comparable or knowledgeable peers, individual careers may seen as
“careers of achievement” in terms of the skills and behavior, rather than seen as
“careers of advancement” in terms of a person’s hierarchical progression (Zabusky
and Barley, 1996).

59
 In the past, career support that contributes to career success has often been
assumed to stem primarily from co-workers, mentors and bosses within the same
organization (e.g., Ibarra, 1993). From a boundaryless career perspective this is
unsatisfactory, since it suggests people go unprepared for the career mobility they
are likely to experience. Some encouragement for the boundaryless career
perspective comes from the work on communities of practice - communities that
develop around overlapping work interests or activities. For instance, Brown and
Duguid (1991, p. 49) see those communities frequently “crossing the restrictive
boundaries of the organization to incorporate people from outside.” Also, Wenger
(1998, p. 6) suggests that “at home, at work, at school, in our hobbies - we belong to
several communities of practice at any given time.” Community-centered career
support can be variously found through shared occupational, industry, alumni,
family, ideological or project-related attachments (Arthur and Parker, 2002).
Recent work on mentoring relationships suggests those relationships can extend
beyond the protégé’s place of work, for example when the mentor is a member of
the same ethnic or social group (Thomas and Higgins, 1996) or a respected
professional in the protégé’s adopted field (Higgins and Kram, 2001).
Greater inter-organizational mobility and greater extra-organizational
support may both be seen as part of an overall “weakening” of employer
organizations’ influence over individual careers. It has been suggested that such
weakening is likely to continue in contemporary employment practice as rigid,
bureaucratic organizations give way to more flexible, adaptive forms (Weick,
1996). If so, we may expect a greater degree of interdependence of subjective and
objective career success over time, as career patterns become more unpredictable.
The lessons from our review of career theory may now be summarized.
Careers unfold over time, and career success has both subjective and objective
career components. The duality and interdependence of subjective career success
and objective career success make each relevant to the other, and likely to influence
the other over time. From a boundaryless career perspective, the increased
prospects for both inter-organizational mobility and extra-organizational career
support need to be accommodated within career research designs, and both
variables are likely to affect the relationship over time between objective and
subjective career success. These lessons provide a template against which to
consider the assumptions used within empirical career success research. We turn
to that research in the next section of this paper.

60
EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ON CAREER SUCCESS

How does existing research into career success measure up against the definitions
and theoretical attributes previously described? In order to pursue this question
we searched a range of established journals for articles concerned with career
success over the period 1992-2002. We also searched for additional terms related to
career success to provide a fuller picture of the research undertaken. The
additional terms were career outcomes (e.g., Campion et al., 1994), career
advancement (e.g., Burlew, 1992), career satisfaction (e.g., Nicholson, 1993) and
managerial advancement (e.g., Tharenou, 2001).
Our search led to a set of 80 research articles representative of published
work within a group of major, empirically-oriented social science journals. The
journals covered were Academy of Management Journal, Administrative Science
Quarterly, Career Development Quarterly, Human Relations, Journal of Applied
Psychology, Journal of Career Development, Journal of Management, Journal of
Management Studies, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology,
Journal of Organizational Behavior, Journal of Social Psychology, Journal of
Vocational Behavior, Organization Science, Organization Studies and Personnel
Psychology. A subset of 68 articles was selected as having direct relevance to our
task. The 12 articles left out of the original sample were either theoretical articles or
research articles concerned with various sub-dimensions of career outcomes (e.g.,
organizational attachment or work-family conflict), but not with career success
itself as an outcome. In the paragraphs below, we examine the theoretical
assumptions made by these articles, and how they compare with the career theory
we have already reviewed. Summary data from the articles are provided in Table
3.

61
 Table 3. Empirical Research on Career Success and Related Terms in Management and Other Social Science Journals1 (1992-
2002)

N Journa Author(s) (year) Criteria Objective Career Subjective Career Duality Duality Inter- Inter- Theore- Career Extra-
l Factors Factors Conceptua Opera- depen- depen- tical Mo- org.
lized tionaliz dence dence Ade- bility Support
ed Concep Operatio quacy Concept.
tualize nalized /Operati
d onal.
1. AMJ Martins et al. (2002) Career Financial outcomes, Career satisfaction, Yes Yes O->S O->S Yes No Yes/Yes
Outcomes; career advancement, advancement
Career autonomy, power satisfaction
Satisfaction
2. AMJ Tharenou (2001) Managerial Salary, position type, - Yes No S<->O†2 S<->O Yes No Yes/No
Advancement span of control,
managerial
promotions, years
supervising others,
less time without
promotion
3. AMJ Seibert et al. (2001) Career Success Promotions, salary Career satisfaction Yes Yes S<->O S<->O Yes Yes Yes/Yes
4. AMJ Judiesch & Lyness Career Success Hierarchical level, - No No No No Yes No No
(1999) salary, promotion, %
salary increase,
performance rating
5. AMJ Campion et al. Career Career progression Career management Yes Yes O->S O->S Yes No No
(1994) Outcomes outcomes: promotion outcomes,
rate & salary growth knowledge & skill
outcomes (both
perceptual)
6. AMJ Tharenou et al. Managerial Level in managerial - No No No No Yes No Yes/Yes
(1994) Advancement hierarchy, salary,
 number of
subordinates
7. AMJ Turban & Career Success Salary, promotions Perceived career Yes Yes S<->O S<->O Yes Yes No
Dougherty (1994) success
8. AMJ Schneer & Reitman Career Path Income, family Career satisfaction Yes Yes O->S O->S Yes No No
(1993) structure
9. ASQ O’Reilly III & Early Career Selection success, - Yes No S->O S->O Yes Yes No
Chatman (1994) Success number of job offers,
current salary, salary
increment, & number
of promotions
10. CDQ Harris et al. (2001) Career Congruence, tenure Job satisfaction, Yes Yes S<->O S<->O Yes No No
Outcomes social support
11. CDQ Burlew & Johnson Career - Barriers in career, No No O->S† O->S Yes No No
(1992) Advancement peers support,
opportunities for
personal growth
12. HR Konrad & Cannings Managerial Hierarchical level, - No No No No Yes No No
(1997) Advancement number of promotions
13. HR Friedman et Career - Employees’ No No No No Yes No No
al.(1998) Optimism perceptions of their
career progress
14. HR Tremblay et al. Career Plateau Number of years in the Perceived career Yes Yes O->S O->S Yes No No
(1995) current job plateau
15. HR Aryee et al. (1994) Subjective - Career satisfaction, Yes No O->S† O->S Yes No No
Career Success financial success,
hierarchical success
16. HR Nicholson (1993) Career Extrinsic career Intrinsic career Yes Yes O->S O->S Yes No No
Satisfaction satisfaction satisfaction, future
prospects satisfaction
17. JAP Cable & DeRue Career Pay raise Career satisfaction, No Yes S<->O S<->O Yes No No
(2002) Outcomes job satisfaction,
occupational
 commitment

18. JAP Jansen & Stoop Career Success Average salary growth - No No O->S† O->S Yes No No
(2001)
19. JAP Van Scotter et al. Career Rank, medals, - No No O->S† O->S Yes No No
(2000) Outcomes promotability ratings,
rewards
20. JAP Lyness & Career Success Level, base salary, - No No O->S† O->S Yes No No
Thompson (2000) bonus, stock options
21. JAP Ragins & Cotton Career Promotion rate, - No No S<->O† S<->O Yes No No
(1999) Outcomes compensation
22. JAP Seibert et al. (1999) Career Success Promotions, salary Career Satisfaction Yes Yes S->O S->O Yes Yes No

23. JAP Judge et al. (1999) Career Salary, job level, Organizational Yes Yes S<->O S<->O Yes No No
Outcomes plateauing, job commitment, job
performance satisfaction
24. JAP Lyness & Work outcomes Organizational stature, Satisfaction with No Yes O->S O->S Yes Yes No
Thompson (1997) compensation, career opportunities,
developmental satisfaction with
opportunities compensation
25. JAP Dreher & Cox Career Total annual - No No S<->O† S<->O Yes Yes No
(1996) Outcomes compensation
26. JAP Chao et al. (1994) Career Personal income Career involvement, No Yes O->S O->S Yes No No
Effectiveness identity resolution,
adaptability, job
satisfaction
27. JAP Stroh et al. (1992) Career Salary progression, - No No O->S† O->S Yes Yes No
Advancement promotion, geographic
mobility
28. JCD Murphy & Ensher Perceived Career - Perceived career No No No No Yes Yes No
(2001) Success success, job
satisfaction
29. JCD Blake-Beard (1999) Career Success Compensation, Compensation Yes Yes S<->O S<->O Yes Yes No
promotion rate satisfaction,
 satisfaction with
career progress

30. JCD Lee & Nolan (1998) Career Status, resources Emotion, self- Yes Yes S<->O S<->O Yes No No
Advancement concept
31. JM Kirchmeyer (1998) Career Success Income, level Perceived career Yes Yes S<->O S<->O Yes No Yes/Yes
success
32. JM Judge & Bretz Career Success Salary, job level, Job satisfaction, life Yes Yes S<->O S->O Yes No No
(1994) number of promotions satisfaction
33. JMS Aryee et al. (1996) Career Success Salary, number of Career satisfaction Yes Yes S<->O S<->O Yes Yes Yes/No
promotions
34. JOOP Melamed (1996) Career Success Managerial grade; - Yes No O->S† O->S Yes Yes No
Gross annual salary &
managerial level
35. JOOP Poole et al. (1993) Perceived Career Senior school Curiosity, school Yes Yes S<->O S<->O No No No
Success attainment, subjects interest,
college/university intrinsic
attainment, current occupational
professional status, interests, work
income satisfaction,
perceived
contributors to career
success
36. JOB Higgins & Thomas Career Organizational Work satisfaction, Yes Yes S<->O S<->O Yes Yes Yes/Yes
(2001) Outcomes retention, promotion intentions to remain
to partner
37. JOB Spell & Blum (2000) Career - Perceptual upward No No O->S† O->S Yes Yes No
Advancement mobility, perceptual
movement to
management
38. JOB Tharenou (1999) Managerial Managerial level, - No No No No Yes Yes No
Career salary, total
Advancement managerial
 promotions
39. JOB Wayne et al. (1999) Career Success Salary progression Career satisfaction, Yes Yes O->S O->S Yes No No
supervisor’s
subjective
assessment of the
employee’s
promotability
40. JOB Schneer & Reitman Career Path Current income, Career satisfaction, Yes Yes O->S O->S Yes No No
(1994) employment status, perceived
employment gaps discrimination and
perceived boss
appreciation
41. JOB Aryee & Debrah Career Planning - Career satisfaction, No No No No Yes Yes No
(1993) self-esteem at work,
career commitment
42. JSP Peluchette & Career Success Research productivity Work role, Yes Yes S<->O S<->O Yes No Yes/Yes
Jeanquart (2000) interpersonal,
financial,
hierarchical, life
success
43. JSP Orpen (1998) Career Success Salary growth, - No No S->O† S->O Yes No No
promotions
44. JSP Orpen (1995) Career Success Promotions, salary - No No S<->O† S<->O Yes No No
growth
45. JSP Chi-Ching (1992) Career Success Mobility in relation to Satisfaction with Yes Yes O->S O->S Yes No No
age, salary career development
46. JVB Johnson & Stokes Career Stability of Job involvement, No No S->O† S->O No Yes No
(2002) Outcomes occupational career commitment
classification
47. JVB Wiese et al. (2002) Subjective - Subjective success in Yes No O->S† O->S Yes Yes No
Career Success the work domain,
job-satisfaction.
48. JVB De Fruyt (2002) Intrinsic Career - Job satisfaction, skill No No O->S† O->S Yes No No
 Outcomes development, work
involvement,
perceived stress
49. JVB Wallace (2001) Career and Earnings Perceived Yes Yes S<->O S<->O Yes No No
Emotional promotional
Outcomes opportunities,
procedural justice,
sense of social
integration with
fellow coworkers,
career satisfaction,
intent to stay in the
profession, met
expectations, work-
nonwork conflict
50. JVB Seibert & Kraimer Career Success Promotions and salary Career satisfaction Yes Yes S->O S->O Yes Yes No
(2001)
51. JVB Boudreau et al. Career Success Remuneration, Job satisfaction, life Yes Yes S->O S->O Yes Yes No
(2001) ascendancy, CEO satisfaction, career
proximity, satisfaction
employability
52. JVB Brown et al. (2000) Career Decision- Objective measure of Career locus of Yes Yes S->O S->O Yes No No
making Self- ego-identity status, control
efficacy athletic identity
measurement
53. JVB Dreher & Chargois Career Outcome Total annual - Yes No S->O† S->O Yes No No
(1998) compensation
54. JVB Hurley & Managerial Manager’s career level - No No No No Yes No No
Sonnenfeld (1998) Career
Attainment
55. JVB Schneer & Reitman Career Success Income, management Career satisfaction Yes Yes O->S O->S Yes No No
(1997) level
56. JVB Chao (1997) Career Income Career planning & Yes Yes S<->O S<->O Yes No No
 Outcomes career involvement,
organizational
socialization
57. JVB Murrell et al. (1996) Career Salary, promotions Job satisfaction, Yes Yes O->S O->S Yes Yes No
Outcomes organizational
commitment
58. JVB Aryee & Luk (1996) Career Family circumstances, Career satisfaction Yes Yes O->S O->S Yes No No
Satisfaction employment
circumstances
59. JVB Melamed (1995) Career Success Relative salary, - Yes No S->O† O->S Yes Yes Yes/No
managerial level
60. JVB Schneer & Reitman Career Path Income, work hours, Career satisfaction Yes Yes S<->O S<->O No No No
(1995) management level
61. JVB Gianakos (1995) Perceived - Perceived No No S->O† S->O Yes No No
Importance of importance of job
Job Outcomes outcomes

62. JVB Peluchette (1993) Subjective - Work role, Yes No O->S† O->S Yes No Yes/Yes
Career Success interpersonal,
financial,
hierarchical and life
success
63. OSc Taylor et al. (1996) Past Career Number of - Yes No S<->O† S<->O Yes No No
Success organizational levels
between manager and
CEO
64. OSt Whitely & Coetsier Early Career Number of Career satisfaction, Yes Yes S<->O S<->O Yes Yes No
(1993) Outcomes promotions, general work
current total satisfaction
compensation
65. PP Boudreau et al. Career Compensation Job satisfaction Yes Yes S->O S->O Yes No No
(2001) Outcomes
66. PP Seibert et al. (2001) Career Success Career progression Career satisfaction Yes Yes S->O S->O Yes Yes No
 (self-reported)
67. PP Judge et al. (1999) Career Success Annual pretax income Job satisfaction Yes Yes S->O S->O Yes No No
(self-reported),
occupational status
(self-reported).
68. PP Judge et al. (1995) Career Success Compensation, Job satisfaction, Yes Yes O->S O->S Yes Yes No
number of promotions career satisfaction
DEFINITIONS

Most articles sampled use a definition of career success consistent with that
suggested in Section 1.1, that is of “desirable work-related outcomes” at a given
point in a person’s unfolding career. Fifty three articles (or 78%) refer to the
subjective career, for example as a construct that “exists only in people’s minds”
(Aryee et al., 1994, pg. 488), and of these 49 articles (72%) operationalize the
subjective career in their research. In contrast, 61 articles (90%) refer to the
objective career, reflecting success through what Barley (1989, pg. 48) has called
“advancement along a hierarchy of power or prestige,” and of these 58 articles
(85%) operationalize the objective career in their research.
Ten articles (15%) focus only on subjective career success, while 19 articles
(28%) focus only on objective career success. A few articles suggest overlapping
meanings of subjective career success and objective career success, for example
when people were asked to offer a subjective career assessment of whether they
were “on schedule” in their objective career progression (e.g., Kirchmeyer, 1998).

SUBJECTIVE-OBJECTIVE CAREER DUALITY

Consistent with the above, 39 of the 68 articles (57 %) include either an explicit or
implicit reference to the duality of the subjective and objective careers underlying
career success. For example, one definition of career success cited by several
authors is that of Judge, Cable, Boudreau and Bretz (1995) which refers to
“psychological and work-related outcomes”, and where the further elaboration of
these psychological and work-related outcomes closely parallels subjective versus
objective career distinctions.
The remaining 29 articles (43%) are principally concerned with one career
success criterion, such as managerial career attainment (Hurley and Sonnenfeld,
1998), advancement (Tharenou, 1994, 1999), perceived career success (Murphy and
Ensher, 2001) or subjective career success (Aryee et al., 1994). In doing so 13%
acknowledged the existence of the other side of career success. For instance, the
measurement of subjective career success by Aryee et al. (1994) includes measures
of subjectively reported financial and hierarchical (that is, of objective) career
success. Nevertheless, more than 35% of sampled articles did not address, and
more than 44% did not operationalize, both subjective and objective career success.

70
INTERDEPENDENCE

Turning to the interdependence between the two sides of the career, 25 articles
(37%) consider a one-way influence of objective career success onto subjective
career success. This is exemplified by articles suggesting career success is affected
by income and job level (e.g., Schneer and Reitman, 1997) or by experienced
autonomy and power (e.g., Martins et al., 2002). The assumption here is that
individuals interpret their success on the basis of their objective accomplishments
(Judge, Cable, Boudreau and Bretz, 1995). In contrast, 13 articles (or 19%) consider
the influence of subjective variables onto objective career success. These articles are
mainly psychologically-grounded studies, where the authors hypothesize
relationships between personality (e.g., Boudreau et al., 2001), behaviors (e.g.,
Johnson and Stokes, 2002) or attitudes (e.g., Orpen, 1998) and objective career
success.
Twenty-two articles (32%) acknowledge the two-way interdependence
between subjective and objective career success, and nearly all of them engage with
this interdependence in their empirical work. However, 16 of the 22 articles are on
the relationship between mentoring or social support and objective career success,
which may be interpreted as a special case of interdependence between subjective
and objective career success. The argument goes that the mentor or supporter
offers the protégé a new insight into the objective career, for example about the
importance of making oneself visible to key decision-makers. In turn, the mentor’s
or supporter’s insight is absorbed by the protégé into his or her subjective career
(e.g., Higgins and Thomas, 2001).
Only six of the above 22 articles (9% overall) explore two-way
interdependence in a theoretically more explicit way, such as in exploring
employee turnover as a subjective career response to the objective career reality of
the length of time employed on the same job (Taylor et al., 1996). The remaining
eight articles (12%) neither conceptualize nor operationalize any interdependence
between the two sides of career success. These articles conceive of career success
solely in terms of objective managerial advancement (e.g., Hurley and Sonnenfeld,
1998) or in terms of subjective career perception (e.g., Friedman et al., 1998). Thus,
they overlook both the presence of another side to career success and the
interdependence between the two sides, despite the contrary assertions of career
theory.

71
THEORETICAL ADEQUACY

As noted above, 57% of all research articles we analyzed address both subjective
and objective career success. However, more than half these articles focus only on
a one-way relationship (56%) rather than a two-way relationship (44%). In turn, 12
of the 22 articles that examine a two-way relationship involve cross-sectional
designs. The preponderance of cross-sectional designs suggests a risk of relying
too heavily on the concept of correlation, and in the process losing sight of more
subtle, longitudinal effects. To recall an earlier example, these effects may involve
a) accepting a job offer in an inner-city Chicago school, b) finding subjective career
satisfaction in helping city children, c) becoming more involved with the school
systems that serve those children, d) gaining objective career recognition by those
systems, and e) having that recognition further influence a feeling of subjective
career success. To observe these kind of interdependencies seems vital to a fuller
understanding of career success.
Only 10 of 22 articles make any attempt to examine how subjective career
success can influence objective career success, or vice-versa, over time. Six
examine effects of mentoring relationships on career outcomes (e.g., Ragins and
Cotton, 1999), three examine the impact of personal criteria on career success (e.g.,
Cable and DeRue, 2002), and one examines the effect of lengthening job tenure on
managers’ organizational commitment and turnover (Taylor et al., 1996). The
larger picture of subjective and objective career interdependence over time needs
to be built from diverse studies, where any one study can only be expected to focus
on one particular aspect of this interdependence. However, there are evident gaps
in the research coverage, for example about the influence of direct work experience
or personal networks on subsequent career success.
We found only two other articles (3%) not covered by the above discussion
where theoretical adequacy was an issue. An article by Johnson and Stokes (2002)
operationalizes both subjective and objective career outcomes, but offers no
hypothesized relationship between the two. An article by Poole et al. (1993)
explores “subjective criteria” for career success through variables such as curiosity
and interests in particular school subjects (that is, the authors explore personal
characteristics that may predict success, rather than examining any subjective
career outcome).

72
INTER-ORGANIZATIONAL MOBILITY

As discussed in the section 1.5, inter-organizational mobility concerns not only

actual career movement between employers, but also the opportunities for such
movement. Out of 68 articles reviewed, only 18 examine in any way the links
between inter-organizational mobility and career success. Six articles explicitly
operationalize inter-organizational mobility (e.g., Stroh et al., 1992), four articles
operationalize the idea of self-responsible career management (e.g., Murphy and
Ensher, 2001), and eight articles operationalize promotions in a way that
accommodates past inter-organizational mobility (e.g., Seibert et al., 2001). Six
further articles make reference to changing employment practices but do not
examine any effects of those practices (e.g., Johnson and Stokes, 2002).
We made the further point in Section 1.5 that the greater significance of
inter-organizational mobility elevated the importance of subjective career success
and predicted a more dynamic relationship between subjective career success and
objective career success. However, the evidence presented in Sections 2.3 and 2.4
indicates that this relationship has been lightly studied. The overall evidence is
that a basic attribute of boundaryless career theory, that is to envision inter-
organizational mobility in some way, has frequently been neglected in career
success research.

EXTRA-ORGANIZATIONAL SUPPORT

Fifty-eight (85%) of the total of 68 articles reviewed make no reference to the

relevance of career support that stems from outside the employing organization.
Among these, 11 (16% of all articles) examine career success within a single
organization. Of the remaining articles, 21 (31%) focus on a general sample of
managers or workers, and 26 (38%) examine the career success of MBAs. There is a
long history of MBA alumni, in particular, networking with and finding support
from others having the same alma mater. It therefore seems likely that some of
these subjects would have found a degree of career support through their fellow
alumni. Yet the research did not examine the existence of any such support.
The remaining 10 articles (15%) make some reference to extra-
organizational support. However, only seven of them (10 %) explicitly study this
increasingly relevant phenomenon. Among these seven articles, two focus on
implications and influences of extra-organizational sources of mentorship on
career success (Peluchette and Jeanquart, 2000; Peluchette, 1993). One article

73
studies community ties as a moderator of the relationship between work-family
conflict and career success (Martins et al., 2002). Another three articles examine the
effects of both intra- and extra-organizational developmental relationships and/or
social support on career success (e.g., Seibert et al., 2001). The remaining article
(Tharenou et al., 1994) studies career encouragement, from colleagues and senior
staff members both within and outside the subjects’ organizations, as an influence
on objective career success. Like inter-organizational mobility, extra-
organizational career support has not yet been widely studied.
Let us summarize the evidence from this eleven-year review of career
success research. Fifty-seven percent of the articles summarized in Table 1
acknowledge the duality of objective and subjective career success. However, only
one-third of the set of articles indicate any two-way interdependence between
subjective and objective career success. Most of these articles do not study
interdependence over time in any direct way. Turning to more recent
boundaryless career theory, few articles conceptualize, and even fewer
operationalize, the likely influence of either inter-organizational mobility or extra-
organizational support on career success, although the more recent articles in our
sample are more likely to do so. Examination of both of these attributes appears
crucial if we are to better understand how career success unfolds in a dynamic and
uncertain world.

