Practical class 2 (History)

1. Answer and discuss the following questions:

1. Characterize briefly the Bronze Age and the Iron Age.

The Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age are three period of history identified by the
way people made tools and weapons. Different ancient civilizations developed at different speeds.
So you might have one group of early people using bronze tools, while another group was still using
stone tools.

BRONZE AGE (2300–800 BC)

The Bronze Age is a historical period characterized by the use of bronze, and in some areas
proto-writing, and other early features of urban civilization.
In about 2300 BC the first metal weapons and jewellery began to arrive in Britain, along with a
new kind of pottery known as Beaker. People were buried with these objects in individual graves,
some of which were covered with round barrows (кургани). These rich, individual burials signify a
shift from the great Neolithic communal monuments.

At first the metal used was copper (мідь), but by about 2200 BC bronze (an alloy of copper and
tin – сплав міді та олова) was being worked in Britain.
During the middle and late Bronze Age, landscapes were divided up by great field systems and
people built permanent round houses, often grouped into villages such as Grimspound in Devon.
Сompetition for land and a need for security started the construction of the earliest hillforts.
(городища)

IRON AGE (800 BC–AD 50)

The Iron Age is the final epoch of the three-age division of the prehistory and protohistory of
humankind

In the early and middle Iron Age people built bigger and more elaborate hillforts (городища)
like Maiden Castle in Dorset and Old Oswestry in Shropshire. They also began to make weapons
and tools out of iron (залізо). Evidence of ritual offerings of military equipment and fine metalwork
suggest the dominance of a warrior aristocracy and the emergence of tribal territories.

The late Iron Age saw the first coins and the emergence of tribal centres (племінні центри) And
it’s during this period that Britain came into contact with the Roman world, as at Silchester,
Hampshire.

And with this contact came the first written records of life on the island, from Greeks and
Romans. The most famous notes were made by Julius Caesar, who raided (здійснив набіг) Britain
in 55–54 BC. Accounts from the period mention chariot warfare (війна на колісницях) and
religious leaders called Druids, who supposedly worshipped in oak groves (дубові гаї) and
performed sacrifices.
Nearly a hundred years after Caesar’s raids, the emperor Claudius ordered a full scale invasion –
and this time the Romans intended to stay.

2. What is Haddrian Wall?

WHAT IS IT?
Hadrian’s Wall was a defensive fortification that marked the northwest frontier of the
Roman Empire for three centuries. The wall measured 73 miles in length and
stretched from coast to coast across present-day northern England, between Wallsend
in the east to Bowness-on-Solway in the west. Construction likely started around
A.D. 122, after Hadrian visited the Roman province then known as Britannia, and it’s
thought to have taken an army of 15,000 men at least six years to complete it. The
majority of the wall was made from stone, although some portions were fabricated
from the turf. The building of Hadrian’s Wall had a guarded gate every mile and two
observation towers in between and fronted by a wide, deep ditch. Before work was
completed, 14 forts were added, followed by an earthwork known as the Vallum to
the south. In addition to the wall's defensive military role, its gates may have been
customs posts.
PURPOSE?
Hadrian's Wall was probably planned before Hadrian's visit to Britain in 122.
According to restored sandstone fragments found in Jarrow which date from 118 or
119, it was Hadrian's wish to keep "intact the empire", which had been imposed on
him via "divine instruction".
One comment on the military purpose of the Wall was that, "if there are troublesome
tribes to the north, and you want to keep them out, you build a strong defensive wall".
[ The Historia Augusta also states that Hadrian was the first to build a wall 80 miles
from sea to sea to separate the barbarians from the Romans.
Hadrian ended his predecessor Trajan's policy of expanding the empire and instead
focused on defending the current borders, namely at the time Britain. Like Augustus,
Hadrian believed in exploiting natural boundaries such as rivers for the borders of the
empire, for example, the Euphrates, Rhine and Danube. Britain, however, did not
have any natural boundaries that could serve this purpose – to divide the province
controlled by the Romans from the rebellious Celtic tribes in the north.

