9th Class Panjab Board Chemistry Full Book

Chapter1
Fundamentals of Chemistry
Major Concepts
1.1 Branches of Chemistry Time allocation
1.2 Basic Definitions Teaching periods 12
1.3 Chemical species Assessment periods 03
1.4 Avogadro' s Number and Mole Weightage 10%
1.5 Chemical Calculations
Students Learning Outcomes
Students will be able to:

• Identify and provide examples of different branches of chemistry.
• Differentiate among branches of chemistry.
• Distinguish between matter and a substance.
• Define ions, molecular ions, formula units and free radicals.
• Define atomic number, atomic mass, atomic mass unit.
• Differentiate among elements, compounds and mixtures.
• Define relative atomic mass based on C-12 scale.
• Differentiate between empirical and molecular formula.
• Distinguish between atoms and ions.
• Differentiate between molecules and molecular ions.
• Distinguish between ion and free radicals.
• Classify the chemical species from given examples.
• Identify the representative particles of elements and compounds.
• Relate gram atomic mass, gram molecular mass and gram formula mass to
mole.
• Describe how Avogadro's number is related to a mole of any substance.
• Distinguish among the terms gram atomic mass, gram molecular mass and
gram formula mass.
• Change atomic mass, molecular mass and formula mass into gram atomic
mass, gram molecular mass and gram formula mass.
Chemistry - IX 2 Unit 1: Fundamentals of Chemistry
Introduction
The knowledge that provides understanding of this world and how it works, is
science. The branch of science which deals with the composition, structure, properties
and reactions of matter is called chemistry. It deals with every aspect of our life.
The development of science and technology has provided us a lot of facilities in
daily life. Imagine the role and importance of petrochemical products, medicines and
drugs, soap, detergents, paper, plastics, paints and pigments, insecticides, pesticides
which all are fruit of the efforts of chemists. The development of chemical industry has
also generated toxic wastes, contaminated water and polluted air around us. On the other
hand, chemistry also provides knowledge and techniques to improve our health and
environment and to explore and to conserve the natural resources.
In this chapter, we will study about different branches of chemistry, basic
definitions and concepts of chemistry.
1.1 BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY

It is a fact that we live in the world of chemicals. We all depend upon different
living organisms which require water, oxygen or carbon dioxide for their survival.
Today chemistry has a wide scope in all aspects of life and is serving the humanity
day and night. Chemistry is divided into following main branches: physical
chemistry, organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, biochemistry, industrial chemistry,
nuclear chemistry, environmental chemistry and analytical chemistry.
1.1.1 Physical Chemistry

Physical Chemistry is defined as the branch of chemistry that deals with the
relationship between the composition and physical properties of matter along with the
changes in them. The properties such as structure of atoms or formation of molecules
behavior of gases, liquids and solids and the study of the effect of temperature or
radiation on matter are studied under this branch.
1.1.2 Organic Chemistry

Organic Chemistry is the study of covalent compounds of carbon and hydrogen
(hydrocarbons) and their derivatives. Organic compounds occur naturally and are also
synthesized in the laboratories. Organic chemists determine the structure and properties
of these naturally occurring as well as synthesized compounds. Scope of this branch
covers petroleum, petrochemicals and pharmaceutical industries.
1.1.3 Inorganic Chemistry

Inorganic chemistry deals with the study of all elements and their compounds
except those of compounds of carbon and hydrogen (hydrocarbons) and their
derivatives. It has applications in every aspect of the chemical industry such as glass,
cement, ceramics and metallurgy (extraction of metals from ores).
1.1.4 Biochemistry
It is the branch of chemistry in which we study the structure, composition, and
chemical reactions of substances found in living organisms. It covers all chemical
processes taking place in living organisms, such as synthesis and metabolism of
biomolecules like carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Biochemistry emerged as a separate
discipline when scientists began to study how living things obtain energy from food or
how the fundamental biological changes occur during a disease. Examples of
applications of biochemistry are in the fields of medicine, food science and agriculture,
etc.
1.1.5 Industrial Chemistry

The branch of chemistry that deals with the manufacturing of chemical
compounds on commercial scale, is called industrial chemistry. It deals with the
manufacturing of basic chemicals such as oxygen, chlorine, ammonia, caustic soda,
nitric acid and sulphuric acid. These chemicals provide the raw materials for many other
industries such as fertilizers, soap, textiles, agricultural products, paints and paper, etc.
1.1.6 Nuclear Chemistry

Nuclear Chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the radioactivity,
nuclear processes and properties. The main concern of this branch is with the atomic
energy and its uses in daily life. It also includes the study of the chemical effects resulting
from the absorption of radiation within animals, plants and other materials. It has vast
applications in medical treatment (radiotherapy), preservation of food and generation of
electrical power through nuclear reactors, etc.
1.1.7 Environmental Chemistry