GUIDELINES FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

The preceding evidence attests that career theory and career success research are
considerably out of step with one another. How can they be reunited? What
rapprochement between theory and research can be attained, and with what
advantages? In this section we offer a series of guidelines intended to satisfy both
theoretical and empirical positions, thereby encouraging more progress across
future studies. Our guidelines cover the adequacy of future research designs,
missing dimensions of career success, the broadening of assumptions about
relevant peer groups, examining career-relevant ability, recognizing the
developing, subjectively-driven person, and expanding the career success agenda.

74
ADEQUACY OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

A straightforward response to the above evidence is to assure the theoretical or

“logical” adequacy (Bacharach, 1989) of future research designs into career success.
That is, researchers can take care that their new designs incorporate relevant
definitions of both objective and subjective career success, and better acknowledge
the two-way, time-dependent interaction between the two sides of career success.
Researchers can also arrange that boundaryless career theory’s concerns about
inter-organizational mobility and extra-organizational support are accommodated
in the work that gets done. Paying attention to these contributions from career
theory can, we submit, sharpen the career success research models, questions and
methodologies that are applied in future empirical studies.
There are two further forms of adequacy that complement logical
adequacy (Bacharach, 1989): empirical and predictive accuracy. Empirical
adequacy is concerned with whether a theory is subject to falsification, predictive
adequacy is concerned with whether a theory can be used to anticipate future
outcomes. There is no space here to dig deeper into these additional forms of
adequacy. However, one interpretation of the evidence from the career success
literature sampled is that concern about empirical and predictive adequacy may
frequently have led to compromises in underlying theoretical adequacy. Greater
consideration of the links among these forms of adequacy at the outset, and in
particular greater consideration of underlying theory, can be helpful in future
research.

MISSING DIMENSIONS?

Various social-psychological approaches suggest the possibility of multiple

dimensions of the subjective career, and in turn of subjective career success.
Career actors frequently describe managing different aspects of their careers, such
as maintaining a satisfactory income, finding time for their families, and pursuing
new learning in a way that suggests they are thinking in terms of multiple
dimensions of career success (Arthur, Inkson and Pringle, 1999). Research into
“career anchors” suggests that people often align themselves with one of eight
primary career anchors – concerned, for example, with security, autonomy, or
lifestyle – and also selectively fulfill “several of the needs that underlie different
anchors” (Schein, 1996). Recent evidence suggests there are various co-existing but
interdependent dimensions of the subjective career (Parker and Arthur, 2002; Eby

75
et al., 2003). However, the career satisfaction scales of Greenhaus et al. (1990)
(which has been used in 14 career success studies in our sample) and DeVanna
(1984) (used in the studies of Schneer and Reitman, 1994, 1995) are one-
dimensional scales. This one-dimensional view is supported by reports of high
“alpha” values for the correlations among the items included in each scale.
We wonder why this situation prevails? Did the developers of the scales
drop further items that did not correlate with the ones they retained? Did they
conform to an established orthodoxy for developing uni-dimensional scales? Were
aspects of subjective career success only important to some subjects neglected in
the search for aspects that were more broadly applicable? Do sharp, and some
would say divisive, distinctions across the social and behavioral sciences affect our
ability to envision a greater range of career success dimensions (e.g., Greller and
Simpson, 1999)? Whatever the cause of this situation, it demands closer
examination. Subjective careers and subjective career success seem too important
to be prematurely constrained to any one-dimensional interpretation.

BROADENING PEER GROUP ASSUMPTIONS

With some of the research instruments used, there was a clear constraint in the
peer groups relevant to career success that were considered. That is, respondents
were invited to “Describe your satisfaction with your career development to date
with the company” (Nicholson, 1993) or asked “Compared to your co-workers how
successful is your career?” (Turban and Dougherty, 1994). These questions clearly
guide the respondent to answer in terms only of organizational peers. However,
other instruments were more open-ended. The Greenhaus et al. (1990) five item
scale carries no such restrictive language, but on the other hand does not include
any item about peer comparison. Kirchmeyer’s (1998) modification of Turban and
Dougherty’s scale refers to “peers” rather than “co-workers,” thereby providing an
opportunity for respondents to compare themselves against peers in other
employment settings if they wish.
Even if career success scales themselves are independent of the
employment setting, there remains a question about the process of data collection.
In some cases, this was done with the sponsorship of a particular organization. As
a result, the researcher or a company spokesperson could have offered covering
remarks encouraging respondents to think about their career circumstances inside,
rather than outside, the organization where the study took place. Or, questions
about careers could have been included immediately after questions about, for

76
example, organizational climate, again encouraging respondents to limit their
responses to their immediate organizational setting.
Our earlier discussion on extra-organizational support suggests that
relevant career success comparison groups may often lie outside the boundaries of
the research participant’s present employer. A challenge for future research is
therefore to encourage that these groups are included in, rather than excluded
from, the respondent’s frame of reference.

EXAMINING ABILITY

A number of articles in our sample refer to career success only in terms of

advancement. One set examines advancement in purely objective career terms,
concerned with the attainment of rank (e.g., Tharenou, 2001) or of salary (e.g.,
Dreher and Chargois, 1998). Another set of articles refers to the person’s subjective
career success through the interpretation of his or her objective progression, for
example in Kirchmeyer’s (1998) and Turban and Dougherty’s (1994) examination
of whether individuals reported they were “on schedule” in their career
advancement. These studies relate to three underlying ideas in the careers
literature. One is the contrast Rosenbaum (1984, 1989) draws between “attained
status” and “ability status,” where the former refers to the position a person has
already gained, the latter to a person’s potential for gaining future positions.
Another idea is Lawrence’s (1984, 1990) distinction between whether people felt
they were “on time” or “off time” in their career progress compared to relevant
others. A third idea is that of peer-group defined “careers of achievement”
(Zabusky and Barley, 1996) discussed earlier, and concerned with peer-assessed
occupational expertise rather than formal position.
If career success is to be measured relative to one’s peer group, and if it is
accepted that this peer group will commonly go beyond the employing
organization, then the above three ideas converge. The challenge is to measure
ability (Rosenbaum, 1984, 1989), or the similar notion of occupational achievement
(Zabusky and Barley, 1996) by reference to the career actor’s peer group, and
without regard for employment status or boundaries. This may be done from both
objective career and subjective career perspectives. The former involves gathering
outside assessments about the individual’s ability, for example as Boudreau et al.
(2001) did in gathering such assessments from external search firms. The latter
involves gathering an individual’s own assessment, which may be related, for

77
example, to a group of graduates from the same academic program (e.g., Eby et al.,
2003).

THE DEVELOPING, SUBJECTIVELY-DRIVEN PERSON

Earlier, we argued that in an unpredictable world responsibility for both career

development and the interpretation of career success rests with the individual.
This in turn heightens the significance of the subjective career. It is the individual
who interprets and acts upon career stimuli. It is individuals’ perceptions of how
they [and their career progress] are viewed that “have the strongest impact on
individuals’ self-concepts” which in turn influence future career behavior (Tice and
Wallace, 2003). This suggests that the criteria for subjective career success ought to
be the person’s own, and - to reconnect with the quotation used earlier - “it would
be a mistake” to make any other assumption (Bailyn, 1989, p. 482). (It would also
be a mistake to place false trust in subjective career data on its own. As one of our
colleagues has pointed out, people with the least skills may be the most prone to
exaggerate them!)
However, not one of the 68 articles we examined involved listening
directly to the research subjects, or even allowing them to elaborate on their own
criteria for career success. While the purpose and design of any one paper may be
worthy, the overall body of empirical work on career success seems to be clearly
lacking in such qualitative input. How can subjective careers be adequately
researched when the subjective interpretations of the career actors themselves –
apart from their non-verbal responses to a limited set of questionnaire items – are
not allowed expression? The answer lies in more qualitative research into the
subjective criteria that people bring to their own career situations.

EXPANDING THE BOUNDARYLESS CAREER AGENDA

We have argued that career success research can do more to accommodate

boundaryless careers as well as organizational careers. Recent work, published
after the period from which our sample of journal articles was drawn, offers some
interesting progress. Of particular note is an article by Eby et al. (2003) focusing on
predictors of career success in the era of the boundaryless career. The authors
report powerful evidence that people’s investments in “boundaryless” (that is,
employer-independent) career competencies lead to greater self-reported career
success across a large, diverse sample of university alumni. Related evidence

78
comes from Nabi’s (2003) observations of the effects of “career enhancing
strategies” on career success. An interesting contrast about objective versus
subjective career success comes from a study of women with children, who are
reported to experience more inter-organizational mobility and lower objective
career success, but who still report high subjective career success (Valcour and
Tolbert, 2003). A further contrast relates to social background, and the
opportunities or constraints that background brings to boundaryless career
experiences (Pang, 2003).
A new line of research addresses ethical dilemmas associated with career
success. One issue concerns the “ethical lapses” of high-level managers engaging in
legally-questionable practices, and of the aspirations for career success that lay
behind those practices (Callanan, 2003). Another issue concerns people whose
organizational careers have been adversely affected by senior management
practices, and whose further career success may be seen as an ethical responsibility
of the organization involved, or society at large, or both (Van Buren III, 2003).
These issues point to a convergence between the broad arena of boundaryless
career research and the more particular arena of career success research. For
example, how much do a company’s seniority privileges or pension vesting
arrangements discourage volitional career mobility? Or, seen from the other side,
how much do hiring company practices favor internal rather than external job
candidates? Or, putting both sides together, how much does the rhetoric of a free
society cloud a lack of support for the self-directed career actor? As we see career
success through a wider boundaryless career lens, these and further questions
invite our attention.
In summary, we suggest new guidelines for career success research
covering the adequacy of research designs, the exploration of further dimensions
of career success, the broadening of peer-group comparisons, focusing on
individual ability rather than position, paying attention to the developing
subjectively-driven person, and seeing new connections between boundaryless
career theory and career success research.

CONCLUSION

This paper began by describing a series of underlying ideas in contemporary career

theory, and proceeded to examine the extent to which that theory was applied in a

79
broad sample of empirical career success research. Career success research makes
inconsistent use of contemporary career theory, particularly regarding the
interdependence of subjective and objective career success and how this
interdependence unfolds over time. Boundaryless career attributes of inter-
organizational career mobility and extra-organizational career support have often
been neglected.
The last part of this paper proposes guidelines for rapprochement between
career theory and career success research. This rapprochement can enhance our
understanding of contemporary careers, and in turn enhance future employment
practice. From a subjective career perspective, this seems worth doing. From an
objective career perspective, it seems too important to neglect. Career success is an
important topic for researchers, working people and host societies alike. Greater
understanding of the topic can stem from greater understanding between the
theorists and researchers concerned with it.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are deeply indebted to Denise Rousseau, Barbara Lawrence, Martin Evans,

Hugh Gunz, Peter Heslin and two anonymous reviewers for their helpful feedback
on earlier versions of this article.

NOTES

1 Key to journals
AMJ Academy of Management Journal
ASQ Administrative Science Quarterly
CDQ Career Development Quarterly
HR Human Relations
JAP Journal of Applied Psychology
JCD Journal of Career Development
JM Journal of Management
JMS Journal of Management Studies
JOOP Journal of Occupational and Organizational

80
 Psychology
JOB Journal of Organizational Behavior
JSP Journal of Social Psychology
JVB Journal of Vocational Behavior
OSc Organization Science
OSt Organization Studies
PP Personnel Psychology

2 Items
marked † are those cited in sections 2.3 and 3.5 of the paper, where the
underlying research approach can be interpreted as implying a relationship
between the subjective and objective careers.

REFERENCES

Arthur, M. B., Hall, D. T. & Lawrence, B. S. (1989). Handbook of Career Theory. New
York: Cambridge University Press.
Arthur, M. B., Inkson, K. & Pringle, J. K. (1999). The New Careers: Individual Action
and Economic Change. London: Sage Publications.
Arthur, M. B. & Parker, P (2002) Technology, community and the practice of HRM.
Human Resource Planning, 25, 4, 38-47.
Arthur, M. B. & Rousseau, D. M (1996). The Boundaryless Career. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Aryee, S., Chay, Y. W. & Tan, H. H. (1994). An examination of the antecedents of
subjective career success among a managerial sample in Singapore. Human
Relations, 47, 487-509.
Aryee, S. & Debrah, Y. A. (1993). A cross-cultural application of a career planning-
model. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 14, 119-127.
Aryee, S. & Luk, V. (1996). Work and nonwork influences on the career satisfaction
of dual-earner couples. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 49, 38-52.
Aryee, S., Wyatt, T. & Stone, R. (1996). Early career outcomes of graduate
employees: the effect of mentoring and ingratiation. Journal of Management
Studies, 33, 95-118.
Bacharach, S. (1989). Organizational theories: some criteria for evaluation. Academy
of Management Review, 14 (4), 496-515.

81
Bailyn, L. (1989). Understanding individual experience at work: comments on the
theory and practice of careers. In M. B. Arthur, D. T. Hall, & B. S. Lawrence
(Eds.), Handbook of Career Theory, 477-489. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Barley, S. R. (1989). Careers, identities, and institutions: the legacy of the Chicago
School of Sociology. In M. B. Arthur, D. T. Hall, & B. S. Lawrence (Eds.),
Handbook of Career Theory, 41-65. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Becker, H. S. (1952). The career of the Chicago schoolteacher. American Journal of
Sociology, 57, 470-477.
Blake-Beard S. D. (1999). The costs of living as an outsider within: an analysis of
the mentoring relationships and career success of black and white women
in the corporate sector. Journal of Career Development, 26, 21-36.
Bray, D. W. & Howard, A (1980). Career success and life satisfaction of middle-
aged mangers. In L. A Bond. & J. C. Rosen (Eds.), Competence and Coping
During Adulthood, 258-287. Hanover, NH: University Press of New
England.
Brown, J. S. & Duguid, P. (1991). Organizational learning and communities of
practice: toward a unified view of working, learning and innovation.
Organization Science, 2, 1: 40-56.
Boudreau, J. W., Boswell, W. R. & Judge, T. A. (2001). Effects of personality on
executive career success in the United States and Europe. Journal of
Vocational Behavior, 58, 53-81.
Boudreau, J. W., Boswell, W. R., Judge, T. A. & Bretz, R. D. (2001). Personality and
cognitive ability as predictors of job search among employed managers.
Personnel Psychology, 54, 25-50.
Bozionelos, N. (2003). Causal path modeling: what it does and what it does not tell
us. Career Development International, 8, 5-11.
Brown C., Glastetter-Fender, C. & Shelton, M. (2000). Psychosocial identity and
career control in college student-athletes. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 56,
53-62.
Burlew, A. K. & Johnson, J. L. (1992). Role-conflict and career advancement among
African-American women in nontraditional professions. Career
Development Quarterly, 40, 302-312.
Cappelli, P. (1999). The New Deal at Work: Managing the Market-Driven Workforce.
Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.

82
Cable, D. M. & DeRue, D. S. (2002). The convergent and discriminant validity of
subjective fit perceptions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 5, 875-884.
Callanan, G. A. (2003). What price career success? Career Development International,
8, 3, 126-133.
Campion, M. A., Cheraskin, L. & Stevens, M. J. (1994). Career-related antecedents
and outcomes of job rotation. Academy of Management Journal, 37, 1518-
1542.
Caves, R. E. (2000) Creative Industries. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Clark, S. C. (2001). Work cultures and work/family balance. Journal of Vocational
Behavior, 58, 348-365.
Chao, G. T. (1997). Mentoring phases and outcomes. Journal of Vocational Behavior,
51, 15-28.
Chao, G. T., O’Leary-Kelly, A. M., Wolf, S., Klein, H. J. & Gardner, P.D. (1994).
Organizational socialization: its content and consequences. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 79, 5, 730-743.
Chi-Ching, E. Y. (1992). Perceptions of external barriers and the career success of
female managers in Singapore. The Journal of Social Psychology, 132, 5: 661-
674.
DeFillippi, R. J. & Arthur, M. B. (1996). Boundaryless contexts and careers: a
competency-based perspective. In M. B. Arthur & D. M. Rousseau (Eds.),
The Boundaryless Career, 116-132. New York: Oxford University Press.
De Fruyt, F. (2002). A person-centered approach to P-E fit questions using a
multiple-trait model. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 60, 73-90.
DeVanna, M. A. (1984). Male/Female Careers – The First Decade: a Study of MBAs,
New York: Columbia University Graduate School of Business.
Dreher, G. F. & Chargois, J. A. (1998). Gender, mentoring experiences, and salary
attainment among graduates of an historically black university. Journal of
Vocational Behavior, 53, 401-416.
Dreher, G. F. & Cox, Jr., T. H. (1996). Race, gender, and opportunity: a study of
compensation attainment and the establishment of mentoring
relationships. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 3, 297-308.
Dreher, G.F. & Dougherty, T. W. (1997). Substitutes for career mentoring:
promoting equal opportunity through career management and assessment
systems. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 51, 110-124.
Eby, L. T., Butts, M. & Lockwood, A. (2003). Predictors of success in the era of the
boundaryless career. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 24, 689-708.

83
Friedman, R., Kane, M. & Cornfield, D. B. (1998). Social support and career
optimism: Examining the effectiveness of network groups among black
managers. Human Relations, 51, 1155-1177.
Goffman, E. (1961). The moral career of the mental patient. In Asylums: 125-170.
New York: Anchor.
Gianakos, I. (1995). The relation of sex-role identity to career decision-making self-
efficacy. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 46, 131-143.
Greenhause, J. H., Parasuraman, S. & Wormley, W. M. (1990). Effects of race on
organizational experiences, job-performance evaluations, and career
outcomes. Academy of Management Journal, 33, 1, 64-86.
Greller, M. M. & Simpson, P. (1999). In search of late career: review of
contemporary social science research applicable to the understanding of
late career. Human Resource Management Review, 9, 3, 309-347.
Hall, D. T. (2002). Careers In and Out of Organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Harris, J. I., Moritzen, S. K., Robitschek, C. Imhoff, A. & Lynch, J. L. A. (2001). The
comparative contributions of congruence and social support in career
outcomes. Career Development Quarterly, 49, 314-323.
Higgins, M. C. & Kram, K. E. (2001). Reconceptualizing mentoring at work: a
developmental network perspective. Academy of Management Review, 26,
264-288.
Higgins, M. C. & Thomas, D. A. (2001). Constellations and careers: toward
understanding the effects of multiple developmental relationships. Journal
of Organizational Behavior, 22, 223-247.
Hughes, E. C. (1958). Men and Their Work. Glencoe, IL: Free Press
Hurley, A. E. & Sonnenfeld, J. A. (1998). The effect of organizational experience on
managerial career attainment in an internal labor market. Journal of
Vocational Behavior, 52, 172-190.
Ibarra, H. (1993). Network centrality, power and innovation involvement:
determinants of technical and administrative roles. Academy of Management
Journal, 36, 471-501.
Jansen, P. G. W. & Stoop, B. A. M. (2001). The dynamics of assessment center
validity: results of a 7-year study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 4: 741-
753.
Johnson, C. D. & Stokes, G. S. (2002). The meaning, development, and career
outcomes of breadth of vocational interests. Journal of Vocational Behavior,
61, 327-347.

84
Judge, T. A. & Bretz, R. D. (1994). Political influence behavior and career success.
Journal of Management, 20, 43-65.
Judge, T. A., Cable, D. M., Boudreau, J. W. & Bretz, R. D. (1995). An empirical
investigation of the predictors of executive career success. Personnel
Psychology, 48, 485-519.
Judge, T. A., Higgins, C. A., Thoresen, C. J. & Barrick, M. R. (1999). The big five
personality traits, general mental ability, and career success across the life
span. Personnel Psychology, 53, 621-651.
Judge, T. A., Thoresen, C.J., Pucik, V. & Welbourne, T.M. (1999). Managerial coping
with organizational change: a dispositional perspective. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 84, 1, 107-122.
Judiesch, M. K. & Lyness, K. S. (1999). Left behind? The impact of leaves of absence
on managers’ career success. Academy of Management Journal, 42, 641-651.
Kirchmeyer, C. (1998). Determinants of managerial career success: evidence and
explanation of male/female differences. Journal of Management, 24, 673-692.
Konrad, A. M. & Cannings, K. (1997). The effects of gender role congruence and
statistical discrimination on managerial advancement. Human Relations, 50,
10, 1305-1328.
Korman, A. K. & Korman, R. W. (1980) Career Success/Personal Failure. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Lawrence, B. S. (1984). Age grading: the implicit organizational timetable. Journal
of Organizational Behavior, 5, 23-35.
Lawrence, B. S. (1990). At the crossroads: a multiple-level explanation of individual
attainment. Organization Science, 1, 1, 65-85.
Lawrence, B.S. (1996). Organizational age norms: why is it so hard to know one
when you see one? The Gerotontologist, 36, 209-220.
Lee, J. H. & Nolan, R. E. (1998). The relationship between mentoring and the career
advancement of women administrators in cooperative extension. Journal of
Career Development, 25, 3-13.
Littler, C. R., Wiesner, R. & Dunford, R. (2003) The dynamics of delayering:
changing management structures in three countries. Journal of Management
Studies, 40, 2, 225-256.
Lyness, K. S. & Thompson, D. E. (1997). Above the glass ceiling? A comparison of
matched samples of female and male executives. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 82, 3, 359-375.

85
Lyness, K. S. & Thompson, D. E. (2000). Climbing the corporate ladder: Do female
and male executives follow the same route? Journal of Applied Psychology,
85, 1, 86-101.
Martins, L. L., Eddleston, K. A. & Veiga, J. F. (2002). Moderators of the relationship
between work-family conflict and career satisfaction. Academy of
Management Journal, 45, 2, 399-409.
Melamed, T. (1995). Career success: the moderating effect of gender. Journal of
Vocational Behavior, 47, 35-60.
Melamed, T. (1996). Career success: an assessment of a gender-specific model.
Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 69, 217-242.
Murphy, S. E. & Ensher, E. A. (2001). The role of mentoring support and self-
management strategies on reported career outcomes. Journal of Career
Development, 27, 229-246.
Murrell, A. J., Frieze, I. H. & Olson, J. E. (1996). Mobility strategies and career
outcomes: a longitudinal study of MBAs. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 49,
324-335.
Nabi, G. R. (2003). Situational characteristics and subjective career success: the
mediating role of career-enhancing strategies. International Journal of
Manpower, 24, 6, 651-671.
Nicholson, N. (1993). Purgatory or place of safety? The managerial plateau and
organizational agegrading. Human Relations, 46, 1369-1389.
Nicholson, N. (1998). Seven deadly syndromes of management and organization:
the view from evlutionary psychology. Managerial and Decision Economics,
19, 7, 8, 411-426.
O’Reilly III, C. A. & Chatman J. A. (1994). Working smarter and harder: a
longitudinal study of managerial success. Administrative Science Quarterly,
39, 603-627.
Orpen, C. (1995). The effects of mentoring on employees’ career success. The Journal
of Social Psychology, 135, 5, 667-668.
Orpen, C. (1998). The effects of performance measurability on the relationship
between careerist attitudes and career success. The Journal of Social
Psychology, 138, 1, 128-130.
Oxford English Dictionary (1989). Prepared by J. A. Simpson and E. S. C. Weiner.
Oxford: Clarendon Press. Vol. XVII: 93.