AFTER
In the years after Hadrian's death in 138, the new emperor, Antoninus Pius, left the
wall occupied in a support role, essentially abandoning it. He began building a new
wall called the Antonine Wall about 160 kilometres (100 mi) north, across the
isthmus running west-south-west to east-north-east. This turf wall ran 40 Roman
miles, or about 60.8 km (37.8 mi), and had significantly more forts than Hadrian's
Wall. This area later became known as the Scottish Lowlands.
Antoninus was unable to conquer the northern tribes, so when Marcus Aurelius
became emperor, he abandoned the Antonine Wall and reoccupied Hadrian's Wall as
the main defensive barrier in 164.
In the late 4th century, barbarian invasions, economic decline and military coups
loosened the Empire's hold on Britain. By 410, the estimated end of Roman rule in
Britain, the Roman administration and its legions were gone and Britain was left to
look to its own defences and government. Archaeologists have revealed that some
parts of the wall remained occupied well into the 5th century. It has been suggested
that some forts continued to be garrisoned by local Britons under the control of a
Coel Hen figure and former dux. Hadrian's Wall fell into ruin and over the centuries
the stone was reused in other local buildings.
Later discoveries
In 2021 workers for Northumbrian Water found a previously undiscovered 3 metres
(9.8 ft) section of the wall while repairing a water main in central Newcastle upon
Tyne.
World Heritage Site
Hadrian's Wall was declared a World Heritage Site in 1987, and in 2005 it became
part of the transnational "Frontiers of the Roman Empire" World Heritage Site, which
also includes sites in Germany.
Tourism
In 2018, the organisations which manage the Great Wall of China and Hadrian's
Wall signed an agreement to collaborate for the growth of tourism and for historical
and cultural understanding of the monuments.

3. What do you know about “Dark Ages”?

Britain's Dark Ages were an age of migration and invasion, of religious and political upheaval,
and its traces can still be read in the landscape today. The Dark Ages are estimated to have stretched
from 500 to 1066 AD. Essentially from the fall of the Roman Empire to the Battle of Hastings in
Britain. After the end of Roman Britain, the land became a melting pot of Britons, Anglo Saxons
and Vikings – all of whom variously shaped the character of the countryside.

From the time that the Romans more or less abandoned Britain, to the arrival of Augustine at
Kent to convert the Saxons, the period has been known as the Dark Ages.
Why do we call them the Dark Ages?
It is in part due to the scarcity of written sources from this time, leaving historians in the dark.
The other part due to the fall of the Roman Empire that plunged Europe into a period of cultural and
scientific stagnation.
Though, written evidence concerning the period is scanty, we do know that the most significant
events were the gradual division of Britain into a Brythonic west, a Teutonic east and a Gaelic
north; the formation of the Welsh, English and Scottish nations; and the conversion of much of the
west to Christianity.

Detailed history
 By 4l0, Britain had become self-governing in 3 parts, the North (which already included people
of mixed British and Angle stock); the West (including Britons, Irish, and Angles); and the South
East (mainly Angles). With the departure of the Roman legions, the old enemies began their
onslaughts upon the native Britons once more. The Picts and Scots to the north and west (the Scots
coming in from Ireland had not yet made their homes in what was to become later known as
Scotland), and the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes to the south and east.

The Anglo-Saxons had little use for towns and cities. But they had a great effect on the
countryside, where they introduced new farming methods and founded the thousands of self-
sufficient villages which formed the basis of English society for the next thousand or so years. In
most of lowland Britain, Latin had become the language of administration and education, especially
since Celtic writing was virtually unknown. Latin was also the language of the Church in Rome.
The old Celtic gods had given way to the new ones introduced by the Roman mercenaries; they
were again replaced when missionaries from Gaul introduced Christianity to the islands. By 3l4, an
organized Christian Church seems to have been established in most of Britain, for in that year
British bishops were summoned to the Council of Arles. By the end of the 4th century, a diocesan
structure had been set up, many districts having come under the pastoral care of a bishop. It was
during the time of the Saxon invasions, in that relatively unscathed western peninsular that later
took the name Wales, that the first monasteries were established (the words Wales and Welsh were
used by the Germanic invaders to refer to Romanized Britons). They spread rapidly to Ireland from
where missionaries returned to those parts of Britain that were not under the Roman Bishops'
jurisdiction, mainly the Northwest.