It is the branch of chemistry in which we study about components of the
environment and the effects of human activities on the environment. Environmental
chemistry is related to other branches like biology, geology, ecology, soil and water. The
knowledge of chemical processes taking place in environment is necessary for its
improvement and protection against pollution.
1.1.8 Analytical Chemistry

Analytical chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with separation and
analysis of a sample to identify its components. The separation is carried out prior to
qualitative and quantitative analysis. Qualitative analysis provides the identity of a
substance (composition of chemical species). On the other hand, quantitative analysis
determines the amount of each component present in the sample. Hence, in this branch
different techniques and instruments used for analysis are studied. The scope of this
branch covers food, water, environmental and clinical analysis.
i. In which branch of chemistry behaviour of gases and liquids is

studied?
ii. Define biochemistry?
iii. Which branch of chemistry deals with preparation of paints and
paper?
iv. In which branch of chemistry the metabolic processes of
carbohydrates and proteins are studied?
Test yourself v. Which branch of chemistry deals with atomic energy and its uses
1.1 in daily life?
vi. Which branch of chemistry deals with the structure and
properties of naturally occurring molecules?
1.2 BASIC DEFINITIONS

Matter is simply defined as anything that has mass and occupies space. Our
bodies as well as all the things around us are examples of matter. In chemistry, we study
all types of matters that can exist in any of three physical states: solid, liquid or gas.
A piece of matter in pure form is termed as a substance. Every substance has a
fixed composition and specific properties or characteristics. Whereas, impure matter is
called a mixture; which can be homogeneous or heterogeneous in its composition.
We know that every substance has physical as well as chemical properties. The
properties those are associated with the physical state of the substance are called
physical properties like colour, smell, taste, hardness, shape of crystal, solubility,
melting or boiling points, etc. For example, when ice is heated, it melts to form water.
When water is further heated, it boils to give steam. In this entire process only the
physical states of water change whereas its chemical composition remains the same.
The chemical properties depend upon the composition of the substance. When a
substance undergoes a chemical change, its composition changes and a new substances
are formed. For example, decomposition of water is a chemical change as it produces
hydrogen and oxygen gases. All materials are either a substance or a mixture. Figure 1.1
shows simple classification of the matter into different forms.
MATTER
Mixture Substance
Homogeneous Heterogeneous
Hetrogeneous
Elements Compounds
mixture mixture
Fig. 1.1. Classification of matter

1.2.1 Elements, Compounds and Mixtures

1.2.1.1 Elements
In the early ages, only nine elements (carbon, gold, silver, tin, mercury, lead,
copper, iron and sulphur) were known. At that time, it was considered that elements were
the substances that could not be broken down into simpler units by ordinary chemical
processes. Until the end of nineteenth century, sixty-three elements had been discovered.
Now 118 elements have been discovered, out of which 92 are naturally occurring
elements. Modern definition of element is that it is a substance made up of same type of
atoms, having same atomic number and cannot be decomposed into simple substances
by ordinary chemical means. It means that each element is made up of unique type of
atoms that have very specific properties.
Elements occur in nature in free or combined form. All the naturally occurring
elements found in the world have different percentages in the earth's crust, oceans and
atmosphere. Table 1.1. shows natural occurrence in percentage by weight of some major
elements around us. It shows concentrations of these major elements found in the three
main systems of our environment.
Table 1.1 Natural Occurrences by Weight % of Some Major Elements
‘s crust
Elements may be solids, liquids or gases. Majority of the elements exist as solids
e.g. sodium, copper, zinc, gold, etc. There are very few elements which occur in liquid
state e.g. mercury and bromine. A few elements exist as gases e.g. nitrogen, oxygen,
chlorine and hydrogen.
On the basis of their properties, elements are divided into metals, non-metals and
metalloids. About 80 percent of the elements are metals.
Major part of a living body is made up of water i.e. 65% to 80% by

mass.
Six elements constitute about 99% of our body mass; namely:
Oxygen 65 %, Carbon 18%, Hydrogen 10 %, Nitrogen 3%,
Calcium 1.5% and Phosphorus 1.5%.
Potassium, Sulphur, Magnesium and Sodium constitute 0.8% of
Do you know? our body mass. Whereas Copper, Zinc, Fluorine, Chlorine, Iron,
Cobalt and Manganese constitute only 0.2% of our body mass.
Elements are represented by symbols, which are abbreviations for the name of
elements. A symbol is taken from the name of that element in English, Latin, Greek or
German. If it is one letter, it will be capital as H for Hydrogen, N for Nitrogen and C for
Carbon etc. In case of two letters symbol, only first letter is capital e.g. Ca for Calcium,
Na for Sodium and Cl for Chlorine.
The unique property of an element is valency. It is combining capacity of an
element with other elements. It depends upon the number of electrons in the outermost
shell.
In simple covalent compounds, valency is the number of hydrogen atoms which
combine with one atom of that element or the number of bonds formed by one atom of
that element e.g. in the following compounds.
The valency of chlorine, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon is 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively.