86
Pang, M. (2003). Boundaryless careers? The (in-)voluntary (re-)actions of some
Chinese in Hong Kong and Britain. International Journal of Human Resource
Management, 14, 5, 809-820.
Parker, P. & Arthur, M. B. (2002) Bringing "new science" into careers research,
M@n@gement, 5, 1, 105-125.
Peluchette, J. V. E. (1993). Subjective career success: the influence of individual
difference, family, and organizational variables. Journal of Vocational
Behavior, 43: 198-208.
Peluchette, J. V. E. (2000). Professionals’ use of different mentor sources at various
career stages: Implications for career success. The Journal of Social
Psychology, 140, 5, 549-564.
Peluchette, J. V. E. & Jeanquart, S. (2000). Professionals’ use of different mentor
sources at various career stages: implications for career success. The Journal
of Social Psychology, 140, 5, 549-564.
Poole, M. E., Langan-Fox, J. & Omodei, M. (1993). Contrasting subjective and
objective criteria as determinants of perceived career success: a
longitudinal study. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 66,
39-54.
Ragins, B. R. & Cotton, J. L. (1999). Mentor functions and outcomes: a comparison
of men and women in formal and informal mentoring relationships.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 4, 529-550.
Rapoport, R., Bailyn, L., Fletcher, J. K. & Pruitt, B. H. (2002). Beyond work-family
balance: advancing gender equality and work performance, Leadership &
Organization Development Journal, 23, 293-299.
Rosenbaum, J. E. (1986). Institutional career structures and the social construction
of ability. In J. G. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of Theory and Research for the
Sociology of Education, 139-172. New York: Greenwood.
Rosenbaum, J. E. (1989). Organization career systems and employee
misperceptions. In M. B. Arthur, D. T. Hall, & B. S. Lawrence (Eds.),
Handbook of Career Theory, 329-354. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Schein, E. H. (1996). Career anchors revisited: implications for career development
in the 21st century. Academy of Management Executive, 10, 4, 80-88.
Schneer, J. A. & Reitman, F. (1993). Effects of alternative family structures on
managerial career paths. Academy of Management Journal, 36, 830-843.
Schneer, J. A. & Reitman, F. (1994). The importance of gender in mid-career: a
longitudinal-study of MBAs. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 15, 199-207.

87
Schneer, J. A. & Reitman, F. (1995). The impact of gender as managerial careers
unfold. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 47, 290-315.
Schneer, J. A. & Reitman, F. (1997). The interrupted managerial career path: a
longitudinal study of MBAs. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 51, 411-434.
Seibert, S. E., Crant, J. M. & Kraimer, M. L. (1999). Proactive personality and career
success. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 3, 416-427.
Seibert, S. E. & Kraimer, M. L. (2001). The five-factor model of personality and
career success. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 58, 1-21.
Seibert, S. E., Kraimer, M. L. & Crant, J. M. (2001a). What do proactive people do?
A longitudinal model linking proactive personality and career success.
Personnel Psychology, 54, 845-873.
Seibert, S. E., Kraimer, M. L. & Liden, R. C. (2001b). A social capital theory of career
success. Academy of Management Journal, 44, 219-237.
Spell, C. S. & Blum, T. C. (2000). Getting ahead: Organizational practices that set
boundaries around mobility patterns. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21,
299-314.
Stebbins, R. A. (1970). Career: The subjective approach. Sociological Quarterly, 11,
32-49.
Stroh, L. K., Brett, J. M. & Reilly, A. H. (1992). All the right stuff: A comparison of
female and male managers’ career progression. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 77, 3, 251-260.
Taylor, M. S., Audia, G. & Gupta, A. K. (1996). The effect of lengthening job tenure
on managers’ organizational commitment and turnover. Organization
Science, 7, 632-648.
Tharenou, P. (1999). Is there a link between family structures and women’s and
men’s managerial career advancement? Journal of Organizational Behavior,
20, 837-863.
Tharenou, P. (2001). Going up? Do traits and informal social processes predict
advancing in management? Academy of Management Journal, 44, 1005-1017.
Tharenou, P., Latimer, S. & Conroy, D. (1994). How do you make it to the top?
Academy of Management Journal, 37, 899-931.
Thomas, D. & Higgins, M. (1996). Mentoring and the boundaryless career: lessons
from the minority experience. In M. B. Arthur & D. M. Rousseau (Eds.),
The Boundaryless Career, 268-282. New York: Oxford University Press.
Thompson, C. A., Beauvais, L. L. & Lyness, K. S. (1999). When work-family
benefits are not enough: the influence of work-family culture on benefit

88
 utilization, organizational attachment, and work family conflict. Journal of
Vocational Behavior, 54, 392-415.
Tice, D. M. & Wallace, H. M. (2003). The reflected self: creating yourself as (you
think) others see you. In M. R. Leary and J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of
Self and Identity, 91-106. New York: The Guilford Press.
Tremblay, M., Roger, A. & Toulouse, J. M. (1995). Career plateau and work
attitudes: an empirical-study of managers. Human Relations, 48, 221-237.
Turban D. B. & Dougherty T. W. (1994). Role of protégé personality in receipt of
mentoring and career success. Academy of Management Journal, 37, 688-702.
Valcour, P. M. & Tolbert, P. S. (2003). Gender, family and career in the era of
boundarylessness: Determinants and effects of intra- and inter-
organizational mobility. International Journal of Human Resource
Management, 14 , 5, 768-787.
Van Buren III, H. J. (2003). Boundaryless careers and employment obligations.
Business Ethics Quarterly, 13, 2, 131-150.
Van Manen, J. (1977). Experiencing organization: notes on the meaning of careers
and socialization. In J. Van Maanen (Eds.), Organizational Careers: Some New
Perspectives: New York: Wiley.
Van Maanen, J. (1980). Career games. In C. B. Derr (Eds.), Work, Family, and the
Career. New York: Prager.
Van Maanen, J. & Barley, S. R. (1984). Occupational communities: culture and
control in organizations. In B. Staw and L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in
Organizational Behavior, 287-365. Greenwich, CT: JAI.
Van Scotter, J. R., Motowidlo, S.J. & Cross, T. C. (2000). Effects of task performance
and contextual performance on systemic rewards. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 85, 4, 526-535.
Wallace, J. E. (2001). The benefits of mentoring for female lawyers. Journal of
Vocational Behavior, 58, 366-391.
Wayne S. J., Liden R. C., Kraimer, M. L. & Graf, I. K. (1999). The role of human
capital, motivation and supervisor sponsorship in predicting career
success. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 577-595.
Weick, K. E. (1996). Enactment and the boundaryless career: organizing as we
work. In M. B. Arthur & D. M. Rousseau (Eds.), The Boundaryless Career, 40-
57. New York: Oxford University Press.
Wenger, E. (1998) Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning and Identity.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

89
Whitely, W. T. & Coetsier, P. (1993). The relationship of career mentoring to early
career outcomes. Organization Studies, 14, 419-441.
Wiese, B. S., Freund, A. M. & Baltes, P. B. (2002). Subjective career success and
emotional well-being: longitudinal predictive power of selection,
optimization, and compensation. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 60, 321-335.
Wilensky, H. L. (1961). Orderly careers and social participation: The impact of
work history on social integration in the middle mass. American Sociological
Review, 26, 521-539.
Zabusky, S. E. & Barley, S. R. (1996). Redefining success. In P. Osterman, Broken
Ladders: Managerial Careers in the New Economy. New York: Oxford
University Press.

90
ESSAY 3

PROFESSIONAL IDENTITY AS THE KEY TO IT

PROFESSIONALS’ BOUNDARYLESS CAREER INTENTIONS 3

INTRODUCTION

The edited book The Boundaryless Career (Arthur and Rousseau, 1996) introduced a
range of new approaches to the conception and study of career behavior in the
knowledge economy. Several contributors argued that increasing globalization,
competition, and rapidly changing technologies require individuals to adopt new
career behaviors. Individuals were called, for example, to think independently of
their employers (e.g., Miles and Snow, 1996); take the responsibility for their own
careers (Weick, 1996); develop transferable skills (DeFillippi and Arthur, 1996); and
build their own social structures to support their increasingly flexible careers
(Thomas and Higgins, 1996). In sum, individuals were called to perceive their
careers as boundaryless (that is independent from any single employer), and to be
open to changes in both life and work.
However, recent career studies have noted that people are still looking for
secure and stable employment (e.g., Handel, 2005). Even IT professionals, who in
Arthur and Rousseau’s (1996) book were variously cited as well-suited to a
boundaryless career (e.g., Saxenian, 1996), have been reported to seek more secure
job positions (Hsu, Jiang, Klein and Tang, 2003). InformationWeek’s eighth annual

3
Corresponding reference:
Khapova, S. N., Arthur, M. B., Wilderom, C. P. M. & Svensson, J. S. Professional
identity as the key to IT professionals’ boundaryless career intentions. Journal
article under review.

91
U.S. IT salary survey showed that job stability was becoming an important, to
many the most important, aspect of employment (Smith, 2005). The perception that
there were fewer jobs available in IT (Smith, 2004) made IT professionals stay on
the job longer than they did years ago. In 2000, IT managers in the US had, on
average, spent three years at their companies. By 2005, that average had doubled to
six years. Over the same five year period, US IT staffers tenure grew from an
average of three years to an average of five years (see Smith, 2005 for more details).
A recent study of IT professionals’ perceptions of employer’s obligations also
suggested that IT professionals expected long-term job-security (King and Bu,
2005).
Unfortunately, the contemporary economy can offer little employment
stability. The popularity of temporary employment (e.g., Engellandt and Riphahn,
2005), project-based arrangements (Marsden, 2004), and persistence of
organizational restructuring (Balogun and Johnson, 2004), emphasize the
temporality of peoples’ employment in organizations. Recent research shows that
not everyone is experiencing frequent employment changes and temporary
employment adequately. For example, less privileged workers, women and
manual male workers experience temporary employment negatively (Artazcoz,
Benach, Borrell and Cortes, 2005; Virtanen, Kivimaki, Joensuu, Virtanen, Elovainio
and Vahtera, 2005). To help individuals and career practitioners/counselors to deal
with the current economic requirements, more research that focuses on
understanding cognitions behind the boundaryless career behavior is needed.
In this study we examine some of the cognitions behind career intentions
of contemporary professionals. We use Ajzen’s (1991) theory of planned behavior
to hypothesize cognitions around boundaryless career intentions. We use a sample
of 225 professionals from the IT sector to test our hypotheses. The IT sector
provides a prominent example of changing employment circumstances over the
recent years. Before the year 2000, IT had been the fastest growing economic sector.
However, the demand for IT services fell after the successful conversion of systems
for the year 2000 (Weber, 2004). An economic recession in March of 2001 and the
events of September 11, 2001 have contributed to employment uncertainty in the
field (Der Derian, 2003). The sector has also witnessed the transfer of IT jobs from
Western European countries and the USA to Asian countries on an unprecedented
scale (Engardio, Bernstein and Kripalani, 2003; Weber, 2004).
We hypothesize that three beliefs - career self-efficacy, perceived social
pressure and career attitude – will predict IT professional’s boundaryless career
intention. We also hypothesize that IT professional’s professional identity will

92
moderate the relationships between professionals’ beliefs and their boundaryless
career intention. Our findings help to understand the key cognitions behind career
intentions of IT professionals as well as to extend conceptualization of the
boundaryless career concept.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

RESEARCH MODEL

According to Arthur and Rousseau (1996) boundaryless careers can be described as

the sequences of job opportunities that go beyond the boundaries of single
employment settings. The authors suggest that for individuals, to pursue a
boundaryless career can involve any one or more of the following attributes:
1. moving across the boundaries of separate employers;
2. drawing validation and marketability from outside the present employer;
3. being sustained by external networks or information;
4. breaking traditional organizational assumptions about hierarchy and
career advancement;
5. rejecting existing career opportunities for personal or family reasons; and
6. interpreting their own careers, and perceiving a boundaryless future
regardless of structural constrains.
A common factor across the above is a willingness to interpret and act on
one’s own career situation, rather than rely on organizational or institutional
assumptions about career progression. People pursuing boundaryless careers seek
not to rely on any one job or sequence of jobs. They are open for new combinations
of work experiences and jobs, even if they may not change their current jobs after
all. Following Ajzen’s (1991) suggestion that human actions can be predicted by
behavioral intention, we focus on examining cognitions behind people’s
boundaryless career intention, that is their intention to pursue a boundaryless career
as suggested by the above mentioned attributes.
The underlying motivation behind IT professional’s boundaryless career
intention may vary. Some may seek a change from a technical to a managerial
position (Mael, Waldman and Mulqueen, 2001; Reich and Kaarst-Brown, 1999),
others a change of specialization (Mignonac and Herrbach, 2003). There are also IT
professionals who may be looking for new responsibilities or personal fulfillment
(Smith, 2004), as well as for a higher salary, intellectual challenge, creativity, or a

93
sense of contribution and pride in their accomplishments (Pawlowski et al., 2005).
Seeking out the constant learning needed to keep up with and master relevant new
skills (Reich and Kaarst-Brown, 1999) is another driver of IT professionals’
boundaryless career intentions. Those in less fortunate situations may have seen
the transfer of their position offshore (Weber, 2004) or the liquidation of an
employer that failed to succeed in a highly competitive IT environment (Saxenian,
1996; Reich and Kaarst-Brown, 1999). Others may be suffering from work overload
and exhaustion (Moore, 2000).
Consistent with Ajzen’s (1991) theory, we propose that boundaryless
career intentions will be influenced by three career-specific phenomena: career self-
efficacy, career attitude and perceived social pressure, as shown in Figure 1. We
also propose that IT professionals’ sense of professional identity will moderate
relationships between the three beliefs and IT professionals’ boundaryless career
intentions. As explained further, in an ideal world all of these factors affirm the
existence of career opportunities beyond the present employer and therefore raise
boundaryless career intentions.

Professional Identity

Career Self-Efficacy

Perceived Social Boundaryless Career

Pressure Intention

Intelligent Career
Attitude

Figure 1. Moderated Relationships of Three Kinds of Beliefs and Boundaryless

Career Intention

94
BOUNDARYLESS CAREER INTENTION

Boundaryless career intention is the dependent variable in our study. We

conceptualize boundaryless career intention as an inclination or an interest of IT
professionals to pursue a boundaryless career: a motivation to change, to seek
better job and career opportunities involving new positions, organizations,
industries and professions. According to Ajzen (2005), the intention is assumed to
capture the motivational factors that influence a behavior; it is an indication of the
actual interest to pursue a boundaryless career. The predictive validity of
behavioral intentions has been already substantiated by various studies (Bandura,
1997). When appropriately measured, behavioral intentions account for an
appreciable proportion of variance in actual behavior (correlation of .53 as reported
in Ajzen (2005)). Given a sufficient degree of actual control over their behavior,
individuals are expected to carry out their intentions when the opportunity arises
(Ajzen, 2005), making boundaryless career intention a reliable variable in
predicting the actual boundaryless career behavior.

PREDICTORS OF BOUNDARYLESS CAREER INTENTION

As indicated above, we hypothesize that boundaryless career intention will be

predicted by three career specific constructs: career self-efficacy, career attitude
and perceived social pressure. We now turn to explaining how each of these beliefs
relates to boundaryless career intention.

Career Self-Efficacy
Career self-efficacy is an umbrella term for self-efficacy beliefs with respect to
possible career-related domains of behavior that could be postulated (Betz and
Hackett, 2006). It refers to “people’s judgments of their capabilities to organize and
execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances”
(Bandura, 1986, p. 391). A recent review of the progress on career related self-
efficacy theory and research shows that researchers often confuse self-efficacy with
a trait concept (Betz and Hackett, 2006). It is therefore emphasized that self-efficacy
is a cognitive appraisal or judgment of future performance capabilities, and must
be measured against some type of behavior (Bandura, 2005; Lent, 2005). Literature
suggests that self-efficacy beliefs may stem from a number of sources (Lent and
Brown, 2006). Among career relevant sources may be (a) personal performance

95
accomplishments, (b) vicarious learning, (c) social persuasion, and (d)
physiological and affective states (Bandura, 1997). Ajzen’s (1991) theory of planned
behavior suggests that self-efficacy beliefs along with perceived social pressure
and the attitude toward the behavior predicts behavioral intention. Self-efficacy is
also suggested to predict behavior directly. For boundaryless career intentions of
IT professionals this would mean, that those with strong beliefs in their capability
to find a new job or career opportunity will be more likely to exhibit stronger
interest in or intentions toward a boundaryless career.

Hypothesis 1. IT professionals’ career self-efficacy will be positively related to their

boundaryless career intention.

Perceived Social Pressure

Perceived behavioral expectations of important referent individuals or groups such
as the person’s family, friends, teachers, and co-workers will also contribute to
one’s interest or intention of boundaryless career behavior. According to Ajzen
(1988) such expectations are accommodated in one’s perception of the “social
pressure to perform or not to perform the behavior under consideration” (p. 117).
Combined with the person’s motivation to comply with different referents,
perceived social pressure determines the viewpoint regarding the behavior (Ajzen,
2002). Therefore, the more individuals are under social pressure to pursue
boundaryless careers, the more likely they will be interested in or have stronger
intentions toward such a career.

Hypothesis 2. IT professionals’ perceived social pressure to pursue a boundaryless

career will be positively related to their boundaryless career intention.

“Intelligent Career” Attitude

We further suggest that professionals’ career attitudes will contribute to the
prediction of IT professionals’ boundaryless career intentions. The most relevant
career attitude toward boundaryless career behavior is the one described in the
recent literature as the “intelligent career” (Arthur, Claman and DeFillippi, 1995).
The “intelligent career” attitude involves people’s motivation to be in charge of
their own development and career (Maurer et al., 2003), the accumulation of
employment-flexible know-how (DeFillippi and Arthur, 1996), and the
development of extra-organizational networks (Higgins and Kram, 2001). People
with a career attitude reflecting these characteristics may be more likely to seek a

96
boundaryless career than those who prefer a single organization, with the
organization’s specific learning opportunities and intra-organizational contacts.

Hypothesis 3. IT professionals’ “intelligent career” attitudes will be positively

related to their boundaryless career intentions.

Moreover, we anticipate that the three beliefs will positively influence one another.
In the context of boundaryless careers, an intelligent career attitude will influence
the degree of perceived social pressure; social pressure will influence career self-
efficacy; and career self-efficacy will influence intelligent career attitude. This is in
line with Ajzen’s (1991) suggestion that three beliefs - perceived behavioral control,
perceived social pressure and an attitude toward the behavior - are independent,
yet interdependent in predicting behavioral intention.

Hypothesis 4. (a) Career self-efficacy, (b) career attitude and (c) perceived social
pressure will be positively related to each other.

MODERATING VARIABLE

We further propose that using Ajzen’s theory of planned behavior, as it is, may be
insufficient for studying contemporary (boundaryless) career intentions and
behaviors. Although, the theory assumes that an individual is a decision-maker, it
does not view him/her as an independent ‘agent’ (Bandura, 2001). The
boundaryless career theory, in turn, assumes that individuals are independent
agents of their own development (Weick, 1996). They cultivate their career
competencies (i.e., knowing-why, knowing-how and knowing-whom)
independently from any employer or employing firm (DeFillippi and Arthur,
1996). In their development, individuals focus on the inside and probe personal
values to fashion their identity (Mirvis and Hall 1996). Identity developed “around
a person’s skills and competencies” as Mirvis and Hall (1996, p. 249) suggest is an
important “metaskill” needed to experience psychological success over the course
of a career” (p. 246). It is also a key to shaping an individual’s boundaryless career
(Arthur and Rousseau, 1996).
We therefore suggest that IT professionals’ sense of professional identity
will moderate the relationships between three beliefs and boundaryless career
intention. We define professional identity after Ibarra (1999, p. 764-765) as “the
relatively stable and enduring constellation of attributes, beliefs, values, motives,

97
and experiences in terms of which people define themselves in a professional role.”
We view professional identity as a cognition that determines the strength of the
relationships between three believes - career self-efficacy, perceived social
pressure, intelligent career attitude - and boundaryless career intention. This is in
line with the notion of different authors (i.e., Keller, Briggs, and Gysbers, 1982;
Lusting and Strauser, 2002; Sampson, Peterson, Lenz, Reardon, and Saunders,
1996) that career decision-making processes, as well as career behaviors are
cognitively mediated. For example, having a strong sense of professional identity
may positively influence the relationships between career self-efficacy, intelligent
career attitude and boundaryless career intention. However, having a strong sense
of professional identity may negatively influence the relationship between
perceived social pressure and behavioral intention, if we take into account a recent
finding of Dobrow and Higgins (2005) that density of developmental network and
clarity of professional identity are negatively correlated. We therefore propose that
the relationship between (a) career self-efficacy, and (b) intelligent career attitude
and boundaryless career intention will be stronger for IT professionals with a
clearer sense of professional identity, whereas the relationship between perceived
social pressure and boundaryless career intention of the same professionals will be
weaker.

Hypothesis 5a. Professional identity will moderate the relationship between (a)
career self-efficacy, and (b) career attitude and boundaryless career intention, in
such a way that the relationship will be stronger for IT professionals with a clearer
sense of professional identity.

Hypothesis 5b. Professional identity will moderate the relationship between

perceived social pressure and boundaryless career intention, in such a way that the
relationship will be weaker for IT professionals with a clearer sense of professional
identity.

METHODOLOGY

RESEARCH DESIGN

To test our hypotheses we used a sample of IT professionals from a number of

European countries who subscribed to a European-wide web-based career support
system. The purpose of the web-based career support system, to support IT

98
professionals in finding better-suited career opportunities, was particularly
attractive to us. We expected that those who came to use the system would be
especially engaged in searching for better career opportunities and ready for a
change.
A questionnaire was included as the page to follow the professionals’
initial registration with the web-based career support system. This ensured
answering the questionnaire, as this was the only way to get to the career service
itself. Note that we collected data from the users only at this introductory stage, so
that no effects from the system services, such as personality and skills feedbacks,
would affect respondents’ answers. The questionnaires were offered in English to
the Dutch and Italian system-users, in Greek to the Greek users, and in German to
the Austrian users. In order to ensure that the translated questionnaires were
identical, they were first back translated. The data was collected at the beginning of
2004.

SAMPLE

Almost two hundred and fifty IT professionals from various European countries
answered our questionnaire. Most of the respondents were from Austria, Greece,
Italy, and the Netherlands. The registration was voluntary and based on an
individual’s desire to register for the career support system. The hosting company
of the web-based career support permitted us to post our questionnaire on the
web-site for only three months. Therefore, the recruiting of the research
participants was stopped after this period: after the receipt of 250 questionnaires.
Inspection of the data on a number of control items and removal of bad
records created by disinterested participants left us with a sample of 225
participants. Of these, 41 were from Austria, 128 from Greece, 19 from Italy, 14
from the Netherlands, and 23 in total from various other European countries.
Among 225 participants 129 were employed and 96 were unemployed. In total 189
participants had been employed in IT before and 36 were aspiring IT professionals.
The degree of IT work experience varied between 0 and 38 years.

