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Writing a Scientific Research Report (IMRaD)

What is an IMRaD format?

The IMRaD (often pronounced “im-rad”) format is a scientific writing structure that includes four or five major
sections: introduction (I); research methods (M); results (R); analysis (a); and discussion (D). The IMRaD format is
the most commonly used format in scientific article and journal writing and is used widely across most scientific and
research fields.

How Does the IMRaD Format Work?

As mentioned above, the IMRaD format includes four or five major sections. The little “a” has had multiple
interpretations over the years; some would suggest it means nothing other than “and,” as in “Introduction, Methods,
Results, and Discussion,” but others have argued that the “a” should be viewed as “Analysis” in papers where the
“Results” section may not be immediately clear and a section that analyzes the results is important for reader
comprehension. Either way, the “a” often remains in lower-case to indicate that, while it’s often important, it isn’t
always necessary. Below, we’ll review the five major sections, with “a” given equal weight to the other sections.

Note that these five sections should always go in the order listed below:

Introduction: The introduction states the research problem or the question(s) you intend to address through research.
Your introduction would typically include some variation of the following:
1. Statement of the topic you are about to address
2. Current state of the field of understanding (often, we call this a literature review and it may even merit
having its own section)
3. Problem or gap in knowledge (what don’t we know yet or need to know? what does the field still need to
understand? what’s been left out of previous research? is this a new issue that needs some direction?)
4. Forecast statement that explains, very briefly, what the rest of the paper will entail, including a possible
quick explanation of the type of research that needs to be conducted

Methods: The research methods section can go any number of different directions, depending on the type of
research you conducted. Regardless of what you did for your research, though, this section needs to be very clear,
very specific, very detailed, and only focused on research. Avoid explaining what the research means–this is for the
next sections, Analysis and Discussion. While the research section is often considered the most boring section for
someone to read, it is also considered the most important section to build your credibility. If your research methods
are sound, your paper holds a lot more weight. A few tips to make your methods section work well:
1. Separate each type of research you conducted (interviews, focus groups, experiments, etc.) into sub-
sections and only discuss one research method in each sub-section (for clarity and organization, it’s
important to not talk about multiple methods at once)

2. Be very detailed about your process. If you interviewed people, for example, we need to know how many
people you interviewed, what you asked them, what you hoped to learn by interviewing them, why chose to
interview over other methods, why you interviewed those people specifically (including providing they
demographic information if it’s relevant), and so forth. For other types of data collection, we need to know
what your methods were–how long you observed; how frequently you tested; how you coded qualitative
data; and so forth.

3. Don’t discuss what the research means. You’ll use the next two sections–Analysis and Discussion–to talk
about what the research means. To stay organized, simply discuss your research methods. This is the
single biggest mistake when writing research papers, so don’t fall into that trap.

Results: The results section is critical for your audience to understand what the research showed. Use this section to
show tables, charts, graphs, quotes, etc. from your research. At this point, you are building your reader towards
drawn conclusions, but you are not yet providing a full analysis. You’re simply showing what the data says. Follow
the same order as the Methods section–if you put interviews first, then focus groups second, do the same in this
section. Be sure, when you include graphics and images, that you label and title every table or graphic (“Table 3:
Interview Results“) and that you introduce them in the body of your text (“As you can see in Figure 1, seventy-nine
percent of respondents…”)

Analysis: The analysis section details what you and others may learn from the data. While some researchers like to
combine this section with the Discussion section, many writers and researchers find it useful to analyze the data
separately. In the analysis section, spend time connecting the dots for the reader. What do the interviews say about
the way employers think about their employees? What do the observations say about how employees respond to
workplace criticism? Can any connections be made between the two research types? It’s important in the Analysis
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section that you don’t draw conclusions that the research findings don’t suggest. Always stick to what the research
says.

Discussion: Finally, you conclude this paper by suggesting what new knowledge this provides to the field. You’ll often
want to note the limitations of your study and what further research still needs to be done. If something alarming or
important was discovered, this is where you highlight that information. If you use the IMRaD format to write other
types of papers (like a recommendation report or a plan), this is where you put the recommendations or the detailed
plan.

Abstract – Summarize the entire study

The abstract for the report comes at the beginning of the paper, but you should write it after you have
drafted the full report. The abstract provides a very short overview of the entire paper, including a sentence or two
about the report’s purpose and importance, a sentence or two about your methods, a few sentences that present the
main findings, and a sentence or two about the implications of your findings. (See our handout on Writing Abstracts.)