In simple ionic compounds valency is the number of electrons gained or lost by
an atom of an element to complete its octet. Elements having less than four electrons in
their valence shell; prefer to lose the electrons to complete their octet. For example,
atoms of Na, Mg and Al have 1, 2 and 3 electrons in their valence shells respectively.
They lose these electrons to have valency of 1, 2 and 3, respectively. On the other hand,
elements having five or more than five electrons in their valence shells, gain electrons to
complete their octet. For example, N, O and Cl have 5, 6 and 7 electrons in their valence
shells respectively. They gain 3, 2 and 1 electrons respectively to complete their octet.
Hence, they show valency of 3, 2 and 1, respectively. A radical is a group of atoms that
have some charge. Valencies of some common elements and radicals are shown in Table
1.2.
Table 1.2 Some Elements and Radicals with their Symbols and Common
Valencies
Some elements show more than one valency, i.e. they have variable valency. For
example, in ferrous sulphate (FeSO4) the valency of iron is 2. In ferric sulphate
(Fe2(SO4)3), the valency of iron is 3. Generally, the Latin or Greek name for the element
(e.g., Ferrum) is modified to end in 'ous' for the lower valency (e.g. Ferrous) and to end in
'ic' for the higher valency (e.g. Ferric).
1.2.1.2 Compound
Compound is a substance made up of two or more elements chemically combined
together in a fixed ratio by mass. As a result of this combination, elements lose their own
properties and produce new substances (compounds) that have entirely different
properties. Compounds can't be broken down into its constituent elements by simple
physical methods. For example, carbon dioxide is formed when elements of carbon and
oxygen combine chemically in a fixed ratio of 12:32 or 3:8 by mass. Similarly, water is a
compound formed by a chemical combination between hydrogen and oxygen in a fixed
ratio of 1:8 by mass.
Compounds can be classified as ionic or covalent. Ionic compounds do not exist

in independent molecular form. They form a three dimensional crystal lattice, in which
each ion is surrounded by oppositely charged ions. These oppositely charged ions attract
each other very strongly, as a result ionic compounds have high melting and boiling
points. These compounds are represented by formula units e.g. NaCl, KBr, CuSO4.
The covalent compounds mostly exist in molecular form. A molecule is a true
representative of the covalent compound and its formula is called molecular formula
e.g. H2O, HC1, H2SO4, Ch4.
Table 1.3 Some Common Compounds with their Formulae
Remember
Always use:
Standard symbols of elements
Chemical formulae of compounds
Proper abbreviations of scientific terms
Standard values and SI units for constants
1.2.1.3 Mixture
When two or more elements or compounds mix up physically without any fixed
ratio, they form a mixture. On mixing up, the component substances retain their own
chemical identities and properties. The mixture can be separated into parent components
by physical methods such as distillation, filtration, evaporation, crystallisation or
magnetization. Mixtures that have uniform composition throughout are called
homogeneous mixtures e.g. air, gasoline, ice cream. Whereas, heterogeneous mixtures
are those in which composition is not uniform throughout e.g. soil, rock and wood.
Air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, noble gases and

water vapours.
Soil is a mixture of sand, clay, mineral salts, water and air.
Milk is a mixture of water, sugar, fat, proteins, mineral salts and vitamins.
Do you know? Brass is a mixture of copper and zinc metals.
Table 1.4 Difference between a Compound and a Mixture

Compound Mixture
i It is formed by a chemical combination of Mixture is formed by the simple mixing
atoms of the elements. up of the substances.
ii. The constituents lose their identity and Mixture shows the properties of the
form a new substance having entirely constituents.
different properties from them.
iii. Compounds always have fixed Mixtures do not have fixed composition.
composition by mass.
iv. The components cannot be separated by The components can be separated by
physical means. simple physical methods.
v. Every compound is represented by a It consists of two or more components
chemical formula. and does not have any chemical
formula.
vi. Compounds have homogeneous They may be homogeneous or
composition. heterogeneous in composition
vii. Compounds have sharp and fixed melting Mixtures do not have sharp and fixed
points melting points.
i. Can you identify mixture, element or compound out of the

following:
Coca cola, petroleum, sugar, table salt, blood, gun powder, urine,
aluminium, silicon, tin, lime and ice cream.
ii. How can you justify that air is a homogenous mixture. Identify
substances present in it.
iii. Name the elements represented by the following symbols:
Hg, Au, Fe, Ni, Co, W, Sn, Na, Ba, Br, Bi.
Test yourself iv. Name a solid, a liquid and a gaseous element that exists at the
1.2 room temperature.
v. Which elements do the following compounds contain?
Sugar, common salt, lime water and chalk.
1.2.1 Atomic Number and Mass Number