MEASUREMENTS

The dependent variable boundaryless career intention was measured with a seven-
item five-point Likert-type scale (1 = “Disagree completely” to 5 = “Agree
completely”) that measured interest in a new career opportunity. An example item

99
is “I plan to make a career change and I am choosing where to go next.” The
Cronbach’s alpha of this seven-item scale was .82.
Three variables were used to measure the beliefs hypothesized to predict
boundaryless career intention: career self-efficacy, perceived social pressure and
intelligent career attitude.
Career self-efficacy was measured with a nine-item five-point Likert-type
scale (1 = “Disagree completely” to 5 = “Agree completely”). Items from the
original career self-efficacy scale of Higgins (2002) were adapted to construct a
scale that would measure self-efficacy beliefs with respect to independent or
boundaryless career behavior. Example items are “I believe that I can do what I
need to do in order to make my career successful” and “I am capable of developing
my personal career network.” The Cronbach’s alpha for this nine-item scale was
.92.
Perceived social pressure was measured as the product of two scales
expressly developed for this study. The first scale, career-change approval,
measures the extent to which a career change is supported by important others:
family members, friends, co-workers, boss(es) and other persons important to the
respondent. The question was: “To what extent do the following “important
others” approve of your career change?” The second scale, compliance-to-
approval, measures the extent to which the respondent is ready to comply with
this approval. The question was: “To what extent are you ready to comply with
this (dis-) approval of…” In both scales respondents were asked to grade each of
the following: family members, friends, co-workers, boss(-es), one or more other
persons important to you, along a five-point Likert-type scale. The Cronbach’s
alphas were .91 and .92 respectively.
“Intelligent” career attitude was measured with a 13-item newly developed
scale. These items were developed in accordance with the conceptual framework of
the “intelligent career” suggested by Arthur, Claman and DeFillippi (1995). The
intelligent career concept assumes that individuals throughout their careers engage
in the development of three sets of career competencies or ways of knowing:
knowing-why (motivation and identity), knowing-how (skills and experience), and
knowing-whom (network and relationships). The five employment principles that
distinguish an “intelligent” career orientation from a traditional career, such as (i)
discrete exchanges (instead of mutual loyalty contracts), (ii) occupational
excellence (instead of a one-employer focus), (iii) organizational empowerment
(instead of top-down control), (iv) regional advantage (instead of the fortress firm),
and (v) project allegiance (instead of corporate allegiance) have been also

100
considered. Example items are “Gaining fresh job experiences through changing
employers is more important to me than having stable employment” (knowing-
why), “I seek skills to increase my chances for future employment rather than skills
to help me perform my present job” (knowing-how), and “Building relationships
to help my future career is more important to me than serving my current
employer” (knowing-whom). All answers were registered on a five point Likert-
type scale (answers range from “disagree completely” to “agree completely”). The
Cronbach’s alpha of the 13-item scale was .84.
The moderating variable professional identity was measured with four items
from Higgins (2002) (see also Dobrow and Higgins, 2005). The items include, for
example, “I know who I am, professionally and in my career.” The answers were
collected on a five-point Likert scale (1 = “Disagree completely” to 5 = “Agree
completely”). The Cronbach’s alpha for this scale was .86.

RESULTS

The data set was analyzed using SPSS. All variables were standardized before they
were used in the analyses. At the first stage of the analysis we used the Pearson
Correlation technique. Table 4 presents means, standard deviations, and Pearson
correlation coefficients among all study variables. As the table indicates, each of
the predicted variables, such as career self-efficacy, career attitude and perceived
social pressure were positively correlated with boundaryless career intention,
supporting hypotheses 1, 2 and 3. Additionally, the three independent variables
were each significantly correlated with one-another, providing support for
hypothesis 4.

Table 4. Means, Standard Deviations, and Pearson Correlation Coefficients

among Study Variables (N=225)

Variable Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5
1. Career Self-Efficacy .84 .16 1
2. Social Pressure .58 .31 .23* 1
3. Intelligent Career Attitude .51 .15 .16* .29** 1

101
4. Boundaryless Career .66 .22 .28** .22* .17* 1
Intention
5. Professional Identity .63 .26 .35** .27** .23** .35** 1
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Next we used moderated regression to determine whether or not the sense

of professional identity influences the relationships hypothesized between the
three cognitions and boundaryless career intention. For this purpose we created 3
new product variables to represent the interaction between each of the beliefs and
the moderator. In the regression analyses, we entered the moderating variable first,
followed by the independent variables and then by the product variables. The
results from this regression analysis are shown in Table 5.

Table 5. Moderated Regression of Professional Identity on Boundaryless Career

Intention

Variable B SE B β
Professional Identity .19 .10 .23*
Career Self-Efficacy .37 .17 .27*
Social Pressure .00 .00 .11
Career Attitude .14 .16 .10
Product of Self-Efficacy & Professional Identity -.96 .75 -.15
Product of Career Attitude & Professional Identity .20 .57 .04
Product of Social Pressure & Professional Identity -.00 .00 -.03
R2 = .19
* p < .05

Professional identity together with career self-efficacy was found to be

significantly related to boundaryless career intention. However, no moderating
effects were found for any of the new product variables.
In order to explore further what this direct relationships suggest we ran
hierarchical regression with our three original independent variables (i.e., career
self-efficacy, social pressure, and career attitude) and professional identity. Results
show that at the first three steps career self-efficacy appears as a significant
predictor of boundaryless career intention. However, as soon as professional

102
identity comes into play in step 4 of the hierarchical regression, professional
identity becomes the only significant predictor of boundaryless career intention.
Tables 6 summarize the results of these analyses.

Table 6. Results of Hierarchical Regression Analyses for Boundaryless Career

Intention

Variable B Std. Error Beta

Step 1
Constant .37** .09
Career Self-Efficacy .35** .10 .28
R2= .08
Step 2
Constant .29** .10
Career Self-Efficacy .38** .13 .33
Social Pressure .00 .00 .13
R2= .15
Step 3
Constant .26** .11
Career Self-Efficacy .34** .14 .30
Social Pressure .00 .00 .12
Intelligent Career Attitude .12 .16 .09
R2= .16
Step 4
Constant .19 .11
Career Self-Efficacy .24 .14 .21
Social Pressure .00 .00 .07
Intelligent Career Attitude .01 .16 .01
Professional Identity .44* .22 .26
R2= .20
** p < .01
* p < .05

To explore how much variance professional identity explains, we ran

additional analyses, now with professional identity as the only predictor of
boundaryless career intention. As Table 7 shows, we found that professional
identity explains 12% of the total variance (R2 = 12).

103
Table 7. Boundaryless Career Intention Regressed on Professional Identity

Variable B Std. Error Beta

Constant .30** .08
Professional Identity .67** .15 .35
R2= .12
** p < .01

In sum, we found that from our set of four career beliefs – career self-
efficacy, social pressure, intelligent career attitude and professional identity
(initially hypothesized as moderator) — only professional identity appears as a
significant predictor of boundaryless career intentions.

DISCUSSION

This study addressed one side of the increasingly popular discussion that
boundaryless careers involve not only physical mobility, but also psychological
interpretations of mobility. Boundaryless career intentions of 225 IT professionals
from Europe were explored. The data analysis showed that (a) career self-efficacy,
social pressure and career attitude were each positively correlated with
boundaryless career intention, (b) the three beliefs correlated positively among
each other, and (c) although professional identity was hypothesized to moderate
the relationship between the three beliefs and boundaryless career intention, it
emerged as a significant predictor of boundaryless career intention.
The empirical evidence about the relationship between professional
identity and boundaryless career intention makes a fresh contribution to
boundaryless career theory and research. First, it contributes to the evolving dialog
about the importance of identity in shaping a boundaryless career (Baker and
Aldrich, 1996; Sargent et al., 2005; Svejenova, 2005). As things become more
complicated in the knowledge economy, “work roles are disappearing, those that
survive, change; and new work roles are developed – for which there may not be a
clear script” (Hirsh, Kidd and Watts, 1998). In these conditions, professional
identity serves as proxy for work place identity. To be employer-independent or
boundaryless means to detach one’s identity from the employing organization
(Weick, 1996). It also means to describe oneself as belonging to one’s profession,

104
rather than the organization to which one belongs (DeFillippi and Arthur, 1996).
For example, it means to see oneself as a researcher, rather than as belonging to the
research institution where one currently works.
Recent literature has already begun to offer more insights on the
relationship between professional identity and boundaryless career. For example,
Svejenova (2005) established a conceptual parallel between identity and
authenticity in careers. She noted that professional identity could become an anchor
of the boundaryless career concept (Svejenova, 2005). Similarly, Sargent et al.
(2005) noted that incorporation of one of the Arthur’s et al. (1995) career
investments – knowing-why – may help to provide a more realistic depiction of the
boundaryless career. In this depiction flexibility and movement would be anchored
by one’s values or knowledge of “why.” Although these literatures stress a
possible relationship between professional identity and boundaryless career
behavior, more research is needed to understand and examine this relationship.
The study reported here provides fresh evidence of a statistically significant
relationship between professional identity and boundaryless career intention.
The finding that career self-efficacy and professional identity appeared as
significant predictors of boundaryless career intention in the moderated regression
invites further discussion for future career theory and research. First, it invites
further clarification between these concepts. For example, Svejenova (2005)
describes self-efficacy as a component of identity. Other work suggests that the
relationship between self-efficacy and identity is interdependent (Sargent et al.,
2005; Stryker, 1987). Ibarra (1999) describes professional identity as involving a
“constellation of attributes, beliefs, values, motives, and experiences” related to the
professional role (p. 764-765). It may be that self-efficacy is one of the beliefs in this
constellation. Further conceptualizations of professional identity can address the
different components of this concept.
Second, it brings back earlier discussion of whether to integrate all beliefs
about a given behavior under a single summation (Miniard & Cohen, 1981).
Although Ajzen (e.g., 1991) has objected to such integration, our research shows
that professional identity can serve as the overall behavioral disposition for career
research. Replication of our research in different contexts and on other samples
may offer further insights into this finding.
Finally, it raises an issue of whether Ajzen’s (1991) theory of planned
behavior is appropriate for studying career behaviors of contemporary
professionals. Such behavior is often associated with not so well-planned career
moves. Although, the theory of planned behavior has been usefully utilized for

105
studying career search behavior (Van Hooft, Born, Taris and Van der Flier, 2005)
and intra-organizational career change behavior (Eby, 1997). Its applicability for
studying self-regulated boundaryless career behavior would still need to be
confirmed by future research.
Our conceptualization of the IT professionals’ boundaryless career
intentions also concurs with recent work by Sullivan and Arthur (in press),
emphasizing that not only physical mobility, but also psychological mobility can
underlie boundaryless careers. Similarly, boundaryless career intention is close to
the concept of readiness used in the career counseling literature (e.g., Sampson et
al., 2000), that is “the capability of an individual to make appropriate career
choices, taking into account the complexity of family, social, economic, and
organizational factors that influence an individual’s career development”
(Sampson et al., 2000, p. 156). In contemporary economic circumstances,
psychological mobility or readiness to move is becoming an increasingly relevant
career management concept. It invites more attention not only from career
counselors, but also from career researchers who can drive further development of
these concepts.
Although, our sample of IT professionals from Europe who subscribed to a
web-based career support system was useful for examining our hypotheses, it may
also limit the generalizability of our results. Individuals who did not come to use
the system, and thus were left out by our study, may have been less concerned
with a career change and therefore may have exhibited different beliefs and
intentions toward boundaryless career behavior. However, such individuals would
also provided less valuable insights into boundaryless career intentions. Future
research may usefully compare the psychological mobility of those who are
seeking career change in contrast to those who are not.

CONCLUSION

The study reported in this paper focuses on examining cognitions predicting

boundaryless career intentions. An examination of 225 IT professionals from
Europe shows that although career self-efficacy, social pressure and career attitude
are each positively correlated with boundaryless career intention, only professional
identity appears to be a significant predictor of boundaryless career intentions.
This finding provides a useful contribution to unfolding career theory and
future research directions. First, it contributes to the increasingly central

106
discussion about the importance of identity in boundaryless careers. Second, it
offers empirical support to the relationship between professional identity and
boundaryless career intention. Third, it invites further discussion about the
necessity to distinguish three beliefs (i.e., career self-efficacy, social pressure and
career attitude) in predicting behavioral intention. Finally, it calls for better
understanding of how the concepts of self-efficacy and professional identity may
be related.

REFERENCES

Ajzen, I. (2005), “Laws of human behavior: Symmetry, compatibility, and attitude-

behavior correspondence”, in Beauducel, A., Biehl, B., Bosniak, M.,
Conrad, W., Schönberger, G. & Wagener, D. (Eds.), Multivariate Research
Strategies, Aachen, Germany: Shaker Verlagc, pp. 3-19.
Ajzen, I. (2002), “Perceived behavioral control, self-efficacy, locus of control, and
the theory of planned behavior”, Journal of Applied Social Psychology, Vol.
32, pp. 665-683.
Ajzen, I. (1991), “The theory of planned behavior”. Organizational Behavior and
Human Decision Processes, Vol. 50, pp. 179-211.
Ajzen, I. (1988), Attitudes, personality, and behavior, Chicago, Dorsey Press.
Artazcoz, L., Benach, J., Borrell, C., and Cortes, I. (2005) “Social inequalities in the
impact of flexible employment on different domains of psychosocial
health”, Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, Vol. 59 No. 9, pp. 761-
767.
Arthur, M. B., and D. M. Rousseau (1996), The boundaryless career, New York,
Oxford University Press.
Arthur, M. B., Claman, P. H., and DeFillippi, R. J. (1995), “Intelligent enterprise,
intelligent careers”, Academy of Management Executive, Vol. 9 No. 4, p. 7-20.
Arthur, M. B., Khapova, S. N., and Wilderom, C. P. M. (2005), “Career success in a
boundaryless career world”, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 26 No.
2, pp. 177-202.
Baker, T., and Aldrich, H. E. (1996), “Prometheus stretches: Building identity and
cumulative knowledge in multiemployer careers”, in Arthur M. B. and
Rousseau, D. M. (Eds.), The Boundaryless Career, New York, Oxford
University Press, pp. 132-149.

107
Balogun, J., and Johnson, G. (2004) “Organizational restructuring and middle
manager sensemaking”, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 47 No. 4, pp.
523-549.
Bandura, A. (2005), “Guide for constructing self-efficacy scales” in Pajares F. and
Urdan T. (Eds.), Self-Efficacy Beliefs of Adolescents, Greenwich, CT,
Information Age, pp. 1-43.
Bandura, A. (2001), “Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective”, Annual
Review of Psychology, Vol. 52, pp. 1-26.
Bandura, A. (1997), Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control, New York, Freeman.
Bandura, A. (1986), Social Foundations of Through and Action: A Social Cognitive
Theory, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice Hall.
Betz, N. E., & Hackett, G. (2006), “Career self-efficacy theory: Back to the future”,
Journal of Career Assessment, Vol. 14 No. 1, pp. 3-11.
Cappelli, P. (1999), The New Deal at Work: Managing the Market-Driven Workforce,
Boston, MA, Harvard Business School Press.
DeFillippi, R. J., and Arthur, M. B. (1996), “Boundaryless contexts and careers: A
competency-based perspective”, in Arthur M. B. and Rousseau, D. M.
(Eds.), The Boundaryless Career, New York, Oxford University Press, pp.
116-132.
Der Derian, J. (2003), “The question of information technology in international
relations”, Millennium: Journal of International Studies, Vol. 32 No. 3, pp. 441-
456.
Dobrow, S., and Higgins, M. C. (2005), “Developmental networks and professional
identity: A longitudinal study", Career Development International, Vol. 10
No. 6/7, pp. 567-583.
Eby, L. T. (1997), “Intra-organizational mobility: An examination of factors related
to employees’ willingness to relocate”, Unpublished dissertation.
Engardio, P., Bernstein, A., and Kripalani, M. (2003), “Is your job next?”, Business
Week, No. 3, pp. 50-60.
Engellandt, A., and Riphahn. R. T. (2005), “Temporary contracts and employee
effort”, Labour Economics, Vol. 12 No. 3, pp. 281-299.
Handel, M. J. (2005), “Trends in perceived job quality”, Work and Occupations, Vol.
32 No. 1,
pp. 66-94.
Higgins, M. C. (2002), “Career consequences of developmental networks”, Harvard
Business School working paper.

108
Higgins, M. C. and Kram, K. E. (2001), “Reconceptualizing mentoring at work: A
developmental network perspective”, Academy of Management Review, Vol.
26 No. 2, pp. 264-288.
Hirsh, W., Kidd, J. M., and Watts, A. G. (1998), Constructs of Work Used in Career
Guidance, Cambridge, Careers National Institute for Careers Education and
Counselling.
Hsu, M. K. Jiang, J. J., Klein, G. and Tang, Z. (2003), “Perceived career incentives
and intent to leave”, Information & Management, Vol. 40, pp. 361-369.
Ibarra, H. (1999), “Provisional selves: Experimenting with image and identity in
professional adaptation”, Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 44 No. 4,
pp. 764-791.
Keller, K. E., Biggs, D. A., and Gysbers, N. C. (1982), “Career counseling from a
cognitive perspective”, The Personnel and Guidance Journal, Vol. 60, pp. 367-
371.
King, R. C., and Bu, N. (2005), “Perceptions of the mutual obligations between
employees and employers: A comparative study of new generation IT
professionals in China and the United States”, International Journal of
Human Resource Management, Vol. 16 No. 1, pp. 46-64.
Lent. R. W. (2005), “A social cognitive view of career development and
counseling”, in Brown S. D. and Lent, R. W. (Eds.), Career Development and
Counseling: Putting Theory and Research to Work, New York, John Wiley, pp.
101-127.
Lent, R. W. and Brown, S. D. (2006), “On Conceptualizing and Assessing Social
Cognitive Constructs in Career Research: A Measurement Guide”, Journal
of Career Assessment, Vol. 14 No 1, pp. 12-35.
Lusting, D. C. and Strauser, D. R. (2002), “An empirical typology of career thoughts
of individuals with disabilities”, Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, Vol. 46
No. 2, pp. 98-107.
Mael, F. A., Waldman, D. A., and Mulqueen, C. (2001), “From scientific work to
organizational leadership: Predictors of management aspiration among
technical personnel”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 59, pp. 132-148.
Marsden, D. (2004), “The “network economy” and models of the employment
contract”, British Journal of Industrial Relations, Vol. 42 No. 4, pp. 659-684.
Maurer, T. J., Weiss, E. M., and Barbeite, F. G. (2003), “A model of involvement in
work-related learning and development activity: The effects of individual,
situational, motivational, and age variables”, Journal of Applied Psychology,
Vol. 88 No. 4, pp. 707-724.

109
Mignonac, K. and Herrbach, O. (2003), “Managing individual career aspirations
and corporate needs: A study of software engineers in France”, Journal of
Engineering and Technology Management, Vol. 20, pp. 205-230.
Miniard, P. W. and Cohen, J. B. (1981), “An examination of the Fishbein behavioral
intentions model’s concepts and measures” Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology, Vol. 17, pp. 309-329.
Miles, R. E. and Snow, C. C. (1996), “Twenty-First-Century Careers”, in Arthur M.
B. and Rousseau, D. M. (Eds.), The Boundaryless Career, New York, Oxford
University Press, pp. 97-116.
Mirvis, P. H. and Hall, D. T. (1996), “Psychological Success and the Boundaryless
Career”, in Arthur M. B. and Rousseau, D. M. (Eds.), The Boundaryless
Career, New York, Oxford University Press, pp. 237-255.
Moore, J. E. (2000), “One road to turnover: An examination of work exhaustion in
technology professionals”, MIS Quarterly, Vol. 24 No. 1, pp. 141-168.
Pawlowski, S. D., Datta, P., and Houston, A. L. (2005), “The (gradually) changing
face of state IT jobs”, Communications of the ACM, Vol. 48 No. 5, pp. 87-91.
Reich, B. H. and Kaarst-Brown, M. L. (1999), “Seeding the line: Understanding the
transition from IT to non-IT careers”, MIS Quarterly, Vol. 23 No. 3, pp. 337-
364.
Sampson, J. P., Peterson, G. W., Reardon, R. C., and Lenz, J. G. (2000), “Using
readiness assessment to improve career services: A cognitive information-
processing approach”, Career Development Quarterly, Vol. 49, pp. 146-174.
Sampson, J. P., Peterson, G. W., Lenz, J. G., Reardon, R. C., and Saunders, D. E.
(1996), Career Thoughts Inventory: Professional Manual, Odessa, FL,
Psychological
Assessment Resources.
Sargent, L. D., Allen, B. C. and Bradley, L. M. (2005), “Unlocking the complexity of
identity in contemporary careers”. Paper presented at the 21st European
Group for Organizational Studies (EGPA) Colloquium, Berlin.
Saxenian, A. (1996), “Beyond boundaries: Open labor markets and learning in
Silicon Valley”, in Arthur M. B. and Rousseau, D. M. (Eds.), The
Boundaryless Career, New York, Oxford University Press, pp. 23-39.
Smith, L. (2005), “New realities keep tech workers on job longer”, Information Week,
No. 986, pp. 88.
Smith, L. (2004), “In search of jobs and new opportunities”, Information Week, Vol.
1036, pp. 68.

110
Stryker, S. (1987), “The interplay of affect and identity: Exploring the relationships
of social structure, social interaction, self, and emotion”, paper presented
at the Annual Meeting of the American Sociological Association, Chicago.
Sullivan, S. E. and Arthur, M. B. (in press). The evolution of the boundaryless
career concept: Examining physical and psychological mobility. Journal of
Vocational Behavior.
Svejenova, S. (2005), “ ‘The path with the heart’: Creating the authentic career”,
Journal of Management Studies, Vol. 42 No. 5, pp. 947-974.
Thomas, D. and Higgins, M. (1996), “Mentoring and the boundaryless career:
Lessons from the minority experience”, in Arthur M. B. and Rousseau, D.
M. (Eds.), The Boundaryless Career, New York, Oxford University Press, pp.
268-281.
Van Hooft, E. A. J., Born, M. P., Taris, T. W. and Van der Flier, H. (2005),
“Predictors and outcomes of job search behavior: The Moderating effects
of gender and family situation”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 67 No. 2,
pp. 133-152.
Virtanen, M., Kivimaki, M., Joensuu, M., Virtanen, P., Elovainio, M. and Vahtera, J.
(2005), “Temporary employment and health: A review”, International
Journal of Epidemiology, Vol. 34 No. 3, pp. 610-622.
Weber, R. (2004), “Some implications of the year-2000 era, dot-com era, and
offshoring for information systems pedagogy”, MIS Quarterly, Vol. 28 No.
2, pp. iii-xi.
Weick, K. E. (1996), “Enactment and the boundaryless career: Organizing as we
work”, in Arthur M. B. and Rousseau, D. M. (Eds.), The Boundaryless Career,
New York, Oxford University Press, pp. 40-57.