By the end of the 7th century we can also begin to speak of an Anglo-Saxon political entity in the
island of Britain, and the formation and growth of various English kingdoms.
Britain experienced another wave of Germanic invasions in the 8th century. These invaders,
known as Vikings, Norsemen or Danes, came from Scandinavia. In the 9th century they conquered
and settled the extreme north and west of Scotland, and also some coastal regions of Ireland. Their
conquest of England was halted when they were defeated by King Alfred of the Saxon kingdom of
Wessex. This resulted in an agreement which divided England between Wessex, in the south and
west, and the 'Danelaw' in the north and east. The Vikings’ invasions were thus different from those
of the earlier Saxons who had originally come to defend the British people and then to settle.
Though they did settle eventually in their newly conquered lands, the Vikings were more intent on
looting and pillaging; their armies marched inland destroying and burning until half of England had
been taken, and it seemed as if there was no one strong enough to stop them. However, just as an
earlier British leader, perhaps the one known in legend as Arthur had stopped the Saxon advance
into the Western regions at Mount Badon in 496, so a later leader - Alfred of Wessex - stopped the
advance of the Norsemen at Edington in 878. Most of modern-day Scotland was also united by this
time, at least in name, in a (Celtic) Gaelic kingdom.

There are over 1040 place names in England of Scandinavian origin, most occurring in the north
and east, the area of settlement known as the Danelaw (the land where the law of the Danes ruled).
The evidence shows extensive peaceable settlement by farmers who intermarried their English
cousins, adopted many of their customs and entered into the everyday life of the community.
Though the Danes and Norwegians who came to England preserved many of their own customs,
they readily adapted to the ways of the English whose language they could understand without too
much difficulty. There are more than 600 place names that end with the Scandinavian -by, (farm or
town); some 300 contain the Scandinavian word thorp (village), and the same number with thwaite
(an isolated piece of land). Thousands of words of Scandinavian origin remain in the everyday
speech of people in the north and east of England. There was another very important feature of the
Scandinavian settlement which cannot be overlooked. The Saxon people had not maintained contact
with their orginal homelands; in England they had become an island race. The Scandinavians,
however, kept their contacts with their kinsman on the continent. Under Cnut, England was part of a
Scandinavian empire; its people began to extend their outlook and become less insular. The process
was hastened by the coming of another host of Norsemen: the Norman Conquest was about to
begin.

4. Dwell upon the Battle of Hastings

On October 14, 1066, at the Battle of Hastings in England, King Harold II of England was
defeated by the Norman forces of William the Conqueror. By the end of the bloody, all-day battle,
Harold was dead and his forces were destroyed. He was the last Anglo-Saxon king of England, as
the battle changed the course of history and established the Normans as the rulers of England,
which in turn brought about a significant cultural transformation.

The Results. Although there were sporadic outbreaks of Saxon resistance to Norman rule after
the Battle of Hastings - notably in East Anglia under Hereward the Wake, and in the north of
England - from this point on England was effectively ruled by the Normans.
The story of the Norman Conquest does not start in 1066, but 50 years earlier, with another
invasion and another group of Norsemen. In 1016, Cnut, King of Denmark, seized the kingdom of
England by exploiting the bitter rivalries between king Aethelred Unraed, his son Edmund Ironside
and his closest advisors. Cnut stunned the English with the murder of ealdorman Eadric, his
supporters and every member of Aethelred's royal family he could get his hands on. Only Edward
and his brothers, the younger sons of Aethelred, survived. They fled to Normandy, where they took
refuge with Duke Richard II, brother of their mother Emma. In place of the murdered magnates,
Cnut installed his own men, both Danish and English, loyal to himself. The most prominent of these
were Earls Leofric and Godwine. Edward spent the next 30 years in exile under the protection of his
uncle, Duke Richard II and his successors. On his return to England in 1042, as Edward the
Confessor, he promoted many of these Frenchmen into positions of influence, as a counterbalance
to the overweening power of the Godwine family.
The Godwines had prospered greatly while Edward was away. Under Cnut and his successors,
they had amassed so much land that they were second only in power and wealth to that of the King.