The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons present in
the nucleus of its atoms. It is represented by symbol ‘Z’ . As all atoms of an element have
the same number of protons in their nuclei, they have the same atomic number.
Hence, each element has a specific atomic number termed as its identification
number. For example, all hydrogen atoms have 1 proton, their atomic number is Z=l. All
atoms in carbon have 6 protons, their atomic number is Z=6. Similarly, in oxygen all
atoms have 8 protons having atomic number Z=8 and sulphur having 16 protons shows
atomic number Z = 16.
The mass number is the sum of number of protons and neutrons present in the
nucleus of an atom. It is represented by symbol 'A'.
It is calculated as A=Z+n where n is the number of neutrons.
Each proton and neutron has lamu mass. For example, hydrogen atom has one
proton and no neutron in its nucleus, its mass number A=l+0 =1. Carbon atom has 6
protons and 6 neutrons, hence its mass number A=12. Atomic numbers and mass
numbers of a few elements are given in Table 1.5
Table 1.5 Some Elements along with their Atomic and Mass Numbers
Example 1.1
How many protons and neutrons are there in an atom having A = 238 and Z = 92.
Solution:
First of all, develop data from the given statement of the example and then solve it with
the help of data.
Data
A=238
Z=92
Number of protons ?
Number of neutrons?
Number of protons = Z = 92
Number of Neutrons =A- Z

= 238 – 92
= 146
1.2.3 Relative Atomic Mass and Atomic Mass Unit
As we know that the mass of an atom is too small to be determined practically.
However, certain instruments enable us to determine the ratio of the atomic masses of
various elements to that of carbon-12 atoms. This ratio is known as the relative atomic
mass of the element. The relative atomic mass of an element is the average mass of the
atoms of that element as compared to 1/12th (one-twelfth) the mass of an atom of carbon-
12 isotope (an element having different mass number but same atomic number). Based
on carbon-12 standard, the mass of an atom of carbon is 12 units and l/2th of it comes to be
1 unit. When we compare atomic masses of other elements with atomic mass of carbon-
12 atom, they are expressed as relative atomic masses of those elements. The unit for
relative atomic masses is called atomic mass unit, with symbol 'amu'. One atomic mass
unit is 1/12th the mass of one atom of carbon-12th. When this atomic mass unit is
expressed in grams, it is:
For example:
i) How many amu 1 g of a substance has?

ii) Is atomic mass unit a SI unit of an atomic mass?
iii) What is the relationship between atomic number and atomic mass?
iv) Define relative atomic mass.
Test yourself v) Why atomic mass of an atom is defined as relative atomic mass?
1.3
1.2.4 How to write a Chemical Formula It represents
the name of the
Compounds are represented by chemical substance e.g.
formulae as elements are represented by H2O (water). It also
It tells the represents
symbols. Chemical formulae of compounds are name of the one mole of
elements the molecules
written keeping the following steps in as present Significance in the balanced
consideration. in the of chemical
compound. chemical equation.
i. Symbols of two elements are written formula
side by side, in the order of positive ion It indicates It is in fact

the mass of the one molecule or
first and negative ion later. compound in amus formula unit of
or grams. the compound.
ii. The valency of each ion is written
on the right top corner of its
symbol, e.g. Na+, Ca2+, CI and O2.
iii. This valency of each ion is brought to the lower right corner of other ion by 'cross-
exchange' method, e.g.
They are written as:
iv. If the valencies are same, they are offset and are not written in the chemical
formula. But if they are different, they are indicated as such at the same position,
e.g. in case of sodium chloride both the valencies are offset and formula is written
as NaCl, whereas, calcium chloride is represented by formula CaCl2.
v. If an ion is a combination of two or more atoms which is called radical, bearing a
net charge on it, e.g. SO42 (sulphate) and PO43 (phosphate), then the net charge
represents the valency of the radical. The chemical formula of such compounds is
written as explained in (iii) and (iv); writing the negative radical within the
parenthesis. For example, chemical formula of aluminium sulphate is written as
Al2(SO4)3 and that of calcium phosphate as Ca3(PO4)2.
1.2.4.1 Empirical formula
Chemical formulae are of two types. The simplest type of formula is empirical
formula. It is the simplest whole number ratio of atoms present in a compound. The
empirical formula of a compound is determined by knowing the percentage composition
of a compound. However, here we will explain it with simple examples.
The covalent compound silica (sand) has simplest ratio of 1:2 of silicon and
oxygen respectively. Therefore, its empirical formula is SiO2. Similarly, glucose has
simplest ratio 1:2:1 of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, respectively. Hence, its empirical
formula is CH2O.
As discussed earlier, the ionic compounds exist in three dimensional network
forms. Each ion is surrounded by oppositely charged ions in such a way to form
electrically neutral compound. Therefore, the simplest unit taken as a representative of
an ionic compound is called formula unit. It is defined as the simplest whole number
ratio of ions, as present in the ionic compound. In other words, ionic compounds have
only empirical formulae. For example, formula unit of common salt consists of one Na+
and one CI ion and its empirical formula is NaCl. Similarly, formula unit of potassium
bromide is KBr, which is also its empirical formula.
1.2.4.2 Molecular Formula
Molecules are formed by the combination of atoms. These molecules are