111
112
 P A R T II
__________________________________________
TECHNOLOGY-ENABLED CAREER SUPPORT

113
ESSAY 4

COMPUTER-BASED CAREER SUPPORT4

Computer-Based Career Support (CBCS) systems are Information and

Communication Technology (ICT) applications aimed at assisting individuals in
their careers through the provision of online career support services. CBCS systems
include a mix of career support services that correspond to four general functions
of ‘social support.’ They include informational, appraisal, instrumental and
emotional support. Informational CBCS is provided through information on
occupational and career-related topics (Harris-Bowlsbey et al., 1998; Offer and
Sampson, 1999). Appraisal support consists of feedback from personality and skills
assessments (Barak and Cohen, 2002; Chartrand and Walsh, 2001). Instrumental
support includes, for example, e-learning, job vacancies and career-decision
making support (Gati et al., 2003). It has also been recently shown that emotional
support can be provided through online communication functions such as e-mail,
chat and discussion forums (see e.g., Barak, 2003).
CBCS systems can be either (a) intra-organizational, with a restricted
access, or (b) publicly available, Internet-based. Intra-organizational CBCS may be
offered as an independent career management application for employees or as part
of an organization-wide e-HRM system. Public Internet-based career support is
often associated with independent online recruiting and career counseling sites.
Most of the Internet-based career support services are offered for free or at the cost
of basic registration. Although both forms of CBCS are concerned with finding the

4
Forthcoming as:
Khapova, S. N. & Wilderom, C. P. M. (2006). Computer-based career support. In J.
H. Greenhaus & G. A. Callanan (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Career Development.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

114
best possible person-job fit, the key objective of intra-organizational career support
is to maximize individuals’ performance. The key objective of Internet-based career
support is to improve users’ careers.
Integrated CBCS systems are a fairly recent development. Thus far, very
few empirical studies have reported on such systems’ usage and effects, nor on
users’ and providers’ perspectives. The available studies point to an under-
utilization of integrated or all-inclusive career support systems. CBCS, no matter
how sophisticated or integrated it is, is often merely used as just another online
recruiting service (see e.g., Khapova et al., 2005). The studies that focus on
examining single CBCS functions, such as career counseling, career-decision
making, recruiting, and so on, however, report quite the opposite results. For
example, Coates et al. (2004) report a high popularity and positive reception of a
web-based career advisor application for medical students. Gati et al. (2003) and
Eveland et al. (1998) demonstrated students’ increased career decidedness after the
use of an Internet-based interactive career planning system and computer-based
career guidance system. Buckley et al. (2003) and Van Rooy et al. (2003) note an
increase in the quality of selection outcomes and hiring, as well as of job search
process efficiency. Thus, current key questions in regards to the practice and
research of the integrated CBCS are: Why does the provision of all-in-one career
support not appear to be accepted by its intended users? And, how to re-
conceptualize the integrated provision of a CBCS in order to get accepted and used
effectively in the future?
Recent literatures on the effective provision of interactive professional
services, such as also CBCS, distinguish two approaches. One takes a socio-
technical perspective, and the other a social perspective (Koh and Kim, 2004). The
socio-technical perspective suggests that career support belongs to a range of
professional services that are currently difficult to provide through the web (e.g.,
Cho and Park, 2002). Services of this group require high customization of highly
advanced technologies, which is only emerging. Recent literature notes the
importance of gender, age, language, and ethnicity issues in the customization of
such services (Barak, 2003). However, much more research is needed in order to
identify all critical areas for CBCS customization.
The social perspective, however, is not constrained by technological
developments, and offers vast opportunities for new social-science research. For
example, studies of online communities suggest that CBCS may be conceptualized
as a virtual social structure of relations or a virtual community, rather than a mere
source of career-service provision (Andrews, et al., 2002; Butler, 2001). From this

115
perspective, the studies of CBCS would need to include the design principles of a
traditional community. As Kollock (1998) notes, virtual communities succeed not
because of flashy graphics, but because they contain a number of requisite
elements for a successful community such as: identity persistence, a coherent sense
of space, and a sophisticated set of rituals. The incorporation of social network
research on the various ways people operate within social networks may also
determine who and how will use CBCS effectively.
The social perspective calls for consideration of further study of social
career support processes for making CBCS usable and effective. Recent empirical
investigation of integrated CBCS systems suggests that the current process of
virtual career support is quite different from what is provided by career counselors
(Khapova et al., 2005). The current CBCS systems allow selective usage of career
support functions, or “cherry-picking,” while the process of traditional counseling
is more guided and prescribed (Khapova et al., 2005).
Further research on the effectiveness of CBCS will need to question
whether a single source of career support, that includes career-counseling services
on the one hand and recruiting on the other, does not undermine the trust of users
(see e.g., Andrews et al., 2002). If so, that could be a reason for poor usage of a
CBCS. The basic idea behind this assumption is that very few users would be
willing to expose their career uncertainties to a CBCS if it is part of an online
recruiting agency’s or an employers’ eHRM system, and if it may be a vehicle to
new career or job opportunities in the future.
In sum, CBCS is a novel and sprawling phenomenon that, in theory and
practice, offers large potential efficiency gains. The efficiency gains (on an
individual as well as an organizational level) to be had from a CBCS appear
obvious and perhaps, therefore, have not received much serious research attention.
In terms of the perceived intrinsic value of the content of the offered support: much
more research across both users and those who design and sustain the support will
point to new ways of designing more effective and better used systems.
Approaching CBCS from multiple and interdisciplinary research perspectives,
including both the socio-technical and social perspectives, would help to make it
more accepted and effective.

116
REFERENCES

Andrews, D., Preece, J., & Turoff, M. (2002). A conceptual framework for
demographic groups resistant to on-line community interaction.
International Journal of Electronic Commerce, 6 (3): 9-24.
Barak, A. (2003). Ethical and professional issues in career assessment on the
Internet. Journal of Career Assessment, 11 (1): 3-21.
Barak, A., & Cohen, L. (2002). Empirical examination of an online version of the
self-directed search. Journal of Career Assessment, 10 (4): 387-400.
Buckley, P., Minette, K., Joy, D., & Michaels, J. (2004). The use of an automated
employment recruiting and screening system for temporary professional
employees: A case study. Human Resource Management, 43 (2 & 3): 233-
241.
Butler, B. S. (2001). Membership size, community activity, and sustainability: A
resource-based model of online social structures. Information Systems
Research, 12 (4): 346-362.
Chartrand, J. M., & Walsh, W. B. (2001). Career assessment: Changes and trends. In
F. T. L. Leong & A. Barak (Eds.), Contemporary Models in Vocational
Psychology, 231-255, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Cho, S.-E., & Park, K. (2002). Empirical taxonomy of services and service products
in electronic commerce. Electronic Commerce Research and Applications,
1: 339-350.
Coates, W. C., Ankel, F., Birnbaum, A., Kosiak, D., Broderick, K. B., Thomas, S.
Leschke, R., & Collings, J. (2004). The virtual advisor program: Linking
students to mentors via the world wide web. Acad Emerg Med, 11 (3): 253-
255.
Eveland, A. P., Conyne, R. K., & Blakney, V. L. (1998). University students and
career decidedness: Effects of two computer-based career guidance
interventions. Computers in Human Behavior, 14 (4): 531-541.
Gati, I., Kleiman, T., Saka, N., & Zakai, A. (2003). Perceived benefits of using an
Internet-based interactive career planning system. Journal of Vocational
Behavior, 62: 272-286.
Harris-Bowlsbey, J., Riley Dikel, M., & Sampson, J. P. (1998). The Internet: A Tool
for Career Planning. Columbus, OH: National Career Development
Association.

117
Khapova, S. N., Svensson, J. S., Wilderom, C. P. M., & Arthur, M. B. (2005). Usage
of web-based career support. In M. Anandarajan, T. Teo, & C. Simmers
(Eds.), Transformation of the Workplace: The Web and Work in the 21st
Century, M. E. Sharpe Inc.
Koh, J., & Kim, Y.-G. (2004). Knowledge sharing in virtual communities: An e-
business perspective. Expert Systems with Applications, 26: 155-166.
Kollock, P. (1998). Design principles for online communities. PC Update, 15 (5), 58-
60.
Offer, M., & Sampson, J. P. (1999). Quality in the content and use of information
and communications technology in guidance. British Journal of Guidance
and Counselling, 27, 501-516.
Van Rooy, D. L., Alonso, A. & Fairchild, Z. (2003). In with the new, out with the
old: Has the technological revolution eliminated the traditional job search
process? International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 11 (2/3): 170-
174.

118
ESSAY 5

USAGE OF WEB-BASED CAREER SUPPORT5

INTRODUCTION

The dynamics of the post-industrial information age challenge workers with

employment uncertainty. Fluctuations in the economy are causing periods of labor
shortages to be followed by periods of oversupply and vice versa. At the same
time, the industrial model of long-term employer-employee relationships is fading
(Cappelli, 1999), while rapid changes in technology render existing skills obsolete
(Agarwal and Ferratt, 2002). As a result, we witness the emergence of the so-called
do-it-yourself career (Trommel, 1997, 1999). Individuals no longer opt for a lifelong
commitment or loyalty to a single employer, but take a more independent
approach to their own careers (Arthur et al., 1999).
Despite the numerous literatures that point out the emergence of these
“new careers,” not every aspiring professional is born with the necessary
prerequisites for self-career management. Especially, people who are seeking to
enter or re-enter a certain professional field may lack the insight, experience and
knowledge to make appropriate career decisions. In such circumstances external
career support may be required. Traditional forms of career support and career
counseling are expensive and often unavailable to the average worker, so that
alternative forms of support are desired. As various career scholars and

5
Forthcoming as:
Khapova, S.N., Svensson, J. S. Wilderom, C.P.M. & Arthur, M. B. (2006). Usage of
web-based career support. In M. Anandarajan, T. Teo & C. Simmers (Eds.),
Transformation of the Workplace: The Web and Work in the 21st Century. Armonk, NY:
M. E. Sharpe Inc.

119
practitioners suggest, the Internet can offer such alternatives (Kleiman and Gati,
2004).
On the Internet we already see an explosion of so-called e-recruiting
(Kumar, 2003), and also the Internet’s training and career-counseling potential has
been recognized (Boer, 2001; Clark et al., 2000; Harris-Bowlsbey et al., 1998).
Therefore, predictable attempts have been made to develop what we call web-
based career support (WBCS). WBCS is career support that is provided via the
Internet or an Intranet. WBCS systems may offer, electronically, a combination of
key career counseling and support functions, such as:
− appraisal support through personality assessment and skills assessment,
including some degree of personalized feedback (Oliver and Zack, 1999; Reile
and Harris-Bowlsbey, 2000);
− informational support through advising users on available career paths (Gati
and Asher, 2001; Gati et al., 2003);
− instrumental support through web-based recruiting (Kumar, 2003) and (e- or
web-based) learning opportunities (Reile and Harris-Bowlsbey, 2000);
− social-emotional support, in terms of on-line forums and self-moderating
discussion groups (Gati et al., 2003).
While integrated career-support systems continue to emerge, we address in
this chapter the actual use of this type of system. We pursue the following research
question:
To what extent do individuals make use of integrated web-based career support
when offered to them?
Why is this question important to address? There are widespread
literatures on the new demands of post-industrial labor markets (e.g., Trommel,
1997, 1999; Soidre, 2004). A key question in those discussions is to what extent
these new demands are indeed recognized by the relevant individual labor market
participant. The academic observation that employees need to take responsibility
for their careers by no means implies that everyone already recognizes this. Given
the strength of industrial institutions, it is likely that many professionals and
companies prefer to stick to older ideas, relying on in-company training and
traditional, company-oriented career management. Moreover, there is a deep gap
between people’s recognition of a potential career problem and their own concrete
action (Amundson, 2002). It is quite possible that individuals will recognize a
change in labor market functioning, but will not show any great change in their
career-orienting behaviors.

120
 The actual use of the newly emerging WBCS systems might be further
complicated by the complex nature of the career-counseling task. Moreover, the
cognitive and emotional intricacies of electronic support in career self-management
have not yet been fully explored. Today, many if not most computer-aided
guidance systems are designed so that they can be used on a stand-alone basis,
often at a distance, without the support of a human counselor (Watts, 2002, p. 144-
145). This mode of application, however, will only fit the cognitive capabilities and
personal preferences of certain types of individuals. Other individuals may
experience technical, affective or cognitive constraints, which may hinder such
usage (Savard et al., 2002). They may require additional assistance in operating
these complex systems, in selecting the appropriate information, or in initiating
interaction with others, such as career counselors. In this respect, most experts
advocate the integration of computer-aided guidance into more broadly based
guidance services, i.e., services in which the use of such systems is integrated in a
context of additional interaction with a human counselor (Barak, 2003). However,
the empirical questions of whether and how people use either integrated or stand-
alone WBCS remains unanswered.

CHANGE2IT: A WBCS SYSTEM FOR IT PROFESSIONALS

The research reported in this paper concerns a case study of the actual use of a
WBCS system within the Information Technology (IT) sector. This case study was
(a) conducted in a specially selected field: the field of aspiring IT-professionals, and
(b) focused on a specific WBCS system: Change2IT.
In this section, we discuss the specifics of the case selection, after which we
present the way in which we examined the usage of this specific case of WBCS.

THE FIELD OF ASPIRING IT PROFESSIONALS

The field of aspiring IT-professionals was selected for this case study. We chose
this field and not any other because if there would be one turbulent, professional
field where a WBCS ought to succeed, it would be the IT-field. There are several
reasons for expecting success of a WBCS system within the IT field:

121
− Within this relatively new labor market, and especially for those employed by
small and medium enterprises, structures for delivering traditional types of
career support are weak;
− People aspiring to a career change into a new sector lack knowledge about that
sector because of limited access to existing professional networks;
− Aspiring IT-professionals are expected to be more open to the idea of using
web-based technology for acquiring personal services than workers in other
sectors.
We now provide a brief explanation for each stated reason.
Various scholars and practitioners suggest that the IT sector is very
different from other business sectors of the present economy (e.g., Saxenian, 1996).
Due to the rapid economic changes and continuous emergence of new
technologies, it performs under especially dynamic conditions. New companies
and competencies are being constantly formed, while outdated or non-viable ones
are closing down. For most of its employees - IT professionals – working for the IT
sector offers numerous advantages, such as creative work environments with
flexible working hours. However, it also offers numerous challenges as, for
instance, frequent inter-firm mobility and career instability (Saxenian, 1996).
Given the predominant small size of IT companies, there are relatively few
organizational structures that may provide individuals with opportunities for
growth. Most of the learning is offered as part of the job. Professionals are expected
to learn as they participate in projects. Moreover, the projects are the only real
formal structures through which performance of employees can be quantified or
assessed. In these “weak situations” (ambiguous situations with few salient
guidelines for action) IT professionals are challenged to take on responsibility not
only for their careers, but also for the design of structures and process of the
employing organization (Weick, 1996, p. 43).
The circumstances in which IT professionals perform invite them to seek
career support outside their employing organizations. Established professionals
may seek support within their informal networks, often comprised of former
project co-workers, team leaders or bosses, and their peer professionals. However,
the characteristics of the IT sector suggest that there is a high possibility that
people aspiring to make a career change to the IT sector will experience serious
challenges in making career decisions. This is due to their limited knowledge about
the sector and their limited access to existing professional networks. In this respect,
career support provided through the Internet might be of great help to enter the
industry. Finally, given that aspiring IT professionals are generally experienced IT

122
users, they are likely to seek career assistance through the Internet. Moreover, they
are likely to be able to understand systems such as newly developed WBCS-
systems.
So, all in all, the field of aspiring IT professionals can be regarded as a field
with a relatively strong likelihood to adapt to the usage of a WBCS system.

THE WBCS SYSTEM: CHANGE2IT

Within the selected field, our main case study focuses on one, newly developed
WBCS system, named Change2IT. This system was developed with support from
the European Commission, and recently introduced throughout Europe. It is
aimed to provide integrated career support to individuals who are interested to
find a suitable job in the IT sector. Not only are current IT professionals invited to
use this system, but so too are people with any other background who intend to
start working within the IT sector.
The particular WBCS system we studied combines several approaches to make
career support work. It requires from users:
− to post a curriculum vitae (CV-posting), aimed at providing employers with
details about the user’s employment preferences and relevant work and
educational experiences;
− to go through three “Role Diagrammic Approach” (RDA) tests, aimed at
measuring values, behavioral tendencies and personal skills of the users. These
tests are expected to provide the users (and, if given permission, also potential
employers) with information about a user’s suitability to a desired job;
− to go through IT-skill tests, aimed to determine the user’s level of IT
knowledge and skills;
− to participate in on-line community activities, aimed to provide a meeting
point for individuals interested to pursue a career in IT.
In addition, Change2IT provides information and links to e-learning
courses and information about IT labor market trends. It also matches CV-profiles
against labor market demand for any of the IT profiles. Finally, a sophisticated job-
matching function of Change2IT continuously and automatically matches CV-
profiles of its users with new IT vacancies. All services are publicly accessible and
free-of-charge. The system is fully digitalized and aims to provide career support
services at any time and at any place. Furthermore, a core assumption behind
Change2IT is that it can be used independently from any other support by human

123
experts or career counselors. In other words, it is considered an example of a
‘pure,’ integrated WBCS.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND MEASUREMENTS

The specific objectives of the research were:

− to monitor the behavior of users with respect to the whole Change2IT system
and its separate functions; and
− to evaluate users’ system acceptance.
The research was carried out during a period of 6 months after the system
was launched in 2003, in 4 European countries: Austria, Greece, Italy and the
Netherlands. The users of the system were the participants in the evaluation. They
were recruited through similar, national marketing efforts within each of the
participating countries. All individuals interested to find a suitable job in IT were
invited to become users of Change2IT. The recruiting was carried out through
national and local media outlets; official networks of IT professionals; conferences
and other events through which Change2IT was promoted.
The actual usage of Change2IT and its functions was monitored
electronically. Moreover, after a 6 months period all users were contacted with an
e-questionnaire. The questionnaire was aimed to collect data about users’ views on
Change2IT. It included questions about users’ sense of the system’s usefulness; its
ease of use; and whether it was worth their time. Users were also queried on their
perceived frequency of Change2IT usage; motivation to use the system and self-
reported usage of the various Change2IT functions.
Three criteria -- “useful,” “easy to use” and “worth the time” -- were used
to measure users perceived acceptance of Change2IT. According to various
researchers on technology acceptance, the criteria “useful” and “easy to use”
provide a reasonable view of users’ satisfaction with IT applications (e.g., Davis
1989; Davis et al, 1989; Taylor and Todd, 1995). Perceived usefulness is referred to
as the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system may
enhance his or her career. This follows from the definition of the word useful:
“capable of being used advantageously.” Thus, a system high in perceived
usefulness is one for which a user believes in the existence of a positive use-
performance relationship. In contrast, perceived ease of use refers to the degree to
which a person believes that using a particular system would be free of effort. This
follows from the definition of “ease”: “freedom from difficulty or great effort.” All

124
else being equal, an application perceived to be easier to use than another is more
likely to be accepted and used by users. We chose to add a third criterion,
regarding whether each separate Change2IT treatment was worth the user’s time.
With this additional criterion, we wanted to examine whether users perceived
value in what was being offered in various system functions, in contrast to the
effort of co-production (e.g., filling in their CVs and answering personality tests).
Thus, users perceived acceptance of the system was measured on a five-
point scale (1 “not at all” to 5 “to the maximum extent”) with three single item
questions that measured “usefulness,” “ease of use” and “worth the time” of each
of the system’s functions. An example question is: “To what extent do you perceive
the following functions as useful?” The possible answers regarded the various
functions within Change2IT (e.g., CV-posting, etc.).
The perceived frequency of the Change2IT usage was measured through
one question: “How regularly have you used Change2IT?” The multiple-choice
answers included “only once,” “sporadically (a few times in total),” “regularly (at
least once a week),” “often,” and “daily.”
The motivation to use Change2IT was measured on a five-point scale (1
“disagree completely” to 5 “agree completely”) with the question: “Please indicate
what motivated you to use Change2IT.” Eight possible answers were provided. An
example is “I was interested to find a new job.” All items are included in Table 4.
Self-reported usage of the different functions of Change2IT was measured
on a five-point scale (1 “not at all” to 5 to “the maximum extent”) through: “To
what extent have you used the following functions of Change2IT?” In terms of the
answers, the 5 core functions of Change2IT were then listed (i.e., CV-posting, RDA
personality tests, IT-skills test, E-learning, and Online community).

EMPIRICAL RESULTS

The following analyses were carried out in relation to the evaluation of Change2IT:
- actual usage of the Change2IT functions;6
- user satisfaction with Change2IT; and
- the relation between user satisfaction and actual usage of Change2IT.

6
Please note that IT-skill tests became available on Change2IT only during the second half
of the evaluation, thus data about their actual usage are missing in Tables 1 and 2.

125
In the following sub-section the results of the analyses are reported.

ACTUAL USAGE OF CHANGE2IT

The actual usage of Change2IT was assessed on the 2089 users registered in the
Change2IT system. Table 8 provides information about the actual usage of
Change2IT by the 2089 registered users. System usage data yielded the following:
− Among the 2089 registered users, only 855 users (or 41%) posted their
curriculum vitas (CVs) on the system;
− About 4% of all users took one or more of the RDA personality tests;
− Two hundred seventy-six (or 13%) of all users entered the online community.

Table 8. Actual usage of the Change2IT functions (N=2089)

Usage CV-posting RDA RDA RDA Skill Online

Values Test Behavior Test Community
Test
Used % 41 4 3 1 13
Not Used 59 96 97 99 87
%
Total % 100 100 100 100 100

Furthermore, the monitoring of the actual usage revealed information on

patterns of usage. A usage pattern is defined as the combination of Change2IT
functions selected and used by a single subject. Table 9 presents the results of the
patterns of usage for Change2IT. By viewing the data in terms of patterns of usage,
additional insights emerge. Table 9 shows that there is no single user of Change2IT
that made use of all the system’s career support functions. Hence the key logic of
the system’s developers --that this career support system integrates 5
interdependent career support functions-- has not been fully exploited or accepted
by its users.

126
Table 9. Patterns of Actual Usage of Change2IT Functions (N=2089)

Change2IT Functions
Number
of CV- RDA RDA RDA Online
(%)
persons posting Values Behavior Skills Test Community
Test Test
1196 57% - - - - -
33 2% - - - - x
1 0% - - - x -
2 0% - - x - -
1 0% - - x - x
1 0% - x - - -
529 25% x - - - -
175 8% x - - - x
2 0% x - - x -
3 0% x - - x x
43 2% x - x - -
27 1% x - x - x
39 2% x x - - -
37 2% x x - - x
2089 100% 855 77 73 6 276

The information about system logins in Table 10 provides additional

insights. From the login data, we see that users varied in terms of intensity of
system usage. There were 602 users (or 29%) who registered but never came back.
There were 805 persons (or 39%) who logged-in once after registration, most
probably to post their CV. Four hundred twenty-two persons appeared to have
logged-in to Change2IT 2 or 3 times. Assuming that any logins above 4 are a
frequent usage, only 260 persons (or 13%) logged-in between 4 and 33 times during
our 6 months observation period. This shows some fledgling interest in more then
mere CV posting. Thus, despite the lack of familiarity with career services beyond
“e-recruiting,” quite a few users had taken the time to try to get familiar with the
relatively unknown further functions that Chang2IT was offering.

127
Table 10. Login Frequencies of Change2IT Users (N=2089)

Login Frequencies Users %

0 29
1 38
2 14
3 6
4-8 10
9-16 2
17-33 1
Total 100%

In sum, our analysis of the usage patterns of Change2IT led to the following
results:
− More than half of the registered persons have not used any of the
functionalities (we may call these persons registered non-users);
− About one quarter of the persons who did register, used the CV-posting
function only;
− About 12 percent of the users have used a combination of two or three
functions;
− None of the registered users have used all functions in combination;
− Only a rather limited number of users (13%) visited the site frequently.