Reporting versus Commenting on your Findings

In the Results section, you simply report your findings. In the Discussion section, you comment on them.

Report 1. Refer to your table or figure and state the main trend

(Results section) Table 3 shows that Spam Filter A correctly filtered more junk emails than
Filter B

2. Support the trend with data

Filter A correctly filtered.... The average difference is....

3. (If needed) Note any additional, secondary trends and support them with
data

In addition.... Figure 1 also shows....

4. (If needed) Note any exceptions to your main trends or unexpected

outcomes.

However....

Comment 1. (If needed) Provide an explanation

(Discussion A feasible explanation is.... This trend can be explained by....

section)
2. (If needed) Compare to other research

X is consistent with X’s finding... In contrast, Y found....

3. (If needed) Evaluate whether the findings support or contradict a

hypothesis

4. State the bottom line: what does the data mean?

These findings overall suggest.... These data indicate....

Common problems in IMRaD drafts:

 The Abstract does not provide a clear statement of the main findings.
 The Introduction does not communicate clearly why the research is important.
 The Methods section is not detailed enough or is disorganized.
 The Results section provides comments and explanations instead of simply reporting results.

The material for this handout was drawn from Carnegie Mellon’s “Cheatsheet” on IMRAD reports.

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120 Criminology Research Topics & Ideas

General Criminology Research Paper Topics

1. Criminology as a social science.
2. Criminology and its public policies.
3. History of criminology.

Criminal Psychology Research Topics

1. What is the nature of criminal behavior?
2. How does the lack of education affect the incarceration rates?
3. Childhood aggression and the impact of divorce
4. The effect of the upbringing on antisocial adult behavior
5. How do gender and cultural background affect one’s attitude towards drug abuse?
6. Forensic psychology and its impact on the legal system
7. What is the role of criminal psychologists?
8. Different types of forensic psychological evaluations
9. What’s the difference between therapeutic and forensic evaluation?
10. Does socioeconomic status impact one’s criminal behavior?

Criminology Research Topics: Theories

1. What crimes are typical for what ages?
2. How does the type of crime correspond with the level of exerted aggression?
3. What is the connection between citizenship (or lack thereof) and law violation?
4. How does education (or lack thereof) correspond with crime level?
5. Does employment (or lack thereof) correspond with law violation?
6. What is the connection between family status and law violation?
7. Does gender affect on the type of law violation?
8. How does ownership of firearms correspond with law violation?
9. Does immigrant status correlate with law violation?
10. Is there a connection between mental health and law violation?
11. What are the causes of violence in the society?
12. Does the crime rate depend on the neighborhood?
13. How does race correspond with the type of crime?
14. Do religious beliefs correspond with law violation?
15. How does social class correlate with crime rate?
16. What are the reasons for the homeless’ improsonment?
17. How does weather correspond with law violation?

Criminology Topics on Victimization

1. Biological theories of crime: how do biological factors correspond with law violation?
2. Classical criminology: the contemporary take on crime, economics, deterrence, and the rational choice
perspective.
3. Convict criminology: what do ex-convicts have to say on the subject?
4. Criminal justice theories: punishment as a deterrent to crime.
5. Critical criminology: debunking false ideas about crime and criminal justice.
6. Cultural criminology: criminality as the product of culture.
7. Cultural transmission theory: how criminal norms are transmitted in social interaction.
8. Deterrence theory: how people don’t commit crimes out of fear of punishment.
9. Rational choice theory: how crime doing is aligned with personal objectives of the perpetrator.
10. Feminist Criminology: how the dominant crime theories exclude women.
11. Labeling and symbolic interaction theories: how minorities and those deviating from social norms tend to be
negatively labeled.
12. Life course criminology: how life events affect the actions that humans perform.
13. Psychological theories of crime: criminal behaviour through the lense of an individual’s personality.
14. Routine activities theory: how normal everyday activities affect the tendency to commit a crime.
15. The concept of natural legal crime.
16. Self-control theory: how the lack of individual self-control results in criminal behavior.
17. Social construction of crime: crime doing as social response.
18. Social control theory: how positive socialization corresponds with reduction of criminal violation.
19. Social disorganization theory: how neighbourhood ecological characteristics correspond with crime rates.
20. Social learning theory: how (non)criminal behavior can be acquired by observing and imitating others.
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21. Strain theories: how social structures within society pressure citizens to commit crime.
22. Theoretical integration: how two theories are better than one.