represented by molecular formulae that show actual number of atoms of each element
present in a molecule of that compound. Molecular formula is derived from empirical
formula by the following relationship:
Molecular formula = (Empirical formula)n
Where n is 1,2,3 and so on.
For example, molecular formula of benzene is C6H6 which is derived from the
empirical formula CH where the value of n is 6.
The molecular formula of a compound may be same or a multiple of the empirical
formula. A few compounds having different empirical and molecular formulae are
shown in Table 1.6.
Table 1.6 Some Compounds with their Empirical and Molecular Formulae
Some compounds may have same empirical and molecular formula e.g. water (H20),
hydrochloric acid (HC1), etc.
1.2.5 Molecular Mass and Formula Mass
The sum of atomic masses of all the atoms present in one molecule of a molecular
substance, is its molecular mass. For example, molecular mass of chlorine (Cl2) is 71.0
amu, of water (H2O) is 18 amu and that of carbon oxide (CO2) is 44 amu.
Example 1.2
Calculate the molecular mass of Nitric acid, HNO3.
Solution
Atomic mass of H = 1 amu
Atomic mass of N = 14 amu
Atomic mass of O = 16 amu
Molecular formula = HNO3
Molecular mass = 1 (At. mass of H) + 1 (At. mass of N) + 3 (At. mass of O)
= 1 + 14 + 3(16)
= 1 + 14 + 48
= 63 amu
Some ionic compounds that form three dimensional solid crystals, are represented
by their formula units. Formula mass in such cases is the sum of atomic masses of all the
atoms present in one formula unit of a substance. For example, formula mass of sodium
chloride is 58.5 amu and that of CaCO3 is 100 amu.
Example 1.3
Calculate the formula mass of Potassium sulphate K2SO4
Solution
Atomic mass of K = 39 amu
Atomic mass of S = 32 amu
Atomic mass of O = 16 amu
Formula unit = K2SO4
Formula mass of K2SO4 = 2(39) + 1(32) + 4(16)
= 78 + 32 + 64
= 174 amu
i.What is the relationship between empirical formula and formula unit?

ii.
How can you differentiate between molecular formula and empirical
formula?
iii. Identify the following formulae as formulas or unit molecular formulae:
H2O2, CH4, C6H12O6, C12H22O1, BaCO3, KBr
iv. What is empirical formula of acetic acid (CH3COOH)?
Test yourself Find out its molecular mass.
1.3 CHEMICAL
1.4 v. SPECIES
Calculate the formula masses of:
Na2S04, ZnSO4 and CuCO3.
1.3.1 Ions (Cations and Anions), Molecular Ions and Free Radicals
Ion is an atom or group of atoms having a charge on it. The charge may be positive
or negative. There are two types of ions i.e. cations and anions. An atom or group of
atoms having positive charge on it is called cation. The cations are formed when atoms
lose electrons from their outermost shells. For example, Na+, K+ are cations. The
following equations show the formation of cations from atoms.
An atom or a group of atoms that has a negative charge on it, is called anion. Anion
is formed by the gain or addition of electrons to an atom. For example, Cl and O2.
Following examples show the formation of an anion by addition of electrons to an atom.
Table 1.7 Difference between Atoms and Ions

1.3.1.1 Molecular Ion

When a molecule loses or gains an electron, it forms a molecular ion. Hence,
molecular ion or radical is a species having positive or negative charge on it. Like other
ions they can be cationic molecular ions (if they carry positive charge) or anionic
molecular ions (if they carry negative charge). Cationic molecular ions are more
abundant than anionic molecular ions. For example, CH4+, He+, N2+. When gases are
bombarded with high energy electrons in a discharge tube, they ionize to give molecular
ions. Table 1.8 shows some differences between molecule and molecular ion.
Table 1.8 Difference between Molecule and Molecular Ion
1.3.1.2 Free Radicals