USER SATISFACTION

User evaluation of Change2IT was carried out with our e-questionnaire sent to all
users. The legible response consisted of 93 users, which is about 11 % of the total
number of persons that made any real use of the system, i.e., at least posted their
CVs (N=855).
The respondents indicated various reasons for joining Change2IT (Table 11). Most
users were attracted to Change2IT as a source of finding a new job (N=60 out of
N=93). Among the 93 users who responded to the post-test questionnaire, there
were 34 interested to get personalized career advice, and 23 users were interested
to test their IT skills. Twenty-four users were interested to join the online

128
community and 14 users were somewhat interested to get information about e-
learning. Eleven users indicated that their curiosity was the reason for them to join
Change2IT. In other words, the majority of Change2IT users (65 %) intended to get
a new job.

Table 11. Motivations to Join Change2IT

Mean Standard deviation

I was interested to find a new job.* 4.4 1.1
I was interested to post my CV in Change2IT. 4.3 1.0
I was interested to get personalized career advice. 3.8 1.2
I was interested to join the online community. 3.5 1.3
I was interested to test my IT skills. 3.3 1.4
I was interested to get information about e-
learning. 2.8 1.5
I was just curious. 2.5 1.5
I was urged to become a user of Change2IT. 2.3 1.5
* Measured on a five-point scale: 1=disagree completely and 5=agree completely

In order to find out the degree of users’ acceptance of Change2IT, the users
were asked to evaluate the Change2IT offerings in terms of “usefulness”, “easiness
to use” and “worth the time” (Table 12). In general, we see that the users are most
positive about the CV-posting function (with mean scores: 4,5 for “useful,” 4,0 for
“easy to use,” and 4,4 for “worth the time”). The other functions are evaluated
more neutrally.

Table 12. Users’ Evaluations of Change2IT

Useful Easy to use Worth the time

Mean st. d. Mean st. d. Mean st. d.
CV-posting* 4.5 0.8 4.0 1.1 4.4 0.9
RDA (overall) 3.4 1.2 3.5 1.3 3.4 1.3
IT-skills test 3.6 1.2 3.4 1.3 3.5 1.3
E-learning 3.3 1.2 3.3 1.3 3.3 1.2
Online community 3.1 1.2 3.3 1.3 3.3 1.2
3.6 0.8 3.5 1.0 3.6 0.9

129
Change2IT (as a
whole)
* Measured on a five-point scale: 1=not at all and 5=to the maximum extent

In sum, the results of the user satisfaction analysis are very similar to the
results from the actual usage of Change2IT functions; the users of Change2IT were
mainly interested in the system as if it were a sole recruiting facility. Most of the
users indicated that they came to use Change2IT with the idea of finding a new job.
Also, from all Change2IT functions, they graded CV-posting as most useful, easy
to use and worth their time.

RELATION BETWEEN SATISFACTION AND USAGE

A final analysis focuses on the relationship between usage of the individual

functions and the perception of these functions as presented above: to what extent
is the usage related to the perception of usefulness, ease of use and worth the
respondent’s time? Table 13 offers an interesting result: although the total use of
the system is not significantly related to these perceptions, the usage of different
functions often is. Especially for the CV-function, there is a clear indication that
people will use it more when they judge it as useful and worth their time (R=.36**;
.27; and .31** for “useful,” “easy to use,” and “worth the time” respectively).

Table 13. Self-Reported Usage of the WBCS and its Evaluation

Correlations between self-reported usage

Function Self reported and its evaluation as...
usage Useful Easy to use Worth the time

Mean st. d. (R) (R) (R)

CV-posting 4.3 1.0 .36** .27 .31**
RDA tests 2.7 1.6 .20 .18 .18
IT-skill tests 1.9 1.4 .06 .19 .17
E-learning 1.6 1.0 .25* .26* .31**
Online community 1.7 1.2 .28* .28* .32**
Change2IT (as a
whole) 2.5 0.8 .08 .18 .18
* sign level =< 0.05 ** sign level =< .01

130
 In sum, the analysis of the relationship between the usage of the individual
functions and the perception of these functions suggests that users made more
intensive usage of those functions which they perceive as “useful,” “easy to use,”
and “worth the time.”

DISCUSSION

During the first six months, Change2IT has attracted a substantial number of
registered participants. Nearly 2100 people have registered as users of the system
and in this sense the system may be called a success. More careful observation,
however, shows that of the 2089 registered people, only some 43 percent actually
used any of the systems functionalities. Moreover, most of these 43 percent were in
effect superficial or one-dimensional users, people who only used some of the
functionality, especially CV-posting.
When we compare this last observation with the intentions of the
designers of the system, there is reason to be dissatisfied. As far as the objective of
Change2IT was to provide integrated career support, it has not succeeded, so far.
The question is: Why? This question may be answered, in part, by interpreting the
results of the evaluative survey. Although the survey only concerns a relatively
small proportion of the total user population of Change2IT, it revealed two things:
− limited usage does not seem to be the simple result of lack of interest: a
substantial number of users in the survey indicated that they were motivated
to improve their careers;
− limited usage does not mean necessarily a general dissatisfaction with the
system: the average evaluation of the system is mildly positive and many users
seem to enjoy it.
What then may cause the reported limited usage? As we observe the
results of our analysis of the relationships between usage and user evaluations, one
answer might be: The system allowed its users the opportunity for selective usage.7

7
An interesting aspect of the results reported in this chapter is that they do not
stand by themselves. In our earlier pilot evaluation of a similar WBCS system
roughly the same results were found. This system, called iCIS Community (i.e.,
“Integrated e-training and recruiting community for IT professionals and IT
SMEs”) was designed to assist European IT professionals in their career
development, providing them with a similar set of integrated career support

131
Or to formulate it in another way: it allowed for cherry picking. The users of
Change2IT have used those functions within Change2IT that they considered
useful, easy to use and worth their time. Other functions, evaluated to be of lesser
importance, have generally been skipped. From the perspective of the individual,
this is of course a rational and justifiable behavioral choice. People used the system
for their personal purposes, and invested their own time and effort to do so. Why
invest in a function they do not feel they need?
Having said this, it is interesting to compare this practice of selective usage
to practices of personal career support by human career counselors. Could the
same explanation be applied in such an interpersonal context? Would a human
career counselor accept the idea of this type of selective usage by clients?
The literature on traditional (or non-virtual) career counseling (e.g.,
Amundson, 2002; Gati, 2001; Flores, 2003) suggests that interaction between a
career counselor and a client is usually led by the former. The interaction includes
several career counseling stages during which the problem of the client is explored,
supported with a rational decision-making process and actual action planning. The
change may even be supported through “verbal persuasion” (Amundson, 2002, p.
138). The input of career counselors is complex. First, career counselors are
expected to distinguish client’s career problems from personal problems (Herr,
1997). Often problems related to depression or selection of an occupation within
the social circle of family and friends may influence career indecisiveness (or
difficult career decision-making). Second, career counselors are expected to create
for their client an environment in which the client will feel welcome and important
(Schlossberg, Lynch and Chickering, 1989). The idea is to create an inviting and
warm climate, prompting clients to fully tell or express their story. Third,
counselors are expected, using their own creativity and imagination, to help clients
to imagine new career possibilities (Amundson, 2002).

functions: CV-posting, RDA personality tests (values, behavior and skills), IT-skill
tests as well as free e-learning courses. The pilot ran only for about two months, in
the countries: the Netherlands, Portugal, and Italy. The evaluation was set up in a
similar manner. Although in the iCIS Community only a total of 45 persons
became registered users (and their motivations were slightly different) the results,
in terms of usage, were almost identical. With the exception of one person, the
complete, integrated iCIS Community career support was not used either,
although other functions than mere CV-posting were used somewhat more than in
Change2IT.

132
 Of course, a human career counselor does not forcefully engage clients in
counseling interventions. However, they lead the clients --through the process of
counseling, explaining and persuading-- to take assessments tests, use card sorts
and many other counseling techniques.
While we do not expect selective usage in the context of inter-personal
career counseling, the context of career counseling through web-based systems
seems quite different. Here the freedom to choose is - thus far - much larger. In
order to serve latent career-support needs of working individuals, a WBCS system
may need a better introduction, stronger marketing or an established reputation
before its use will become more commonplace.
Figures 2 and 3 summarize the processes applicable to receiving career
support from (a) a traditional or non-virtual career counselor, and (b) a WBCS
system. In both cases the processes are presented in a simplified version.

Intervention 1

Career counselor
selects set of relevant
Client selects Intervention 2
interventions together
career counselor
with the client

Intervention (n)

Figure 2. Simplified Process of Traditional Career Counseling

133
 Intervention 1
WBCS offers an
integrated
approach to career
Client selects counseling by Intervention 2
web-based offering a set of
career support interventions

Intervention …(n)

Client selects
interventions
which he/she
believes are
relevant

Figure 3. Simplified Process of Web-Based Career Support

Within non-virtual career counseling a client is only responsible to initiate

the interaction between a career counselor and him- or her-self. After that initiation
it is the responsibility of the career counselor to steer the discussion with a client
that would help the client to reveal insights important for his or her future. In this
discussion process with the client, the career counselor selects what he or she sees
as the most relevant counseling interventions that will assist in further career
decision-making.
Within the context of career support provided through the web, the client
is responsible for finding a career support system that he of she will be willing to
use. A WBCS system, designed to offer a generalized integrated career support
approach such as Change2IT, offers a set of what its designers see as effective
interventions. However, given that electronic or web-based systems are not
capable (or have not yet been designed to be capable) to interactively communicate
with and persuade their clients about which interventions would be most
appropriate for their career decision-making, the clients independently select
interventions that they perceive as relevant. This usually limits the client’s choice
to a minimal or narrow selection of interventions, if any at all. As stated earlier, the

134
selective usage of WBCS functions or interventions thus raises questions about the
effectiveness of the career support provided through the web.
Further complications may stem from the plethora of web-based choices
that face any prospective WBCS client, the lack of commitment they need to show
to any system that they choose, and the lack of personal guidance about which
web-based system to pick and why. These complications add to the fundamental
problem reported here, that WBCS systems as presently developed are at risk of
losing touch with established career counseling practice.
In this respect, three basic recommendations may help to increase usage
and acceptance of Change2IT and other --currently under development-- WBCS
systems: (1) strengthening of the system’s design, (2) better consideration of users’
needs and characteristics, and (3) availability of human support.
Strengthening the design. Although Change2IT seems to have a solid design,
the question can be asked if its design is sufficiently understood by its users. An
integrated career support site is something hardly anyone is used to working with.
Perhaps, to some extent, this design logic could be better clarified by the system
itself. The designers could, for instance, introduce mechanisms that more or less
force the users into the intended optimal pattern of use (although it should be
stressed, of course, that this would invited other unintended consequences.) In this
respect, the system may also require a higher degree of system intelligence. If a
system (like Change2IT) aims to provide career support, as is normally provided
by career counselors and HR experts, it needs to be an adequate substitute for the
traditional human approach. This is, at present, unrealistic.
Consider user’s needs and characteristics. It may well be that aspiring IT
professionals will differ from other target groups in terms of career ambitions and
the preparedness to reflect on and invest in them. However, we should note that
this specific target group was actually selected because of the idea that they were
excellently suited for this type of innovative career support. A system like this may
be even less likely to succeed for other, less computer literate, clients. This can also
be a matter of time; awareness among the working population about the
possibilities of WBCS is only just starting to grow. The whole idea of employing a
structured method in order to better think about one’s own career is new. So too,
for many, is the thought that they do need to become “agents of their own
development” (Weick, 1996, p. 45).
Accompanying e-services with human support. At the moment, purely web-
based or virtual career-support may be a bridge too far. But, based on this study
with some fledgling and serious interest among members of our target group, the

135
question may be raised whether now and in the foreseeable future, people with a
need for career counseling are willing to fully rely on electronic systems. Although
the use of electronic support in non-virtual career counseling has become
indisputable, the availability of non-virtual, human expertise may also be essential
for most. A pressing question in this respect is whether purely virtual forms of
career counseling will be able to deal with the various motivational and attitudinal
aspects. A point of reference, in this respect, might be the experience of 10 years of
research and evaluation work conducted on e-learning. E-learning seems to be
most effective if it is supported by good rapport with the teachers, as the experts
who deliver customized feedback, support, coaching and referrals (Frank et al.,
2003).

CONCLUSION

Web-based career support systems are being developed to assist individuals in

their task of career self-management. The study reported in this chapter examined
one such system: “Change2IT.” The system was aimed to support aspiring IT
professionals in career change towards or within the IT-sector. Change2IT offers an
integrated career support service and has attracted quite a number of users in the
first few months of its existence. The evaluation of Change2IT’s actual usage and
perceived acceptance by users showed that, although the users themselves
appeared to be pleased with the system, they used in fact rather little of what the
designers of the system aimed to offer. Instead of using Change2IT as a career
development tool, most users merely handled it as just another online recruiting
service.
In this chapter we propose that current web-based career support systems
allow for selective usage of the system’s functions, or “cherry-picking.” WBCS
provides the freedom to use only the functions that people find relevant to their
career development and career decision-making. This is of course the user’s right,
but if users of WBCS do not adopt the design logic of the system developers, the
system’s benefits may disappoint. WBCS systems appear to not yet be adequately
designed either for stand-alone use or use with a career counselor. More research is
needed if the next generation of WBCS systems is to be more effective.

136
REFERENCES

Agarwal, R. and Ferratt, T. Enduring practices for managing IT professionals.

Communications of the ACM. 45, 9 (2002), 73-79.
Amundson, N.E. Coloring outside the lines: Boundary issues for counselors.
Journal of Employment Counseling, 39 (2002), 138-144.
Arthur, M.B., Inkson, K., and Pringle, J.K. The New Careers: Individual Action and
Economic Change. London: Sage, 1999.
Arthur, M.B. and Rousseau, D.M. The Boundaryless Career. New York: Oxford
University Press, 1996.
Barak, A. Ethical and professional issues in career assessment on the Internet.
Journal of Career Assessment, 11 (2003), 3-21.
Boer, P.M. Career Counseling over the Internet. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2001.
Cappelli, P. The New Deal at Work: Managing the Market-Driven Workforce.
Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1999.
Clark, G., Horan, J.J., Tompkins-Bjorkman, A., Kovalski, T. and Hackett, G.
Interactive career counseling on the Internet. Journal of Career
Assessment, 8 (2000), 85-93.
Davis, F.D. Perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology,
MIS Quarterly, 13 (1989), 319-339.
Davis, F.D., Bagozzi, R.P. and Warshaw, P.R. User acceptance of computer
technology: A comparison of two theoretical models. Management Science,
35, 8, (1989), 982-1002.
Gati, I. and Asher, I. Prescreening, in-depth exploration, and choice: From decision
theory to career counseling practice-effective techniques. Career
Development Quarterly, 50, 2 (2001), 140-157
Gati, I., Kleiman, T., Saka, N. and Zakai, A. Perceived benefits of using an Internet-
based interactive career planning system. Journal of Vocational Behavior,
62 (2003), 272-286.
Flores. L.Y. Practice and research in career counseling and development. Career
Development Quarterly, 52, 2 (2003), 98-131.
Frank, M., Reich, N. and Humphreys, K. Respecting the human needs of students
in the development of e-learning. Computers and Education, 40, 1 (2003),
57-70
Harris-Bowlsbey, J., Riley Dikel, M. and Sampson, J. P. The Internet: A tool for
career planning. Columbus, OH: National Career Development
Association, 1998.

137
Herr, E.L. Perspectives on career guidance and counseling in the 21st century.
Educational and Vocational Guidance Bulletin, 60 (1997), 1-15.
Kleiman, T and Gati, I. Challenges of Internet-based assessment: Measuring career
decision-making difficulties. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling
and Development, 37, 1 (2004), 41-55.
Kumar, S. Managing human capital supply chain in the Internet era. Industrial
Management and Data Systems, 103, 4 (2003), 227-237.
Oliver, L.W. and Zack, J.S. Career assessment on the Internet: An exploratory
study. Journal of Career Assessment, 7 (1999), 323-356.
Reile, D.M. and Harris-Bowlsbey, J. Using the Internet in career planning and
assessment. Journal of Career Assessment, 8, 1 (2000), 69-84.
Savard, R., Gingras, M.. and Turcotte, M. Delivery of career development
information in the context of information computer technology.
International Journal for Educational and Vocational Guidance, 2 (2002),
173-191.
Saxenian, A. Beyond boundaries: Open labor markets and learning in Silicon
Valley. In M. B. Arthur and D. M. Rousseau (Eds.), The Boundaryless
Career, 40-57. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Schlossberg, N.K., Lynch, A.Q. and Chickering, A.W. Improving higher education
environments for adults. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1989.
Soidre, T. Unemployment risks and demands on labour-market flexibility: An
analysis of attitudinal patterns in Sweden. International Journal of Social
Welfare, 13, 2 (2004), 124-133.
Taylor, S. and Todd, P.A. Understanding information technology usage: A test of
competing models. Information Systems Research, 6, 2 (1995), 144-176.
Trommel, W.A. ICT en Nieuwe Arbeidspatronen: Een Literatuurstudie. Den Haag:
Rathenau Instituut, 1999.
Trommel, W.A. De Doe-Het-Zelf-Loopbaan. Arbeid, Zekerheid en Solidariteit in de
Risicosamenleving. Amsterdam: Welboom, 1997
Weick, K.E. Enactment and the boundaryless career: Organizing as we work. In
M.B. Arthur and D.M. Rousseau (Eds.), The Boundaryless Career, 40-57.
New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Watts, A.G. The role of information and communication technologies in integrated
career information and guidance systems: A policy perspective.
International Journal for Educational and Vocational Guidance, 2 (2002),
139-155.

138
ESSAY 6

BOUNDARYLESS CAREER INTENTION AS A PREDICTOR OF

WEB-BASED CAREER SUPPORT USAGE8

INTRODUCTION

The use of the Internet for career support is expanding rapidly. There are already
numerous Internet-based applications that provide career support to different
groups. Some career support applications are assisting students and career starters
(Gati, Kleiman, Saka and Zakai, 2003; Eveland, Conyne and Blakney, 1998). Other
applications are supporting mid-age career changers (Andrews, Preece, Turoff,
2002). Employees are supported by intra-organizational career support systems.
Moreover, nearly everyone in the Western world has access to the online job-search
databases and recruiting agencies (Niles and Hanson, 2003).
Significant benefits from using Internet-based career support are easily
observable. For organizations, for example, online recruiting services save sizeable
costs (Buckley, Minette, Joy and Michaels, 2003), attract more candidates, and
make the process of recruiting more efficient (Van Rooy, Alonso and Fairchild,
2003). Online career-services on campuses occur to be effective in career and job
selections of students (Davidson, 2001). Online job-change communities provide
platforms for individual career changers to communicate with their career
changing peers (Andrews, Preece, Turoff, 2002). Various researchers and
practitioners suggest that, in the future, ICT will play an even more significant role
in individuals’ career development (Ensher, Heun & Blanchard, 2003).

8 This Research Note will be submitted to an international journal later in 2006.

 In response to what may seem a large market niche, more sophisticated,
integrated career support systems are appearing. Such web-based integrated
systems typically include a combination of career support functionalities such as
curriculum vitae databases, assessments and tests, online learning, career planning
and advising, forums and discussion groups functionalities (Khapova et al., 2006).
However, recent research also notes an underutilization of integrated web-
based career support systems. Andrews, Preece, Turoff (2002), for example, found
resistance of mid-age career changers to participate in an online career support
community. Khapova et al. (2006) report that an integrated career support system
is used as just another online recruiting service. Several researchers have already
begun to identify the reasons underlying underutilization. Davidson (2001), for
instance, notes as the challenges faced by the web-based career service providers:
(a) appropriateness of some of the career services for online provision, (b)
recognition of users’ differences and differences in their needs, (c) ethics of
providing relevant career services, (d) provision of a combination of technology-
enhanced-services and physically accessible services, and (e) distinguishing
personal from career related problems. Thus far little is known about people’s
intentions that lead them to use web-based career support systems. This research
note aims to shed light on this yet under-researched issue.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

THEORIES OF IT ADOPTION AND USE

During the past 20 years of IT research, a rich and diverse body of concepts has
been accumulated on the adoption and use of technology (Jeyaraj, Rottman and
Lacity, 2006). It involves the Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975),
Innovation Diffusion Theory (Rogers, 1983), Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura,
1986), Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) (Davis, 1989), Theory of Planned
Behavior (TPB) (Ajzen, 1991), Perceived Characteristics of Innovating (Moore and
Benbasat, 1991), Social Cogntive Theory (SCT) (Compeau, Higgins and Huff, 1999),
TAM2 (Venkatesh and Davis, 2000), and the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use
of Technology (UTAUT) (Venkatesh et al., 2003). This research has produced useful
insights into the cognitive, affective, and behavioral reactions of individuals to
technology, including the factors influencing these reactions.

140
 In each of the theories noted above, behavior is viewed as the result of a set
of beliefs about technology and a set of affective responses to the behavior
(Compeau, Higgins and Huff, 1999). The beliefs are represented by the perceived
characteristics of innovating in innovation diffusion research, by perceived
usefulness and perceived ease of use in TAM, by behavioral beliefs and outcome
evaluations in TPB, and by outcome expectations in SCT. Affective responses are
typically measured by attitudes toward use: that is an individual’s evaluation of
the behavior as either positive or negative.
While each of the theories makes important contributions to the literature
on user acceptance of information technology, they all focus on individuals’
adoption of new information technologies (or technological innovations) in
organizations and in other work-related formal environments. Very few studies
actually examined individuals’ adoption of Internet-based public services. Even
less is known about the adoption of human services offered through the Internet.
Adoption of Internet-based human services is an instance of IT acceptance
and use within a setting that combines technology adoption with marketing
elements. It, therefore, requires distinct theorization within the information
systems literature. However, despite an emerging interest among IS researchers
(e.g., Pavlou and Fygenson, 2006) toward Internet-based human systems, we still
have a very limited and fragmented understanding of intentions that lead people
to actually use such systems. The purpose of this research note is to report the
results of our empirical test of intentions underlying people’s use of web-based
career support.

RESEARCH MODEL

Unlike the noted studies of IT acceptance and use, which view technology
acceptance and use as the result of a set of beliefs about new technology, we
believe that people’s usage of an Internet-based career support system is predicted
by their career-related intentions. For a large part of the Western population, the
Internet is a well-integrated medium in people’s everyday activities. It is used as
just another source or tool for achieving desired (behavioral) outcomes. We,
therefore, propose to shift the research focus from people’s beliefs focused on new,
web-based career-support systems to people’s personal beliefs that may underlie
their usage of such systems. We suggest that revenant beliefs are associated with
the expected outcomes from the use of a system.