William of Normandy. Meanwhile, Normandy was embroiled in its own succession crisis.
Duke Richard II's son, Robert, had died in 1035, leaving an 8-year-old bastard son, William as his
heir. William was a large man, of exceptional strength and appearance. He promoted his two half-
brothers into key positions: Robert became Count of Mortain and Odo became Bishop of Bayeux.
Edward the Confessor. Edward, by contrast, was already an old man. He had spent his entire
adult life waiting for the chance to be King of England. In 1051, he acted against the Godwines.
Edward was in the most powerful position he had achieved since his accession in 1042. He had got
rid of the Godwines and his appointees were in all the positions of power.
The increasing personal power of William is demonstrated by the change in terminology on
Norman charters at this time. Norman nobles cease being fidelis (faithful) men, and the duke
becomes their dominus (lord). The change is significant. William was now exercising control in
Normandy through his own personal patronage, favouring his most powerful friends and supporters.
Among these were his childhood friends William fitzOsbern and Roger de Montgomery, who had
become his closest and most trusted advisors and confidants, alongside his half-brothers Robert de
Mortain and Odo of Bayeux.

The Bayeux Tapestry: Unpicking the Past

The Bayeux Tapestry is probably the most important pictorial image of the 11 th century. But the
tapestry is not a docile, dead depiction, it's alive with controversy and myth. Unpick its secrets and
discover how truth was embroidered after 1066.
 On the orders of King William I, the Domesday survey of 1085-6 was drawn up and on the basis
of it Domesday Book described in remarkable detail, the landholdings and resources of late 11th-
century England, demonstrating the power of the government machine in the 1st century of the new
Millennium, and its deep thirst for information.
Domesday Book - compiled in 1085-6 - is one of the few historical records whose name is
familiar to most people in this country. It is the earliest public record, the foundation document of
the national archives and a legal document that is still valid as evidence of title to land.
What doesn't appear in Domesday? The Domesday Book does not cover certain important
cities, such as London, Winchester, Bristol and the borough of Tamworth; nor Northumberland and
Durham or much of north-west England. For Wales, only parts of certain border areas are included.
Neither was it ever fully completed, being abandoned at some stage early in the reign of William
Rufus, who succeeded to the throne in 1087.
Great and Little Domesday. Domesday was never a single volume but originally two books,
Great Domesday and Little Domesday (which was a longer version, covering the counties of Essex,
Norfolk and Suffolk, which was never written up into the main volume). It is now contained within
5 volumes, having been rebound in 1984 to improve the prospects for its preservation for another
millennium.
Great Domesday was mostly written by a single scribe, with the hand of a second clerk
appearing, checking his work and adding some notes and further entries. Minor errors were
inevitable and led to some inconsistencies for later scholars to worry over.
Who appears in Domesday Book? Most of the names that appear are those of landowners. The
king and his family held about 17 per cent of the land, bishops and abbots about 26 per cent and
around 190 tenants-in-chief held about 54 per cent. Of the 268,984 individuals described in
Domesday, some 40 per cent are listed as villani. This Latin term has been translated in different
ways by historians, as villein, villager, and villan (? members of the vill). At the bottom of the
social pile came the servi or slaves, about 10% of the total population, who had no property rights
and could be bought and sold.