Free radicals are atoms or group of atoms possessing odd number of (unpaired)
electrons. It is represented by putting a dot over the symbol of an element e.g. H, CI,
H3C. Free radicals are generated by the homolytic (equal) breakage of the bond between
two atoms when they absorb heat or light energy. A free radical is extremely reactive
species as it has the tendency to complete its octet. Table 1.9 shows some of the
differences between ions and free radicals.
Most of the universe exists in the

form of plasma, the fourth state of
matter. Both the cationic and
anionic molecular ions are present
Do you know? in it.
sunlight
Table 1.9 Differencesunlight

between Ions and Free Radicals
1.3.2 Types of Molecules

A molecule is formed by the chemical combinations of atoms. It is the smallest unit
of a substance. It shows all the properties of the substance and can exist independently.
There are different types of molecules depending upon the number and types of atoms
combining. A few types are discussed here.
A molecule consisting of only one atom is called monoatomic molecule. For
example, the inert gases helium, neon and argon all exist independently in atomic form
and they are called monoatomic molecules.
If a molecule consists of two atoms, it is called diatomic molecule. For example:
hydrogen (H2), oxygen (O2), chlorine (Cl2) and hydrogen chloride (HCl).
If it consists of three atoms, it is called triatomic molecule. For example :H2O and
CO2. If a molecule consists of many atoms, it is called polyatomic. For example: methane
(CH4), sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and glucose (C6H12O6).
A Molecule containing same type of atoms, is called homoatomic molecule. For
example: hydrogen (H2), ozone (O3), sulphur (S8) and phosphorus (P4) are the examples
of molecules formed by the same type of atoms. When a molecule consists of different
kinds of atoms, it is called heteroatomic molecule. For example: CO2, H2O and NH3.
mass of a substance. Avogadro's Number is a collection of 6.02  1023 particles. It is

represented by symbol 'NA'. Hence, the 6.02  1023 number of atoms, molecules or
formula units is called Avogadro's number that is equivalent to one 'mole' of respective
substance. In simple words, 6.02  1023 particles are equal to one mole as twelve eggs are
equal to one dozen.
To understand the relationship between the Avogadro's
number and the mole of a substance let us consider a few
examples.
i. 6.02  1023 atoms of carbon are equivalent to one mole of
carbon.
ii. 6.02  1023 molecules of H2O are equivalent to one mole of
water.
iii. 6.02  1023 formula units of NaCl are equivalent to one mole
of sodium chloride. Amaedo Avogadro
(1776-1856) was an
Thus, 6.02  1023 atoms of elements or 6.02  1023 molecules Italian scholar. He is
of molecular substance or 6.02  1023 formula units of ionic famous for molecular
compounds are equivalent to 1 mole. theory commonly
known as Avogadro's
For further explanation about number of atoms in molecular law. In tribute to him,
compounds or number of ions in ionic compounds let us discuss the number of particles
two examples: (atoms, molecules,
ions) in mole of a
i. One molecule of water is made up of 2 atoms of hydrogen substance 6.02  1023 is
and 1 atom of oxygen, hence 2  6.02  1023 atoms of k n o w n a s t h e
hydrogen and 6.02  1023 atoms of oxygen constitute one Avogadro's constant.
mole of water.
ii. One formula unit of sodium chloride consists of one sodium ion and one chloride
ion. So there are 6.02  1023 number of Na ions and 6.02  1023 CI ions in one mole
of sodium chloride. Thus, the total number of ions in 1 mole of NaCl is 12.04l023 or
1.204  1024.
1.5.2 Mole (Chemist secret unit)
A mole is defined as the amount(mass) of a substance that contains 6.02  l023
number of particles (atoms, molecules or formula units). It establishes a link between
mass of a substance and number of particles as shown in summary of molar calculations.
It is abbreviated as 'mol'.
You know that a substance may be an element or compound (molecular or ionic).
Mass of a substance is either one of the following: atomic mass, molecular mass or
formula mass. These masses are expressed in atomic mass units (amu). But when these
masses are expressed in grams, they are called as molar masses.
Scientists have agreed that Avogadro's number of particles are present in one molar
mass of a substance. Thus, quantitative definition of mole is the atomic mass, molecular
mass or formula mass of a substance expressed in grams is called mole.
For example:
Atomic mass of carbon expressed as 12 g = 1 mol of carbon
Molecular mass of H2O expressed as 18 g = 1 mol of water
Molecular mass of H2SO4 expressed as 98 g = 1 mol of H2SO4
Formula mass of NaCl expressed as 58.5 g = 1 mol of NaCl
Thus, the relationship between mole and mass can be expressed as:
the
Or,
Mass of substance (g) = number of moles x molar mass
A detailed relationship between a substance and a mole through molar mass and
number of particles is presented here.
Summary showing a relationship between a substance and a mole.
SUBSTANCE
Compound
t
en
em
El
Molecular
mass (amu)
(Expressed in g)
6.02 x 1023 (Contains) gram

molecules molecular mass
(is equivalent to)