141
 Our approach is in line with the recent plea by Jeyaraj et al. (2006, p. 12) to
further study the predicting validity of “personal outcome expectations.” Personal
outcome expectations appear to be one of “the promising predictors” of individual
technology adoption and use (Jeyaraj et al., 2006, p. 12). Personal outcome
expectations “relate to expectations of change in image or status or to expectations
or rewards, such as promotions, raises, or praise” (Compeau, Higgins and Huff,
1999. p. 148). In a longitudinal study of 394 computer-users, these expectations
were found to be positively related to the actual usage of information technology
(Compeau, Higgins and Huff, 1999).
Recent investigations of Internet-based human services, such as computer-
based career guidance and e-learning contribute to our conceptualization of beliefs
predicting usage of career support systems. For example, Sampson’s (2004) recent
conceptual paper on individuals’ readiness for effective use of computer-based
career resources and services indicates that individuals’ readiness may be
influenced by: (a) personal characteristics (e.g., acute and disabling thoughts and
feelings), (b) personal circumstances (e.g., family, social, economic, or
organizational factors that influence decision making), (c) knowledge of self,
options, and decision making (e.g., limited inclination to reflect on self-knowledge
gained from life experience), and (d) prior experience with career resources and
services. In addition, an empirical study of Lee, Cheung and Chen (2005, p. 1102)
shows that for the Internet-based human service like e-learning, perceived ease of
use is “no longer a crucial factor in explaining [people’s] attitude toward” this
service. Their empirical examination of the use of a new learning medium by 544
undergraduate students showed that perceived usefulness and enjoyment are
more important factors than ease of use.
In this study we assume that the people’s key objective to use a web-based
career support system is to attain a better job and/or career opportunity. We
employ Ajzen’s (1991) Theory of Planned Behavior - one of the most reputable
theories for understanding predictors of behavior. Among most relevant studies
employing this theory are recent investigations of people’s job search behaviors by
Van Hooft and his colleagues (e.g., Van Hooft, Born, Taris & Van der Flier, 2004),
and studies that use Ajzen’s theory to predict people’s acceptance and usage of
new technologies (e.g., Pavlou and Fygenson, 2006). According to the theory,
behavior is predicted by the intention to pursue the behavior, which is, in turn,
predicted by three beliefs – self-efficacy, perceived social pressure to pursue the
behavior, and an attitude toward the behavior. Employment of Ajzen’s theory to a
career change situation means that the change and the consequent attainment of a

142
better job and/or career opportunity will be predicted by people’s boundaryless
career intentions. This intention will, in turn, be supported by people’s confidence
in their ability to make this change possible (or self-efficacy), the social pressures in
the direction of undertaking actions toward a better job or career (or perceived
social pressure), and their attitude toward the change (or attitude).9
Until recently people’s search of new career opportunities had been mainly
supported by their social contacts (Higgins, 2001). Granovetter (1995) describes
people’s contacts, instrumental in finding new jobs, as “weak” and “strong” ties.
Today, we see many people turning to the Internet for help in finding jobs.
Therefore, the key assumption of this study is that, considering an increasing
popularity of the Internet in finding new jobs, people’s boundaryless career
intentions will predict their usage of web-based career support (WBCS) systems.

Hypothesis 1. Users’ boundaryless career intentions will be positively related to

their web-based career support usage.

In Essay 3, professional identity appeared as a significant predictor of

people’s boundaryless career intentions. In the context of WBCS usage, we
wondered: What is the relationship between professional identity and WBCS
usage? May it be that professional identity is a more influential factor in predicting
WBCS usage than one’s boundaryless career intention? This may be possible since
those who opt to use a WBCS system may score higher on this professional
orientation. Professional identity is also said to be a guiding factor for professionals
in the boundaryless career world (see Essay 3). Therefore, our next two
hypotheses are:

Hypothesis 2a. Users’ professional identity will be positively related to their web-
based career support usage.

9 Given that the empirical research reported in this research note builds on
research reported in Essay 3, we leave out the descriptions of hypotheses related to
the conceptualization of relationships between three career beliefs such as career
self-efficacy, perceived social pressure, and the intelligent career attitude and
boundaryless career intention. All these relationships appeared significant.

143
Hypothesis 2b. In the relationship with web-based career support usage, users’
professional identity will have more explanatory power than their boundaryless
career intentions.

EMPIRICAL EXAMINATION

We test our theoretical model with data derived from users of a publicly accessible
web-based career support system Change2IT (www.change2IT.com). As it was
described in Essay 5, it provides integrated career support to individuals who are
interested to find a suitable job in the IT sector. Change2IT involves:
- a curriculum vitae posting (CV-posting);
- three “Role Diagrammic Approach” (RDA) tests;
- IT-skill tests;
- on-line community.
In addition, Change2IT provides information and links to e-learning
courses and information about IT labor market trends. It also matches CV-profiles
against labor market demand for any of the IT profiles. Finally, a sophisticated job-
matching function of Change2IT continuously and automatically matches CV-
profiles of its users with new IT vacancies. The system is fully digitalized and aims
to provide career support services at any time and at any place.

SAMPLE

The hypotheses are tested on a sample of IT professionals who subscribed to use

Change2IT. Most of them were from Austria, Greece, Italy and The Netherlands,
since the career support system was designed to cater for individuals from these
countries in the first place. IT professionals’ initial registration with the web-based
career support system was followed immediately by a questionnaire. The
registration was voluntary and based on the individual’s desire to register for the
career support system. The questionnaires were offered in English to both the
Dutch and Italian system-users, in Greek to the Greek users, and in German to the
Austrian users. To ensure validity of the translated questionnaires, they were back
translated.
The hosting company of the web-based career support permitted us to post
our questionnaire on the web-site for only three months. Therefore, the recruiting

144
of the research participants was stopped after this period, after receipt of 250
questionnaires. Inspection of data on a number of control items and removal of bad
records created by disinterested participants left us with a sample of 225
participants. Of these, 41 were from Austria, 128 from Greece, 19 from Italy, 14
from the Netherlands, and 23 in total from various other European countries.
Among 225 participants 129 were employed and 96 were unemployed. In total 189
participants had been employed in IT before and 36 were aspiring IT professionals.
The degree of IT work experience varied between 0 and 38 years.

MEASUREMENTS

Boundaryless career intention was measured with a seven-item five-point Likert-type

scale (1 = “Disagree completely” to 5 = “Agree completely”) that measured interest
in a new career opportunity. An example item is “I plan to make a career change
and I am choosing where to go next.” The Cronbach’s alpha of this seven-item
scale was .82.
WBCS Usage was defined as the degree of use of the system’s
functionalities. For each member of the experimental group we registered the
degree of use: i.e., the usage of CV-posting, RDA tests, IT-skills tests, online
learning; and online community. The scale ‘WBCS Usage’ distinguishes four usage
levels:
0 - No use, users who visited the WBCS site, but did not use any of the
functions;
1 – Use of 1 WBCS function;
2 – Use of 2 WBCS functions;
3 – Use of 3 WBCS functions.
Table 14 gives an overview of the actual distribution of usage types.

Table 14. Usage of the WBCS System

Type of Use N
None 17
Use of 1 function 58
Use of 2 functions 27
Use of 3 functions 13
Total 115

145
RESULTS

The total data set, consisting of questionnaire data and usage data, was analyzed in
several steps, using SPSS. The analysis involved:
(i) a calculation of the reliability of each scale;
(ii) inspection of Pearson correlations among boundaryless career
intention, professional identity and WBCS usage;
(iii) regression analyses to determine which of the two variables --
boundaryless career intentions or professional identity-- would appear
as a significant predictor of WBCS usage; and
(iv) ANOVA analysis of relationships between beliefs and usage of
different Change2IT functionalities.
The Pearson correlations method showed that all three variables are significantly
correlated among each other. Table 15 provides an overview of the significant
relationships. This suggests that both boundaryless career intention and
professional identity predict people’s usage of WBCS, supporting Hypothesis 1
and 2a.

Table 15. Means, Standard Deviations, and Pearson Correlation Coefficients

Among Study Variables

Variable Mean SD 1 2 3
1. Boundaryless Career .66 .22 1
Intention
2. Professional Identity .63 .26 .35** 1
3. WBCS usage .79 .41 .24* .24** 1
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

In order to find support for Hypothesis 2b we ran stepwise regression

analysis. It shows that only boundaryless career intention appears as a significant
predictor of WBCS usage, providing no support to Hypothesis 2b. The results of
this analysis are depicted in Table 16.

146
Table 16. Results of Hierarchical Regression Analyses for WBCS Usage

Variable B Std. Error Beta

Step 1
Constant .35* .17
Boundaryless Career .52* .25 .24
Intention
R2 = . 06
Step 2
Constant .06 .29
Boundaryless Career .40 .27 .18
Intention .72 .57 .16
Professional Identity
R2 = .08
* p < .01

In sum, we found that boundaryless career intention predicts WBCS usage,

offering support to Ajzen’s theory of planned behavior. As mentioned earlier, this
theory suggests that one’s behavioral intention predicts one’s behavior.
Professional identity, in turn, was only found to be significantly related to
boundaryless career intention, bringing us back to the finding reported in Essay 3.
To attain a deeper insight on the beliefs that predict the use of specific
WBCS functions (i.e., CV-posting, RDA-tests, IT-skills tests, and online
community), we ran additional ANOVA analyses. Only relationships between
boundaryless career intention and professional identity and CV-posting usage
appeared significant. The results of this analysis are depicted in Table 17. They
show that usage of CV-posting is predicted by both higher boundaryless career
intention and professional identity.

147
Table 17. Comparison of Mean Scores of Boundaryless Career Intention and
Professional Identity of (a) Non-Users, and (b) Users of CV-Posting Function.

CV-Posting Boundaryless Career Professional Identity

Intention
a) Non Users
Mean .58 .50
N 22 24
Std. Deviation .23 .12
b) Users
Mean .69 .56
N 51 91
Std. Deviation .19 .09
Total
Mean .66 .54
N 73 115
Std. Deviation .21 .10
ANOVA
F 4.27 7.04
Statistical Significance .04 .01

DISCUSSION

This research note examined and explored a number of hypothesized relationships

between boundaryless career intention, professional identity and WBCS usage. The
central hypothesis concerned the relationship between boundaryless career
intention and WBCS usage is confirmed; Boundaryless career intention appeared
as a significant predictor of WBCS system usage. The second hypothesis concerned
a positive relationship between professional identity and WBCS usage and was not
supported. However, the correlations between both variables appeared statistically
significant. In addition we found that both professional identity and boundaryless
career intention are significant predictors of CV-posting usage.
 In general, these findings support Ajzen’s (1991) theory of planned
behavior. However, they also offer additional insight into the theory’s possibilities.
In particular, our study shows that usage of a web-based career support system
may be studied as predicted by people’s career intentions. This is because the
Internet is an integral part of our lives, and it offers just another, additional source
of support in the process of career change. Future examination of other Internet-
based services instrumental to human behaviors will show the robustness of our
assumption.
However, one of the most interesting outcomes of this study is that
analysis of relationships between different beliefs and usage of specific functions
revealed that boundaryless career intention and professional identity are
significant predictors of CV-posting only. These findings support results of our
previous examination of the use of a web-based career support system (Khapova et
al, 2006). In that study, we found that the system was used as just another
recruiting site. Among all career support functionalities, users found CV-posting
also most useful. This conclusion, together with the finding of our present study
that only the relationships between people’s boundaryless career intention,
professional identity and usage of CV-posting are significant, raises a number of
questions for future research and practice.
The first question is whether the offering of an all-in-one, automated
career-support solution is a good thing. In line with the suggestion of Davidson
(2001), we wonder to what extent and which career services are appropriate for the
provision through the Internet? Is the fact that only few users took personality tests
to learn about more suitable career options for them a coincidence? Are people
looking for another job perhaps already past the self-searching stage and would
not need personality reflection while looking for their next career move? Would
personality assessments need a more non-virtual or human approach, as for
example, interactive Internet-based counseling with a human counselor? Davidson
(2001, p. 225) notes that “career counseling is not merely a technological exercise
where trained technicians can provide services. Rather, career counseling is an area
where professional and paraprofessionals are needed.” Furthermore, is it
appropriate to match personality assessments and recruiting facilities where there
may be some fear attached that a future employer may have access to the
personality profile data?
Second, if boundaryless career intention beliefs do indeed predict the
usage of the system, as our study shows, future research needs to consider social
rather than technical theories for explaining usage and patterns of usage of such

149
human services. For example, studies of online communities suggest that WBCS
may be conceptualized as a virtual social structure of relations or a virtual
community, rather than a mere source of career-service provision (Andrews, et al.,
2002; Butler, 2001). From this perspective, the studies of WBCS would need to
include the design principles of a traditional community. As Kollock (1998) notes,
virtual communities succeed not because of flashy graphics, but because they
contain a number of requisite elements for a successful community, such as:
identity persistence, a coherent sense of space, and a sophisticated set of rituals.
Next, the incorporation of social network research on the various ways people
operate within social networks may also determine who will use WBCS effectively,
and how. Recent empirical investigation of integrated WBCS systems suggests that
the current process of virtual career support is quite different from what is
provided by career counselors. The systems currently allow selective usage of
career support functions, or “cherry-picking,” while the process of traditional
counseling is more guided and prescribed (Khapova et al., 2006). However, there
are also systems that already adopted non-virtual social processes for their
services. For example www.H3.com Internet-based recruiting service mimics a
referral practice of finding an employee through current employees and social
networks by offering a financial reward for a good reference. The effectiveness of
such a service is still unknown.
Furthermore, there are also questions with respect to theories and methods
of examining motives behind the usage of human web-based services, as well as
their usage itself. To what extent can we assume that the Internet indeed became
an integral part of people’s lives and may be treated as just another source of
support, as we did in this study? This is by itself a valid research question, which
would contribute to a better understanding of the usage of human web-based
services, as well as the usage of other IT and Internet-based applications.

CONCLUSION

This paper examines whether people’s boundaryless career intentions predict their
usage of web-based career support: as predicted from Azjen’s theory of planned
behavior. The results of the examination of responses of 225 aspiring IT

150
professionals who registered as users in a WBCS system (called Change2IT) show
that
(a) of the two beliefs, professional identity and boundaryless career intention,
the latter appeared to be a significant predictor of WBCS usage;
(b) both professional identity and boundaryless career intention appeared to
be significant predictors of CV-posting usage.
The findings of this study, and particularly the latter unexpected one,
contribute to the yet limited knowledge about people’s usage of web-based career
support systems. On the one hand, the study provides new insights about the
usage of web-based career support. On the other hand, it raises numerous
questions for future research. Among some of these questions is the
appropriateness and effectiveness of providing an all-in-one, automated career
support service; utilization of social and social-network theories for designing and
researching the usage of such systems; as well as further examination of the
Internet as a mediating factor in social relationships. Future research will help to
uncover these and many more insights about the effective provision of complex
human services online.

REFERENCES

Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human
Decision Processes, 50, 179-211.
Andrews, D., Preece, J. & Turoff, M. (2002). A conceptual framework for
demographic groups resistant to on-line community interaction.
International Journal of Electronic Commerce, 6 (3): 9-24.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive
Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Buckley, P., Minette, K., Joy, D. & Michaels, J. (2003). The use of an automated
employment recruiting and screening system for temporary professional
employees: A case study. Human Resource Management, 43 (2 & 3): 233-241.
Butler, B. S. (2001). Membership size, community activity, and sustainability: A
resource-based model of online social structures. Information Systems
Research, 12 (4): 346-362.

151
Compeau, D. R., Higgins, C. A. and Huff, S. L. (1999). Social Cognitive Theory and
individual reactions to computer technology: A longitudinal study, MIS
Quarterly, 23(2): 145-158.
Davis, F. D. (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user
acceptance of Information Technology, MIS Quarterly 13 (3): 319-340.
Ensher, E. A., Heun, C. & Blanchard, A. (2003). Online Mentoring and Computer-
mediated Communication: New Directions in Research. Journal of
Vocational Behavior, 63, 264-288.
Eveland, A. P., Conyne, R. K., & Blakney, V. L. (1998). University students and
career decidedness: Effects of two computer-based career guidance
interventions. Computers in Human Behavior, 14 (4): 531-541.
Fishbein, M. & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An
Introduction to Theory and Research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company.
Gati, I., Kleiman, T., Saka, N. & Zakai, A. (2003). Perceived Benefits of Using an
Internet-Based Interactive Career Planning System. Journal of Vocational
Behavior, 62, 272-286.
Granovetter, M. (1995). Getting a Job. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Higgins, M. C. (2001). Changing careers: The effects of social context. Journal of
Organizational Behavior, 22 (6): 595-618.
Jeyaraj, A., Rottman, J. W., Lacity, M. C. (2006). A review of the predictors,
linkages, and biases in IT innovation adoption research. Journal of
Information technology, 21: 1-23.
Khapova, S.N., Svensson, J. S. Wilderom, C.P.M. & Arthur, M. B. (2006). Usage of
web-based career support. In M. Anandarajan, T. Teo & C. Simmers
(Eds.), Transformation of the Workplace: The Web and Work in the 21st Century.
M. E. Sharpe Inc.
Khapova, S. N. & Wilderom, C. P. M. (2006). Computer-based career support. In J.
H. Greenhaus & G. A. Callanan (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Career Development.
Sage.
Kollock, P. (1998). Design principles for online communities. PC Update, 15 (5), 58-
60.
Lee, M. K. O., Cheung, C. M. K., and Chen, Z. (2005). Acceptance of Internet-
based learning medium: the role of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.
Information & Management, 42: 1095-1104.

152
Moore, G. & Benbasat, I. (1991). Development of an instrument to measure
perceptions of adopting an information technology innovation. Information
Systems Research, 2 (3): 192-222.
Niles, S. & Hanson, S. (2003). The geographies of online job search: Preliminary
findings from Worcester, MA. Environment and Planning, 35 (7): 1223-1243.
Pavlou, P. A. & Fygenson, M. (2006). Understanding and predicting electronic
commerce adoption: An extension of the Theory of Planned Behavior. MIS
Quarterly, 30 (1): 115-143.
Rogers, E. M. (1983). Diffusion of Innovations. New York: The Free Press.
Sampson, J. P., Jr. (2004). Readiness for effective use of computer-assisted career
guidance systems: A preliminary multidimensional model. In International
Perspectives on Career Development. Symposium conducted at a joint
meeting of the International Association for Educational and Vocational
Guidance and the National Career Development Association, San
Francisco.
Van Hooft, E. A. J., Born, M. P., Taris, T. W. & Van der Flier, H. (2004). Job search
and the theory of planned behavior: Minority-majority group differences
in the Netherlands. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 65 (3): 366-390.
Van Rooy, D. L., Alonso, A. & Fairchild, Z. (2003). In with the new, out with the
old: Has the technological revolution eliminated the traditional job search
process? International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 11 (2/3): 170-174.
Venkatesh, V. & Davis, F. D. (2000). A theoretical extension of the Technology
Acceptance Model: Four longitudinal field studies, Management Science, 46
(2): 186-204.
Venkatesh, V., Morris, M. G., Davis, G. B. & Davis, F. D. (2003). User acceptance of
Information Technology: Toward an unified view, MIS Quarterly, 27 (3):
425-478.

153
 KEY FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this thesis is to examine a number of challenges for career research
and practice associated with an increasing emergence of the knowledge economy.
In particular, we focus on the challenges for career research and practice concerned
with: (a) the economy’s greater reliance on professional and intellectual
capabilities, and (b) the emergence of technology-enabled career support. In this
chapter we summarize our findings, discuss important assets as well as limitations
of our research. We also suggest implications of our findings for future career
theory and research.

SUMMARY OF KEY FINDINGS

In the introduction, we delineated six issues regarding careers in the knowledge

economy that called for conceptual and empirical examinations. We focused on
examining: (i) what does an increasing ascription of more importance to the
subjective career mean for contemporary career research? (ii) what is the
divergence between contemporary career theory and career success research, and
what rapprochement between the two can be attained? (iii) what are the key
cognitions that predict boundaryless career intentions of contemporary
professionals? (iv) why does the provision of all-in-one career support appear not
to be accepted by its intended users (v) to what extent do individuals make use of
integrated web-based career support when offered to them? and (vi) to what extent
do individuals’ boundaryless career intentions predict their usage of a web-based
career support system? Each question was addressed in one of the six essays
included in this thesis. The questions were addressed by (a) reviewing an extensive
body of literature, (b) examining a sample of aspiring IT professionals who

154
registered to use a web-based career support system named Change2IT (as part of
one of the eContent projects funded by the European Commission), and (c)
elaborating on possible mechanisms that may shed light on these yet under-
researched issues. Below we briefly summarize the results relevant to each
research question, as well as depict the concrete findings in Table 18.
Question 1: What does increasing ascription of more importance to the subjective
career mean for contemporary career theory and research? Our examination of
contemporary career research (in Essay 1) shows that to focus on the subjective
career means to accommodate four basic properties of the subjective career, such as
duality, interdependence, time and multiple dimensions. Our analyses of six major
behavioral science theories originating from (a) Super and Hall in psychology, (b)
Krumboltz and Bailyn in social psychology, and (c) Hughes and Giddens in
sociology, has suggested that although all of them remain relevant, the theories’
uni-disciplinary orientation no longer provides a sufficiently broad view of the
subjective career in the knowledge economy. Instead, to better understand how the
subjective career provides for personal and professional growth we need
interdisciplinary theoretical approaches. Some of the relevant theories include
Bandura’s (2001) revised social cognitive theory, Arthur et al. (1995) “intelligent
career” theory, and Boyatzis and Kolb’s (2000) theory of growth and adaptation.
The emerging importance of both the Internet and globalization reinforce the need
for such interdisciplinary approaches. It also points out new, important avenues
for future career research. The new research avenues include incorporation of how
the subjective career shapes individual, collective and institutional forms of
participation in a larger economic context enabled by new technologies and
continuing globalization.
Questions 2a & b: What is the divergence between contemporary career theory and
career success research? What rapprochement between theory and research can be attained,
and with what advantages? Examination of 68 articles on 6 attributes of extant career
theory showed that (a) most articles use established definitions of career success,
and its subjective and objective sides, (b) only 57% (of 68 articles) acknowledge
duality of the subjective and objective career success, (c) 32% indicate any
interdependence between subjective and objective career success, (d) in 3% of the
articles its theoretical adequacy was an issue, (e) 27% examine the links between
inter-organizational mobility and career success, and (f) 85% make no reference to
the relevance of career support that stems from outside the employing
organization.

155
Table 18. Research Questions and Findings of this Thesis

Research Questions Essays Findings

1. What does increasing ascription of more Essay 1 − To accommodate four basic properties of the
importance to the subjective career mean subjective career, i.e., duality, interdependence, time
for contemporary career theory and and multiple dimensions
research? − To use interdisciplinary approaches
− To consider individual, collective and institutional
forms of the subjective career participation in a larger
economic context enabled by the Internet and
continuing globalization

2a. What is the divergence between Essay 2 Of the 68 analyzed research articles:
contemporary career theory and career - Most articles use established definitions of career
success research? success, and it subjective and objective sides
2b. What rapprochement between theory - 57% acknowledge duality
and research can be attained, and with what - 32% indicate an interdependence between subjective
advantages? and objective career
- 3% have theoretically inadequate research designs
- Few articles consider effects of inter-organizational
mobility and extra-organizational support
Rapprochement guidelines cover adequacy of research
designs, further dimensions of career success, broader
 peer-group comparisons, deeper investigation of the
subjectively-driven person, and specification of new
connections between boundaryless career theory and
career success research.

3. What are the key cognitions that predict Essay 3 Among Ajzen’s three planned behavior beliefs and
boundaryless career intentions of professional identity, only professional identity appeared
contemporary professionals? as a significant predictor of boundaryless career intention.