5. What did mark the collapse of English feudalism?

The major causes of this decline included political changes in England, disease, and wars.
Cultural Interaction The culture of feudalism, which centered on noble knights and castles,
declined in this period. The spread of new military technologies such as the longbow and cannon
made the armored knight and fortified castle less important. The disaster of the plague influenced
culture, causing some to celebrate life in the face of mass death. Others had the opposite reaction
and fixated on death and the afterlife, which was reflected in art.
Political Structures In England the signing of Magna Carta and other political reforms laid the
foundations for more democratic forms of government. The Hundred Years’ War between France
and England shifted power away from feudal lords to both the monarchy and the common people. It
also increased feelings of nationalism, as people began to identify more with the king than with
their local lord.
Economic Structures The feudal system of agriculture and land ownership declined in this
period. The plague caused trade and commerce to slow. Due to the death of one third of the
population of Europe from the plague, labor shortages occurred. This created greater economic
opportunities for peasants, and they demanded increased wages.
Social Structures The hierarchical social structure of feudalism was destabilized as a result of the
plague, which affected all social classes equally. When the plague passed and feudal lords
attempted to reestablish their authority, peasant rebellions occurred as commoners refused to accept
the old social order. The common people also gained greater power as a result of the Hundred
Years’ War.
 Human-Environment Interaction The bubonic plague spread over trade routes from Asia to
western Europe and killed one third of the population of Europe. Its spread was aided by the fact
that most people lived in unhygienic conditions at this time, especially in the cities. In the wake of
the plague many peasants left their manors for greater opportunities in the cities.

6. Who brought together the first real parliament?

Edward I brought together the first real parliament.

Simon de Montfort’s council had been called a parliament but it included only nobles. It had
been able to make statutes or written laws and it had been able to make political decisions.
However, the lords were less able to provide the king with money except what they had agreed to
pay him for the lands they held under feudal arrangement. In the days of Henry I (1100-1135), 85
per cent of the king’s income had come from the land. By 1272 income from the land was less than
40 per cent of the royal income. The king could only raise the rest by taxation. Since the rules of
feudalism didn’t include taxation, taxes could only be raised with the agreement of those wealthy
enough to be taxed. Several kings had made arrangements for taxation before, but Edward I was the
1st to create a “representative institution” which could provide the money he needed. The
institution became the House of Commons. Unlike the House of Lords it contained a mixture of
“gentry” (knights and other wealthy freemen from the shires) and merchants from the towns. These
were the two broad classes of people who produced and controlled England’s wealth. In 1275
Edward I commanded each shire and each town to sent 2 representatives to his parliament. These
“commoners” would have stayed away if they could, to avoid giving Edward money. But few dared
risk Edward’s anger. They became unwilling representatives of their local community. This, rather
than Magna Carta, was the beginning of the idea that there should be “no taxation without
representation”, later claimed by the American colonists of the 18th century. In other parts of
Europe, similar “parliaments” kept all the gentry separate from the commoners. England was
special because the House of Commons contained a mixture of gentry belonging to the feudal ruling
class and merchants and freemen who did not. The co-operation of these groups, through the House
of Commons, became important to Britain’s later political and social development. During the 150
years following Edward’s death the agreement of the Commons became necessary for the making
of all statutes, and all special taxation additional to regular taxes.
The Parliament of England was the legislature of the Kingdom of England from the mid 13th
to 17th century. The first English Parliament was convened in 1215, with the creation and signing
of the Magna Carta, which had established the rights of barons (wealthy landowners) to serve as
consultants to the king on governmental matters in his Great Council. In 1295, Parliament evolved
to include nobles and bishops as well as two representatives from each of the counties and towns in
England and, since 1542, Wales. This became the model for the composition of all future
Parliaments. Over the course of the next century, the membership of Parliament was divided into
the two houses it features today, with the noblemen and bishops encompassing the House of Lords
and the knights of the shire and local representatives (known as "burgesses") making up the House
of Commons. During Henry IV's time on the throne, the role of Parliament expanded beyond the
determination of taxation policy to include the "redress of grievances," which essentially enabled
English citizens to petition the body to address complaints in their local towns and counties. By this
time, citizens were given the power to vote to elect their representatives—the burgesses—to the
House of Commons.