Atomic mole Formula
mass mass
(amu) (amu)
(Expressed in g) (Expressed in g)
6.02 x 1023 (Contains) gram 6.02 x 1023 gram

(Contains)
atoms atomic mass formula units formula mass
(is equivalent to) (is equivalent to)
mole mole
i. Which term is used to represent the mass of 1 mole of molecules of a

substance?
ii. How many atoms are present in one gram atomic mass of a
substance ?
iii. Explain the relationship between mass and mole of a substance.
Test yourself iv. Find out the mass of 3 moles of oxygen atoms.
1.6 v. How many molecules of water are present in half mole of water?
Example 1.4
Calculate the gram molecule (number of moles) in 40 g of H3PO4.
Solution
Therefore, 40 grams will contain 0.408 gram molecule (mol) of H3PO4.

1.6 CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS
In chemical calculations, we calculate number of moles and number of particles of a
given mass of a substance or vice versa. These calculations are based upon mole concept.
Let us have a few examples of these calculations.
Calculating the number of moles and number of particles from known mass of a
substance.
First calculate the number of moles from given mass by using equation
Then calculate number of particles from the calculated number of moles with the
help of following equation:
1.6.1 Mole-Mass Calculations

In these calculations, we calculate the number of moles of a substance from the
known mass of the substance with the help of following equation:
of the
When we rearrange the equation to calculate mass of a substance from the number of
moles of a substance we get,
Example 1.5
You have a piece of coal (carbon) weighing 9.0 gram. Calculate the number of moles of
coal in the given mass.
Solution
The mass is converted to the number of moles by the equation:
So, 9.0 g of coal is equivalent to 0.75 mol.

1.6.2 Mole-Particle Calculations
In these calculations, we can calculate the number of moles of a substance from the given
number of particles. (These particles are the atoms, molecules or formula units).
On rearranging above equation we get,
Summary of Molar Calculations:

mole NA
mole molar mass
Mass of Substances Mole Number of Particles
known mass number of particles

molar mass NA
Remember
Never calculate the number of particles from mass of the substance or vice versa.
Always make calculations through moles.
For calculations of the number of atoms in molecular compounds and the number
of ions in ionic compounds; first calculate the number of molecules or formula
units and then calculate the number of atoms or ions.
Example 1.6
Calculate the number of moles, number of molecules and number of atoms present
in 6 grams of water.
Solution
The number of molecules contained in 6 grams of water are 1.98 x 1023

As we know 1 molecule of water consists of 3 atoms, therefore:
Example 1.7
There are 3.01  1023 molecules of CO2 present in a container. Calculate the number of
moles and its mass.
Solution
We can calculate the number of molecules of CO2 by putting the values in equation
known number of molecules
mol
Then by putting this value in this equation we get
i. How many atoms of sodium are present in 3 moles of sodium and what is
the mass of it?
ii. How many atoms are in 1 amu and 1 g of hydrogen (H)?
iii. How many atoms are present in 16 g of O and 8g of S?
iv. Is the mass of 1 mole of O and 1 mole of S same?
v. What do you mean by 1 atom of C and 1 gram atom of C?
Test yourself vi. If 16 g of oxygen contains 1 mole of oxygen atoms calculate the mass of
1.7 one atom of oxygen in grams.
vii. How many times is 1 mole of oxygen atom heavier than 1 mole of
hydrogen atom?
viii. Why does 10 g nitrogen gas contain the same number of molecules as 10 g
of carbon monoxide?
THE MOLECULARITY OF THE PHYSICAL WORLD.