4. How to re-conceptualize the integrated Essay 4 - To employ gender, age, language and ethnicity
provision of Computer-Based Career customization
Support in order to get accepted and - To conceptualize CBCS as a virtual social structure of
used effectively? relations, rather than as a mere source of service
provision
- To better employ social career support practices and
processes
- To examine effectiveness of the integrated career
support approach as a single source of career support

5. To what extent do individuals make use Essay 5 Usage of one web-based career support system,
of integrated web-based career support Change2IT, showed that people make rather limited and
when offered to them? selective usage of the system’s functionalities.
6. To what extent does boundaryless Essay 6 Regression analysis showed that IT professionals’
career intention predicts usage of a boundaryless career intentions are significantly related to
web-based career support system? their usage of a web-based career support system.
 Essay 2 suggests that rapprochement between contemporary career theory
and career research can be attained through (i) the adequacy of future research
designs, (ii) incorporation of further dimensions of career success, (iii) broader
peer-group comparisons, (iv) deeper investigation of the subjectively-driven
person, and (v) seeing new connections between boundaryless career theory and
career success research.
Question 3: What are the key cognitions that predict boundaryless career
intentions of contemporary professionals? Following Ajzen’s (1991) theory of planned
behavior, three career beliefs – career self-efficacy, perceived social pressure and
“intelligent” career attitude – were hypothesized to predict boundaryless career
intentions of IT professionals. Professional identity, uncovered by Essay 3 as a
relevant career construct for the knowledge economy, was hypothesized to
moderate relationships between the three career beliefs and boundaryless career
intention. Examination of these cognitions predicting boundaryless career
intentions of 225 aspiring IT professionals in Europe showed that although (a)
career self-efficacy, social pressure and career attitude are each positively correlate
with boundaryless career intention and (b) the three beliefs correlate positively
among each other, only professional identity is a significant predictor of
boundaryless career intention. This finding contributes to our earlier theorizing
about professional identity’s critical role in careers of contemporary workers, in
Essay 1.
Question 4: How to re-conceptualize the integrated provision of a computer-based
career support in order to get accepted and used effectively? Drawing from literature on
socio-technical and social perspectives on the provision of professional services
such as also computer-based career support, we suggest that future research needs:
(a) to incorporate gender, age, language and ethnicity customizations, (b) to
conceptualize computer-based career support as a virtual social structure of
relations, rather than a mere source of service provision, (c) to better employ social
career support practices and processes in future research and systems’ design, and
(d) to examine the relative effectiveness of the integrated career support approach
as a single source of career support provision.
Question 5: To what extent do individuals make use of integrated web-based career
support when offered to them? Usage of one web-based career support system -
Change2IT - showed that people make rather limited usage of its integrated
functionalities. This finding is in line with an earlier finding of Andrews, Preece
and Turoff (2002) that middle-age career changers resist using a career support
facility when offered to them. With respect to the actual usage of Change2IT we

159
found that (i) more than half of the registered individuals (total N=1196) have not
used any of the functionalities; (ii) about one quarter of the persons who did
register, used the CV-posting function only; (iii) about 12 percent of the users have
used a combination of two or three functions; (iv) none of the registered users have
used all functions in combination; (v) only a rather limited number of users (13%)
visited the site frequently. With respect to users’ satisfactions, we found that the
users of Change2IT were mainly interested in the system as if it were solely a
recruiting facility. Most of the users indicated that they came to use Change2IT
with the idea of finding a new job. Also, from all Change2IT functions, they graded
CV-posting as most useful, easy to use and worth their time. Finally, with respect
to the relationship between satisfaction and usage the analysis of the relationship
between the usage of the individual functions and the perception of these functions
suggests that users made more intensive usage of those functions which they
perceived as “useful,” “easy to use,” and “worth the time.”
Question 6: To what extent do individuals’ boundaryless career intentions predict
their usage of a web-based career support system? An examination of the relationship
between individuals’ boundaryless career intentions and their WBCS usage on 225
aspiring IT professionals showed that boundaryless career intention is a significant
predictor of the WBCS usage. Professional identity, hypothesized as another
possible predictor of WBCS usage, did not appear as a significant predictor.
However, additional exploratory analysis showed that both factors - boundaryless
career intention and professional identity – are significantly related to the usage of
CV-posting.

KEY CONTRIBUTIONS OF THIS THESIS

Several findings reported in this thesis provide original contributions to theory and
research on careers and web-based career support. We specify them below.
Essay 1 contributes by identifying four important properties of the
subjective career, and reviewing the 6 key behavioral science theories on
accommodation of these properties. It shows the theories’ distinct perspectives on
each of the basic properties of the subjective career. It also provides an original
interpretation of Weick’s work on contemporary careers, noting his invitation for
utilization of the interdisciplinary perspectives for understanding contemporary
careers. Moreover, the essay offers an original analysis of three interdisciplinary
theories, such as Bandura’s (2001) revised social cognitive theory, Arthur et al.,

160
(1995) “intelligent career” theory, and Boyatzis and Kolb’s (2000) theory of growth
and adaptation, on their accommodation of (a) the properties of the subjective
career, and (b) interdisciplinary views. Finally, the essay proposes new research
direction for better understanding of the subjective career in the knowledge
economy.
In Essay 2 important attributes of career success originating from the
theories of the Chicago School of Sociology are identified and examined across 11
years of research on career success. Although known to researchers, the attributes
had been poorly utilized in many previous studies. To assist future studies in more
adequate examination of the career success concept, this essay offers fresh
guidelines for rapprochement between career theory and career success research
covering a range of highly relevant topics.
Essay 3 offers an examination of IT professionals’ career intention and
beliefs underlying this intention. A fresh construct - boundaryless career intention
– is identified as the relevant career intention. The essay further offers an
examination of the relation between professional identity and boundaryless career
intention, which lead to the novel empirical finding of professional identity’s
statistically significant relation to boundaryless career intention. That finding
contributes to both future theorizing and new research on boundaryless careers.
Essay 4, for the first time, defines computer-based career support. Given
that our research on complex, integrated web-based career support has pioneered
the field, we were asked to outline the concept of computer-based career support
in the Encyclopedia of Career Development (edited by Greenhaus and Callanan, 2006).
Published as part of the encyclopedia, the essay presents current challenges of
computer-based career support provision. It also presents a summary of current
challenges related to doing research on computer- and web-based career support
provision.
Essay 5 presents the results of an examination of an integrated, web-based
career support system – Change2IT. This first of its kind system, developed in
Europe by a consortium of European IT firms, research institutions and
universities, was examined on a sample of 2089 aspiring IT professionals from four
countries: Austria, Greece, Italy and The Netherlands. The study provides a unique
analysis of usage patterns, motives and satisfaction with this career support
system.
Finally, Essay 6 contributes by finding a significant relationship between
boundaryless career intention and WBCS usage. This finding suggests that
people’s intention to use a web-based career support system is motivated by their

161
interest in new career opportunities, rather than their interest in using the system
per se. This finding invites information systems researcher to reconsider their
conceptualizations of beliefs predicting usage of the Internet-based systems.
In sum, this thesis provides a set of findings that contributes to future
theory and research on careers in the knowledge economy and technology-enabled
career support. After specifying limitations of our research, we turn to discussing
implications of our findings for career theory and research.

LIMITATIONS

Like any study, this thesis also involves several limitations. The first limitation
concerns the used sample for investigating IT-professionals’ boundaryless career
intentions in Essay 3. Although our sample of European IT professionals who
voluntarily subscribed to a web-based career support system was useful for
examining our hypotheses, it may also limit the generalizability of our results.
Individuals who did not come to use the system, and thus were left out by our
study, may have been less concerned with a career change and therefore may have
exhibited different beliefs and intentions toward boundaryless career behavior.
However, such individuals would have provided less valuable insights into
boundaryless career intentions.
The second limitation concerns the examination of only one web-based
career support system - Change2IT. However, as footnote 7 in Essay 5 suggests
another web-based career support system “iCIS Community” had been examined
as well within the confines of this PhD project. iCIS Community involved very
similar functionalities to Change2IT, such as CV-posting, RDA-tests, IT-skills tests,
and e-learning, and was employed in Italy, The Netherlands and Portugal.
Unfortunately, very few people became users of iCIS Community during our study
(45 in total). Therefore, its investigation was excluded from the main analyses of
this thesis. The few results received from iCIS Community point out similar usage
patterns and beliefs underlying the systems’ usage. We concluded that this kind of
a system is still quite exclusive but nevertheless an example of underutilization of
an integrated web-based career support. As more similar systems come into play,
researchers will be able to bring more clarity on usage patterns and explanations
thereof.

162
 Further limitations concern some of the measurements used in the
empirical parts of the thesis. For example, career self-efficacy may be criticized for
being somewhat general in representing one’s confidence about his or her ability to
pursue boundaryless career behavior. More precisely, the measurement used in
this thesis may be said to reflect one’s confidence in one’s ability to be in charge of
his or her career, and in one’s ability to undertake necessary action to attain career
success. However, it does not operationalize specifically one’s confidence in his or
her ability to pursue boundaryless career choices as suggested by Arthur and
Rousseau (1996). A necessity to use a specific self-efficacy measurement applicable
to the very behavior under investigation, rather than a more generalized
measurement of ‘career’ self-efficacy, has only been recently clarified by Betz and
Hackett (2006). This requirement was published in a special issue of the Journal of
Career Assessment published in January 2006, when this thesis was almost
finalized.
Similarly, the boundaryless career intention scale was developed long
before Sullivan and Arthur (2006) clarified that the boundaryless career behavior
involves both physical and psychological changes. The current measurement of
boundaryless career intention reflects one’s readiness or intention to make a
physical career change. Due to the lack of earlier conceptualizations on this topic,
the measurement does not distinguish between physical and psychological career
changes. Future research on boundaryless career intentions and behavior would
need to make that distinction.

IMPLICATIONS FOR CAREER THEORY AND RESEARCH

Despite the aforementioned limitations, we believe that the results presented in

this thesis have theoretical implications that lead to recommendations for future
research in the fields of careers and web-based career support provision. These
implications and recommendations are discussed in each chapter. In this section
we briefly summarize the key theoretical implications and associated
recommendations.

INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACHES FOR FUTURE CAREER RESEARCH

The key message of Essay 1 is that we need to use interdisciplinary theories to fully
understand careers in the knowledge economy. In contemporary processes of
knowledge-intensive activity creation careers do not only specify people’s paths

163
through their work lives. Careers also guide both individuals and organizations
through development and growth. Weick (1996) speaks about careers’ ability to
turn weak situations – that is, more ambiguous, more unstructured, and with
fewer salient guides for action - into stronger ones. He also elaborates on careers’
influences and engagement on different levels of social interaction. In this
elaboration, Weick uses (a) a psychological perspective to describe one’s agentic
activities toward learning and development; (b) a social psychological perspective
to explain how these individual activities organize into learning communities; and
(c) a sociological perspective to explain how people’s learning processes get turned
into scripts that impose structures around previously ambiguous situations. In
sum, Weick (1996) calls successively on the three behavioral science disciplines for
the purpose of explaining contemporary careers, challenging the utility of any one
discipline on its own.
However, Weick’s call for a greater utility of interdisciplinary theory for
career research in the knowledge economy is not new. Earlier literature has already
noted that “the career concept provides an excellent nexus for transdisciplinary
debate” (Arthur, Hall and Lawrence (1989, p. 10). Mitroff and Kilmann (1978, p.
viii) also noted that career theory provides a forum for “taking us beyond the
limitations and confines of disciplines as we currently conceive them.” More than
15 years ago, Arthur, Hall and Lawrence (1989, p. 7-8) already called “to re-
establish the importance of [the] shared view of the career concept and to examine
the process by which disciplinary cross-fertilization may help move career theory
in new directions.” Despite such calls, only some progress has been made toward
integrating different disciplinary views in career theory. Essay 1 once again invites
career researchers to use interdisciplinary theories. They, as we further argue, are
most suitable for researching people’s careers in the knowledge economy. Among
some relevant theories are the revised social cognitive theory of Bandura (2001),
the “intelligent career” theory of Arthur, Claman and DeFillippi (1995), and the
theory of growth and adaptation of Boyatzis and Kolb (2000). Each of these
theories accommodates the basic properties of the subjective career. They also, as
we show in Essay 1, draw on different behavioral science perspectives.

ACCOMMODATION OF NEW REALMS OF THE INTERNET AND THE GLOBE INTO FUTURE
CAREER RESEARCH

Today’s careers do not occur only within or between organizations. The new
economic context --enabled by the rapid spread of the Internet and continuing

164
globalization-- offer many more possibilities for individual careers. Increasingly
we observe individuals engaging in work relations over the Internet, such as
Indian programmers who provide outsourced services to their counterparts at
distant locations. We also observe higher mobility of workers around the world, as
more walls and geographical boundaries are dissolving. Today, not only
expatriates are considered to be global workers. Rather, everyone who is engaged
in cross-cultural business activities may be perceived as such. This may include
small producers who export their services and or goods to other countries, or
Indian telephone operators who answer your outsourced calls for a dinner-
reservation in your local restaurant (Friedman, 2005). This may also include careers
of programmers unfolding within the global open source communities, and careers
of social activists who are part of global communities. Career possibilities are vast
today, and have fewer borders than ever before. However, career research seems to
be lagging behind in realizing the significance of new careers in the global
economic arena. In particular, we found very few empirical studies focusing on the
career implications of the new economic realities. Research on careers enabled by
the emergence of the Internet is limited to studies on IT professionals. In our view,
this is not sufficient if we want to keep up with the pace of the developments in the
knowledge economy. In Essay 1 we identify some important directions for future
research. They involve new research questions concerning the individual, his or
her relation with the collective, as well as with institutions in the larger economic
context enabled by the Internet and globalization.

RAPPROCHEMENT BETWEEN CAREER THEORY AND CAREER SUCCESS RESEARCH

Many career studies build up on the results of previous empirical investigations

omitting important assumptions and attributes of fundamental career theory. As a
result we get empirical studies focused on examining only one side of career
success (i.e., objective or subjective), research designs that measure career progress
in single organizations, and career support limited to in-company mentoring.
However, such research does not help us better understand career success criteria
in the knowledge economy. As recent literature suggests, current work practices
are rapidly moving away from the traditional organizational norms. Markets of
objective careers such as titles, positions, and stable employment become less
available (Weick, 1996); increasing job mobility, generalized know-how and extra-
organizational networks of contacts are becoming a new reality. However, many of
the reviewed empirical articles published in a period of 1992-2002 seem to ignore

165
the emerging developments in the world of work. Some of the studies make even
inadequate use of fundamental career theory. For example, as our analyses show,
only 57% (of 68 articles) acknowledge the duality of the subjective and objective
career, and only 32% indicate any interdependence between the subjective and the
objective career. Contemporary career theory is accommodated even less. For
example, only 27% of articles examine in any way the links between inter-
organizational mobility and career success, and only 15% make some reference to
the relevance of career support that stems from outside the employing
organization.
Our general observation is that there is an urgent need for rapprochement
between extant career theory and career research on career success. To do this a
series of aspects needs to be taken into consideration by future studies. Among
such aspects are the key attributes of career success examined in Essay 2, such as
the duality of objective and subjective career success; interdependence between the
two sides; inter-organizational mobility and extra-organizational support.
However, also accommodation of additional aspects is important for attaining
rapprochement between career theory and career success research. These aspects
involve the adequacy of future research designs, missing dimensions of career
success, the broadening of assumptions about relevant peer groups, examining
career-relevant ability, recognizing the developing, subjectively-driven person, and
expanding the career success agenda.

FURTHER INVESTIGATION OF THE RELATION BETWEEN PROFESSIONAL IDENTITY AND

BOUNDARYLESS CAREER

A statistically significant relation between professional identity and boundaryless

career intention is one of the unexpected, but at the same time one of the most
valuable empirical outcomes of this thesis. This finding contributes to
boundaryless career theory and research. First, it contributes to the ongoing dialog
about the importance of identity in shaping a boundaryless career (Baker and
Aldrich, 1996; Sargent et al., 2005; Svejenova, 2005). It also contributes to the
emerging observations of the possible significant relation between the two
concepts. Although, Svejenova (2005) established a conceptual parallel between
identity and authenticity in careers, Sargent et al. (2005) noted that incorporation of
one of the Arthur’s et al. (1995) career investments – knowing-why – may help to
provide a more realistic depiction of the boundaryless career. However, none of
the existing literatures, to our knowledge, provided empirical support for this

166
relationship. The study reported in Essay 3 shows a statistically significant
relationship between professional identity and boundaryless career intention.
However, much more empirical research is needed to better understand this
relationship.

USING SOCIAL THEORIES FOR BETTER UNDERSTANDING THE USE OF WEB-BASED

CAREER SUPPORT SYSTEMS

The results from our examination of usage, motives and beliefs leading to the
usage of a computer or web-based career support system show that career support
provision is not a simple service to be provided through the web. It involves
complexities of human interaction, emotional and cognitive intelligence that are
still rarely found in digital form. However, contemporary career support systems,
as we experienced in Change2IT, involve simply a compilation of career
counseling treatments. Furthermore, as our study of usage patterns shows, lack of
guidance in the system prompt users to choose services that in their view provide
them with an immediate solution. More research on non-virtual career counseling
and career support practices that help to transfer physical practices into virtual
once is urgently needed. Some studies, such as a study of Andrews, et al. (2002) of
a virtual community of career changes, and Butler’s (2001) study of online social
structures already propose to conceptualize WBCS as a virtual social system of
relations or a virtual community, rather than as a digital service. The incorporation
of social network research on the various ways people operate within social
networks may also help in better understanding who will use WBCS effectively
and how. Future research focused on social processes in networks of relations, as
well as on human dynamics in counseling processes, will help to understand and
to develop more effective WBCS systems.

FURTHER STUDY OF PEOPLE’S BELIEFS PREDICTING USAGE OF WEB-BASED CAREER

SUPPORT

Hardly anyone in the countries where the Internet is easily available questions any
longer the usefulness of this facility. In Essay 6 we test this assumption, by
suggesting that in the Internet era an intention toward an anticipated outcome
from the use of a system will predict people’s usage of this system. More
specifically, we hypothesize that people’s boundaryless career intention prompted
by a desire to attain a better career opportunity would lead them to use a web-
based career support system. The system is assumed to serve as just another source

167
of support in people’s search for career opportunities. Through examining our
hypothesis on a sample of 225 aspiring IT professionals who came to use a web-
based career support system, Change2IT, we received a confirmation to our
hypothesis. In particular, we found that people’s boundaryless career intentions
predict their usage of a web-based career support system. This is because web-
based career support, and especially its function to provide information about
available job opportunities, is just another source of support people may receive
today when searching for new jobs. Further examination of relevance of people’s
social beliefs and intentions to the use of human web-based services will help to
test the robustness of this assumption. It will also help to explain motives behind
people’s usage of web-based human services.
In sum, this thesis addressed two large domains of challenges related to
the increasing emergence of the knowledge economy. One domain involves
challenges related to the career consequences of the economy’s greater reliance on
people’s intellectual and professional capabilities. The other domain concerns the
emergence of technology-enabled career support. The research reported in this
thesis offers novel insights with respect to both sets of challenges. It introduces
fresh conceptions as well as empirical examinations of yet untested relationships.
Most importantly, the thesis offers extensive guidelines for future career theories
and research.

REFERENCES

Ajzen, I. (1991), “The theory of planned behavior”. Organizational Behavior and

Human Decision Processes, Vol. 50, pp. 179-211.
Andrews, D., Preece, J. & Turoff, M. (2002). A conceptual framework for
demographic groups resistant to on-line community interaction.
International Journal of Electronic Commerce, 6 (3): 9-24.
Arthur, M. B., Claman, P. H., & DeFillippi, R. J. (1995). Intelligent enterprise,
intelligent careers. Academy of Management Executive, 9 (4): 7-20.
Arthur, M. B., Hall, D. T. & Lawrence, B. S. (1989). Handbook of Career Theory. New
York: Cambridge University Press.
Arthur, M. B., and D. M. Rousseau (1996), The boundaryless career, New York,
Oxford University Press.
Baker, T., and Aldrich, H. E. (1996). Prometheus stretches: Building identity and
cumulative knowledge in multiemployer careers, in M. B. Arthur and D.

168
 M. Rousseau (Eds.), The Boundaryless Career, New York, Oxford University
Press, pp. 132-149.
Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Annual Review
of Psychology, 52, 1-26.
Betz, N. E., & Hackett, G. (2006), “Career self-efficacy theory: Back to the future”,
Journal of Career Assessment, Vol. 14 No. 1, pp. 3-11.
Boyatzis, R. E. & Kolb, D. A. (2000). Performance, learning, and development as
modes of growth and adaptation throughout our lives and careers. In M.
A. Peiperl, M. B. Arthur, R. Goffee, & T. Morris (Eds.), Career Frontiers: New
Conceptions of Working Lives, 76-98. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Butler, B. S. (2001). Membership size, community activity, and sustainability: A
resource-based model of online social structures. Information Systems
Research, 12 (4): 346-362.
Friedman, T. (2005). The World is Flat. London: Allen Lane.
Greenhaus, J. H. and Callanan, G. A. (2006). Encyclopedia of Career Development.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Mitroff, I. J., and Kilmann, R. H. (1978). Methodological Approaches to the Social
Sciences. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Sargent, L. D., Allen, B. C. and Bradley, L. M. (2005), “Unlocking the complexity of
identity in contemporary careers”. Paper presented at the 21st European
Group for Organizational Studies (EGPA) Colloquium, Berlin.
Sullivan, S. E. and Arthur, M. B. (in press). The evolution of the boundaryless
career concept: Examining physical and psychological mobility. Journal of
Vocational Behavior.
Svejenova, S. (2005), “ ‘The path with the heart’: Creating the authentic career”,
Journal of Management Studies, Vol. 42 No. 5, pp. 947-974.
Weick, K. E. (1996). Enactment and the boundaryless career: Organizing as we
work, in M. B. Arthur and D. M. Rousseau (Eds.), The Boundaryless Career,
New York, Oxford University Press, pp. 40-57.

169
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Svetlana Khapova is an Assistant Professor of Cross-Cultural Management and

Organizational Behavior at the Faculty of Economics and Business Administration
at the Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam. Prior to this appointment, she did her PhD
research at the School of Business, Public Administration and Technology at the
University of Twente. She holds an MBA degree from a joint program of the
University of Portsmouth, Rotterdam Business School and Robert H. Smith
Business School (University of Maryland) and an MSc degree (Cum Laude) in
economics and management from North Caucasus State Technical University.
Khapova’s research interests include careers and career behaviors in the
knowledge economy, and in its related economic contexts of the Internet and the
globe. Her recent publication appeared in the Journal of Organizational Behavior.
Her three book chapters in Handbook of Career Studies edited by H. Gunz and M.
Peiperl, Encyclopedia of Career Development edited by J. H. Greenhaus & G. A.
Callanan, and Transformation of the Workplace: The Web and Work in the 21st Century
edited by M. Anandarajan, T. Teo & C. Simmers are forthcoming. Together with
Prof. dr. Kerr Inkson from the University of Otago, she is currently co-editing a
special issue of Career Development International “Careers in Cross-Cultural
Perspective.” She presents her work annually at the meetings of the Academy of
Management and the European Group for Organizational Studies.

170
View publication stats