7. Characterize literature, church and culture of that period.

Church. Struggle between church and lords had begun in 1066 when the pope claimed that
William had promised to accept him as his feudal lord. William refused to accept this claim. He had
created Norman bishops and given them land on condition that they paid homage to him. As a result
it was not clear whether the bishops should obey the church or the king.
 During the 11th and 12th centuries the Church wanted the kings of Europe to accept its authority
over both spiritual and earthly affairs and argued that even kings were answerable to God. Kings, on
the other hand, chose as bishops men who would be loyal to them.
The first serious quarrel was between William Rufus and Anselm, the man he had made
Archbishop of Canterbury. After William’s death Anselm refused to do homage to William’s
successor, Henry I. Henry, meanwhile, had created several new bishops but they had no spiritual
authority without the blessing of the archbishop. It took 7 years to settle the disagreement. Finally
the king agreed that only the Church could create bishops. But in return the Church agreed that
bishops would pay homage. The struggle between Church and state continued.
The crisis came when Henry II’s friend Thomas Becket was appointed Archbishop of
Canterbury in 1162. Henry hoped that Thomas would help him to bring the church more under his
control. he changed his mind again and ran away to France. But in 1170 Becket returned to England
determined to resist the king. There was fight after which He died on 29 December 1170.For
hundreds of years afterwards people not only from England but also from Europe travelled to
Canterbury to pray at Becket’s grave.
At the time of William I the ordinary village priest could hardly read at all, and he was usually
one of the peasant community. However even at village level the Church wished to replace the
lord’s authority with its own but it was only partly successful. The Church also tried to prevent
priests from marrying. In this it was more successful and by the end of the 13th century married
priests were unusual The greed of the Church was one obvious reason for its unpopularity. The
Church was a feudal power and often treated its peasants and townspeople with as much cruelty as
the nobles did. There was another reason why the people of England disliked paying taxes to the
pope. Another threat to the Church during the 14th century was the spread of religious writings
which were popular with an increasingly literate population. These writings allowed people to pray
and think independently of Church control.
At the end of the 14th century new religious ides appeared in England which were dangerous to
Church authority and were condemned as heresy. One of the leaders of “Lollardy” was John
Wycliffe, an Oxford professor. He believed that everyone should be able to read the Bible in
English. He therefore translated it from Latin finishing the work in 1396. If the Lollards had been
supported by the king, the English Church might have become independent from the papacy in the
early 15th century. But Richard’s successor, Henry IV, was not sympathetic. He was deeply loyal to
the Church and in 1401 introduced into English for the first time the ides of executing the Lollards
by burning.

Culture. The growth of literacy in England was closely connected with the 12 th-century
Renaissance. Appeared some “grammar” schools independent of the Church, while others were
attached to a cathedral. All of these schools taught Latin, because most books were written in this
language. In England two schools of higher learning were established, the first at Oxford and the
second at Cambridge, at the end of the 12th century. Most English people spoke neither Latin, the
language of the Church, nor French, the language of law and of the Norman rulers.
In the cities plays were performed at important religious festivals. They were called “mystery
plays”, because of the mysterious nature of events in the Bible. French had been used less and less
by the Norman rulers during the 13th century. In the 14th century Edward III had actually forbidden
the speaking of French in his army (making army aware of its Englishness) By the end of the 14th
century English was once again a written language. By the end of the Middle Ages, English as well
as Latin was being used in legal writing and also in elementary schools. Oxford and Cambridge
were joined by Scotland's St Andrews in 1410 and two other Scottish universities by 1500.
Education developed enormously during the 15th century and many schools were founded by
powerful men. One of these was William of Wykeham, Bishop of Winchester and Lord Chancellor
of England who founded both Winchester school in 1382 and new College, Oxford.
The renaissance of Chaucer, Gower, Barbour and Dunbar percolated society. Libraries, such as
that of Humphrey Duke of Gloucester, were established and the art of biography began.
Nationalism triumphed. Royalty in many respects were as disreputable at the beginning of the
period as at the end.. Throughout England much that we recognise today was established and
survives: the parish churches with their towers, now fossilised in their late medieval form by the
Reformation; oak-framed timber buildings scattered across the country; universities and schools.
In 1485 over 95% of the people of Britain lived in the countryside, towns despite their small
share of national populations had an impact far outweighing their demographic significance.
The Middle Ages ended with a major technical development: William Caxton’s first English
printing press, set up in 1476. At first he printed popular books, such as Chaucer’s Canterbury
Tales and Malory’s Morted’Arthur.