Criminology Research and Measurement Topics

1. Citation content analysis (CCA): a framework for gaining knowledge from a variety of media.
2. Crime classification systems: classification of crime according to the severity of punishment.
3. Crime mapping as a way to map, visualize, and analyze crime incident patterns.
4. Reports and statistics of crime: the estimated rate of crime over time. Public surveys.
5. Drug abuse warning network (DAWN): predicting trends in drug misuse.
6. Arrestee drug abuse monitoring (ADAM): drug use among arrestees.
7. Edge ethnography: collecting data undercover in typically closed research settings and groups through
rapport development or covert undercover strategy.
8. Experimental criminology: experimental and quasi-experimental research in the advancement of
criminological theory.
9. Fieldwork in criminology: street ethnographers and their dilemmas in the field concerning process and
outcomes.
10. Program evaluation: collecting and analyzing information to assess the efficiency of projects, policies and
programs.
11. Quantitative criminology: how exploratory research questions, inductive reasoning, and an orientation to
social context help recognize human subjectivity.

Criminology Topics on Types of Crime

1. Campus crime: the most common crimes on college campuses and ways of preventing them.
2. Child abuse: types, prevalence, risk groups, ways of detection and prevention.
3. Cybercrime: cyber fraud, defamation, hacking, bullying, phishing.
4. Domestic violence: gender, ways of detection and prevention, activism.
5. Domestic violence with disabilities.
6. Elder abuse: types, prevalence, risk groups, ways of detection and prevention.
7. Environmental crime. Natural resource theft: illegal trade in wildlife and timber, poaching, illegal fishing.
8. Environmental crime. Illegal trade in ozone-depleting substances, hazardous waste; pollution of air, water,
and soil.
9. Environmental crime: local, regional, national, and transnational level.
10. Environmental crime: climate change crime and corruption.
11. Environmental crime: wildlife harming and exploitation.
12. Hate crime: how prejudice motivates violence.
13. Homicide: what motivates one person to kill another.
14. Human trafficking: methods of deception, risk groups, ways of detection and prevention.
15. Identity theft: methods, risk groups, ways of detection and prevention.
16. Gambling in America.
17. Juvenile delinquency: risk groups, prevention policies, prosecution and punishment.
18. Juvenile Delinquency: Causes and Effects
19. Organizational crime: transnational, national, and local levels. Ways of disrupting the activity of a group.
20. Prostitution: risk groups, different takes on prevention policies, activism.
21. Robbery: risk groups, ways of prevention, prosecution and punishment.
22. Sex offenses: risk groups, types, prevalence, ways of detection and prevention.
23. Terrorism: definition, history, countermeasures.
24. Terrorism: individual and group activity, ways of detection and prevention.
25. Theft and shoplifting: risk groups, ways of detection, prevention policies, prosecution and punishment.
26. Counter-terrorism: constitutional and legislative issues.
27. White-collar crime: types, ways of detection, prevention policies, prosecution and punishment.

Criminology Topics on Racism and Discrimination

1. How systemic bias affects criminal justice?
2. How discriminatory portrayal of minority groups in the media affects criminal justice?
3. Racial profiling: targeting minority groups on the basis of race and ethnicity.
4. Racism and discrimination towards African-Americans.
5. Racial profiling: what are the cons? Are there any pros?
6. How discriminatory is the UK Court System?
7. How discriminatory is the US Court System?

Other Criminology Research Topics

1. Corporate crime: the ruling class criminals.
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SCHOOL OF CRIMINOLOGY
2. Genetics: illegal research and its dangers.
3. Hate crime: the implications in criminal justice.
4. Serial killers: risk groups, ways of detection and prevention.
5. Serial killers: portrayal in media.
6. Organized crime: how does it affect criminal justice?
7. Crime prevention programs.
8. Street lighting: does it reduce crime?
9. Terrorism prevention technology.
10. Identity theft: risk groups, ways of deception, prevention policies.
11. Due process model: procedural and substantive aspects.
12. Crime control in criminal justice administration.
13. Types of drugs: how do they affect the users?
14. Smart handheld devices: their function for security personnel.
15. Social media: its impact on crime rate.
16. Public health: how does criminal justice affect it?
17. Psychometric examinations: what is their role in criminal justice?
18. National defense in the US.
19. National defense in the UK.
20. Sexual harassment: the role of activism, ways of responding, prevention and prosecution.
21. Substance abuse: military.
22. Criminology and criminal justice jobs: a full list.

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