Petrochemicals and Polymers

Common Fossil Fuels
 A fuel is a substance which when burned, releases heat energy

 This heat can be transferred into electricity, which we use in our daily lives
 Most common fossil fuels include coal, natural gas and hydrocarbons such as methane
and propane which are obtained from crude oil
 The main constituent of natural gas is methane, CH4
Petroleum & Fractional Distillation

Petroleum
 Petroleum is also called crude oil and is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons which also
contains natural gas
 It is a thick, sticky, black liquid that is found under porous rock (under the ground and
under the sea)
Diagram showing crude oil under the sea
 Petroleum itself as a mixture isn't very useful but each component part of the mixture,
called a fraction, is useful and each fraction has different applications
 The fractions in petroleum are separated from each other in a process
called fractional distillation
 The molecules in each fraction have similar properties and boiling points, which depend
on the number of carbon atoms in the chain
 The boiling point and viscosity of each fraction increases as the carbon chain gets
longer
Process of fractional distillation
Diagram showing the process of fractional distillation to separate crude oil in a fractionating
column
Explanation
 Fractional distillation is carried out in a fractionating column

 The fractionating column is hot at the bottom and cool at the top
 Crude oil enters the fractionating column and is heated so vapours rise
 Vapours of hydrocarbons with very high boiling points will immediately turn into liquid
and are tapped off at the bottom of the column
 Vapours of hydrocarbons with low boiling points will rise up the column and condense
at the top to be tapped off
 The different fractions condense at different heights according to their boiling points
and are tapped off as liquids.
 The fractions containing smaller hydrocarbons are collected at the top of the
fractionating column as gases
 The fractions containing bigger hydrocarbons are collected at the lower sections of the
fractionating column
Properties of the main fractions of crude oil
 Viscosity: This refers to the ease of flow of a liquid. High viscosity liquids are thick and
flow less easily. If the number of carbon atoms increases, the attraction between the
hydrocarbon molecules also increases which results in the liquid becoming more viscous
with the increasing length of the hydrocarbon chain. The liquid flows less easily with
increasing molecular mass
 Colour: As carbon chain length increases the colour of the liquid gets darker as it gets
thicker and more viscous
 Melting point/boiling point: As the molecules get larger, the intermolecular attraction
becomes greater. So more heat is needed to separate the molecules. With increasing
molecular size there is an increase in boiling point
 Volatility: Volatility refers to the tendency of a substance to vaporise. With increasing
molecular size hydrocarbon liquids become less volatile. This is because the attraction
between the molecules increases with increasing molecular size
Uses of the different fractions obtained from petroleum (crude oil)
 Refinery gas: heating and cooking

 Gasoline: fuel for cars (petrol)
 Naphtha: raw product for producing chemicals
 Kerosene: for making jet fuel (paraffin)
 Diesel: fuel for diesel engines (gas oil)
 Fuel oil: fuel for ships and for home heating
 Lubricating oil: for lubricants, polishes, waxes
 Bitumen: for surfacing roads
Trend in boiling point of the main fractions

Polymers (addition and condensation polymerization):
Polymers are the large molecules that are made from repeating units known as monomers.
Polymers are also known as long-chain macromolecules.
Carbohydrates, proteins and silk are examples of natural polymers while nylon and terylene are
synthetic (man-made) polymers. There are two reactions to form polymers and those are:
1. Addition polymerization
2. Condensation polymerization
In addition polymerization, unsaturated monomers join together to form an addition

polymer. In this reaction, no atom or molecule is lost.
For example, the addition polymerization of ethene to form poly(ethene) is shown below.
As you can see in the image, the carbon-carbon double covalent bonds of ethene break (due to
high temperature and pressure). The n indicates multiple monomers. When these monomers
break, they combine to form poly(ethene).
Addition polymerization (as discussed above) is very important because poly(ethene) is used to
make various toys, plastic bags and various other instruments due to its properties.
Now let’s talk about condensation polymerization.
In condensation polymerization, small repeat units (monomers) combine to form a

polymer and water is removed during this process.
Nylon and terylene are made due to condensation polymerization. Organic chemistry requires
you to learn how monomers react to form nylon and terylene.
dicarboxylic acid + diamine → nylon + water
dicarboxylic acid + diol → terylene + water
It is to note that there is an amide linkage in the condensation polymerization to form nylon
(because of the presence of diamine) while there is an ester linkage in the condensation
polymerization to form terylene
Now, I will show you the condensation polymerization to form nylon. Therefore, you can
consult the structure below for your guidance (note that the repeating amide links can be seen
in nylon).
You should remember that nylon and proteins have the same amide linkage even though nylon
is a synthetic polymer while proteins are natural polymers.
Similarly, terylene (a synthetic polymer) and fats (a natural polymer) have the same ester
linkage which is visible in their structural formula.
Prepared By : M.Zuhair Asif

(Chemist)
Mphil Chemistry
+923154512845

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Common Fossil Fuels

 A fuel is a substance which when burned, releases heat energy

Petroleum & Fractional Distillation

Diagram showing crude oil under the sea

Process of fractional distillation

 Fractional distillation is carried out in a fractionating column

Uses of the different fractions obtained from petroleum (crude oil)

 Refinery gas: heating and cooking

Trend in boiling point of the main fractions

In addition polymerization, unsaturated monomers join together to form an addition

Now let’s talk about condensation polymerization.

In condensation polymerization, small repeat units (monomers) combine to form a

dicarboxylic acid + diamine → nylon + water

dicarboxylic acid + diol → terylene + water

Prepared By : M.Zuhair Asif

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