8. Dwell upon the causes and results of Civil War.

• The first reason is in 1066 one of these men, Duke William II of
Normandy, mounted an invasion to conquer the rich Anglo-Saxon kingdom of
England, pushing on into south Wales and northern England in the ensuing
years. The division and control of these lands after William's death proved
problematic and his children fought multiple wars over the spoils. William's son
Henry I seized power after the death of his elder brother William Rufus and
subsequently invaded and captured the Duchy of Normandy, controlled by his
eldest brother Robert Curthose, defeating Robert's army at the Battle of
Tinchebray.
• Rules of succession in western Europe at the time were uncertain; in some
parts of France, male primogeniture, in which the eldest son would inherit all
titles, was becoming more popular. In other parts of Europe, including
Normandy and England, the tradition was for lands to be divided up, with the
eldest son taking patrimonial lands – usually considered to be the most valuable
– and younger sons being given smaller, or more recently acquired, partitions or
estates. The problem was further complicated by the sequence of unstable
Anglo-Norman successions over the previous sixty years: there had been no
peaceful, uncontested successions.
• With William Adelin dead, Henry had only one other legitimate child,
Matilda, but female rights of inheritance were unclear during this period. Her
husband died in 1125 and she was remarried in 1128 to Geoffrey V of Anjou,
whose county bordered the Duchy of Normandy. Geoffrey was unpopular with
the Anglo-Norman elite: as an Angevin ruler, he was a traditional enemy of the
Normans.[13] At the same time, tensions continued to grow as a result of
Henry's domestic policies, in particular the high level of revenue he was raising
to pay for his various wars. Conflict was curtailed by the power of the king's
personality and reputation.
• relations between Henry, Matilda and Geoffrey became increasingly
strained towards the end of the king's life. Matilda and Geoffrey proposed to
Henry in 1135 that the king should hand over the royal castles in Normandy to
Matilda whilst he was still alive and insist on the Norman nobility swearing
immediate allegiance to her, thereby giving the couple a much more powerful
position after Henry's death. Henry angrily declined to do so, probably out of a
concern that Geoffrey would try to seize power in Normandy somewhat earlier
than intended. A fresh rebellion broke out in southern Normandy, and Geoffrey
and Matilda intervened militarily on behalf of the rebels. In the middle of this
confrontation, Henry unexpectedly fell ill and died near Lyons-la-Foret.
Effects: There are two results:
1. The effect on economic and financial situation
Some researchers believe that the period of anarchy significantly undermined
the country's economy, led to the ruin of land and falling production. This thesis
is usually supported by estimates of English lands in 1156 for the taxation of
"Danish money", according to which the tax rate for many areas and cities of
Central England was reduced several times due to damage caused during the
Civil War.

Another opinion: the actual civil war in England lasted no more than nine years
- from 1139 to 1148. Mass church construction, noted in England in the middle
of the XII century, also shows that the war did not cause significant damage to
the wealth of society.

The financial system of England during the reign of Stephen remained fairly
stable. English coins minted under Stephen were full in weight, there is no
information about the taxation of the population during this period "Danish
money", virtually no damage to trade, concentrated in the loyal cities of the
eastern counties. Treasury revenues, of course, declined significantly due to
Stefan's distribution of lands and privileges to the barons he wanted to attract to
his side, and the work of the Chess Chamber was disorganized, but the king
managed to find additional sources of funding for warfare. for granting liberties
to cities and fairs.

2. Political effects:
The most important political result of the civil war was a sharp strengthening of
the feudal aristocracy. King Stephen and Empress Matilda, trying to attract the
barons to their side, actively distributed land holdings, castles, privileges and
titles. If in 1135 there were only seven counts in England, by 1142 their number
had reached 22. In the extreme weakness of royal power, the local feudal lords
became almost full-fledged rulers, holding in their hands the judicial and
administrative system of counties. Someone levied large taxes or, conversely,
exempted; issued orders. And someone even minted his own coin

2. Match the following words and word combinations to their correct meaning:
1. long barrows f a. artificial islands constructed of stone and timber
2. causewayed c b. a new religious movement which offered hope and self-
3. hillforts i respect to the new proletariat.
4. Raths d c. the earliest ceremonial monuments
5. crannogs a d. settlements in western and northern Britain and Ireland.
6. brochs e e. large stone structures, often surrounded by smaller
7. civitates g roundhouses, built during the Iron Age in Scotland.
8. honestiores j f. the first large communal tombs
9. humiliores h g. local government areas
10.Methodism b h. masses
i. large bank and ditch enclosures in prominent positions
in the landscape.
j. upper rank of citizens
1.f
2.c
3.i
4.d
5.a
6.e
7.g
8.j
9.h
10.b

3. Find the correspondence in these two columns:

1. The Battle of Hastings − 1066

2. Winchester Bible − 1160
3. Magna Carta − 1215
4. Black Death − 1347

4. Fill in the gaps:

1. In fact, the Avebury henge is so large, that the famous stone circle of
Stonehenge would fit inside it about 130 times!
2. The largest man-made mound in Europe, mysterious Silbury Hill compares in
height and volume to the roughly contemporary Egyptian pyramids.
3. This great prehistoric monument (Stonehenge) was built in several phases
spanning hundreds of years, from around 3000 BC to 1600 BC - it was a
construction project that tested ancient ingenuity and prehistoric technology to
the limit.
4. At 1,800 ft long, Maiden Castle is one of the largest and most completely
excavated hill forts in Britain
5. By the end of the Iron Age, amongst other things, coinage had been introduced.
6. The first Roman invasion of the lands we now call the British Isles took place
in 55 B.C. under war leader Julius Caesar.

5. Povide your understanding of the following lexemes:, municipia, civitates,

humiliores, honestiores.

Municipium (pl. municipia) is the Latin term for a town or city. Etymologically the
municipium was a social contract among municipes, the "duty holders", or citizens of the town. The
duties, or munera, were a communal obligation assumed by the municipes in exchange for the
privileges and protections of citizenship. Every citizen was a municeps.

In the history of Rome, the Latin term civitas (Latin pronunciation: [ˈkiːwɪtaːs]; plural civitates),
according to Cicero in the time of the late Roman Republic, was the social body of the cives, or
citizens, united by law (concilium coetusque hominum jure sociati). It is the law that binds them
together, giving them responsibilities (munera) on the one hand and rights of citizenship on the
other. The agreement (concilium) has a life of its own, creating a res publica or "public entity"
(synonymous with civitas), into which individuals are born or accepted, and from which they die or
are ejected. The civitas is not just the collective body of all the citizens, it is the contract binding
them all together, because each of them is a civis

Honestiores and humiliores are two categories of the population of Ancient Rome, of high and
low status, respectively. The division first appeared near the end of the 2nd century C.E. The first
category consisted of senators, equites, decuriones and some other social classes, the second of all
other people. Honestiores had many privileges: they could not be tortured and would be killed by
beheading and not damnatio ad bestias or crucifixion.