The nature of the physical world as perceived through men's senses
has been investigated in depth. The biggest lesson we learnt in 20th century
is that Chemistry has become central science. It leads to the discovery of
every chemical reaction in any living and non-living thing based on
formation of "molecules". A reaction in the smallest living organism or in
the most developed species like man, always takes place through the process
of molecule formation. Hence it provides basis of "molecularity" of the physical world.
CORPUSCULAR NATURE OF MATTER.
In 1924 de Broglie put forward the theory of dual nature of matter i.e. matter has both the
properties of particles as well as waves. He explained the background of two ideas. He advocated
that these two systems could not remain detached from each other. By mathematical evidences,
he proved that every moving object is attached with waves and every wave has corpuscular
nature as well. It formulated a basis to understand corpuscular nature of matter.
THE WORKS OF DIFFERENT SCIENTISTS AT THE SAME TIME HANDICAP OR
PROMOTE THE GROWTH OF SCIENCE.
Over the course of human history, people have developed many interconnected and
validated ideas about the physical, biological, psychological and social worlds. Those ideas
have enabled successive generations to achieve an increasingly comprehensive and reliable
understanding of the human species and its environment. The means used to develop these ideas
are particular ways of observing, thinking, experimenting and validating. These ways represent
a fundamental aspect of the nature of science and reflect how science tends to differ from other
modes of knowing. It is the union of science, mathematics and technology that forms the scientific
endeavor and that makes it so successful. Although, each of these human enterprises has a
character and history of its own, each is dependent on and reinforces the others.
MOLE - A QUANTITY
A computer counting with a speed of 10 million atoms a second would take 2 billion years to
count one mole of atoms.
If one mole of marbles were spread over the surface of the Earth, our planet would be
covered by a 3 miles thick layer of marbles.
A glass of water, which contains about 10 moles of water, has more water molecules than
the grains of sand in the Sahara desert.
Key Points
Chemistry is study of composition and properties of matter. It has different
branches.
Substances are classified into elements and compounds.
Elements consist of only one type of atoms.
Compounds are formed by chemical combination of atoms of the elements in a
fixed ratio.
Mixtures are formed by mixing up elements or compounds in any ratio. They are
classified as homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures.
Each atom of an element has a specific atomic number (Z) and a mass number or
atomic mass (A).
Atomic mass of an atom is measured relative to a standard mass of C-12.
Relative atomic mass of an element is the mass of an element compared with 1/12
mass of an atom of C-12 isotope.
Atomic mass unit is 1/12 of the mass of one atom of C-12, lamu = 1.66  l024g
Empirical formula is the simplest type of chemical formula, which shows the
relative number of atoms of each element in a compound.
Molecular formula gives the actual number of atoms of each element in a
molecule.
Formula mass is the sum of atomic masses of all the atoms in one formula unit of a
substance.
An atom or group of atoms having a charge on it is called an ion. If it has positive
charge it is called a cation and if it has negative charge it is called an anion.
There are different types of molecules: monoatomic, polyatomic, homoatomic
and heteroatomic.
The number of particles in one mole of a substance is called Avogadro's
number. The value of this number is 6.02  1023 It is represented as NA.
The amount of a substance having 6.02  1023 particles is called a mole. The
quantitative definition of mole is atomic mass, molecular mass or formula mass
expressed in grams.
EXERCISE
Multiple Choice Questions
Put a ( ) on the correct answer
1. Industrial chemistry deals with the manufacturing of compounds:
(a) in the laboratory (b) on micro scale
(c) on commercial scale (d) on economic scale
2. Which one of the following compounds can be separated by physical
means?
(a) mixture (b) element (c) compound (d) radical
3. The most abundant element occurring in the oceans is:
(a) oxygen (b) hydrogen (c) nitrogen (d) silicon
4. Which one of the following elements is found in most abundance in the
Earth's crust?
(a) oxygen (b) aluminium (c) silicon (d) iron
5. The third abundant gas found in the Earth's atmosphere is:
(a) carbon monoxide (b) oxygen. (c) nitrogen (d) argon
6. One amu (atomic mass unit) is equivalent to:
7. Which one of the following molecule is not tri-atomic?

(a) H2 (b) O3 (c) H2O (d) CO2
8. The mass of one molecule of water is:
(a) 18 amu (b) 18 g (c) 18 mg (d) 18 kg
9. The molar mass of H2SO4 is:
(a)98g (b) 98 amu (c) 9.8 g (d) 9.8 amu
10. Which one of the following is a molecular mass of O2 in amu?
11. How many number of moles are equivalent to 8 grams of Co2?

(a) 0.15 (b) 0.18 (c) 0.21 (d) 0.24
12. In which one of the following pairs has the same number of ions?
(a) 1 mole of NaCl and 1 mole of MgCl2
(b) 1/2 mole of NaCl and 1/2 mole of MgCl2
(c) 1/2 mole of NaCl and 1/3 mole of MgCl2
(d) 1/3 mole of NaCl and 1/2 mole of MgCl2
Which one of the following pairs has the same mass?
13. (a) 1 mole of CO and 1 mole of N2
(b) 1 mole of CO and 1 mole of CO2
(c) 1 mole of O2 and 1 mole of N2
(d) 1 mole of O2 and 1 mole of Co2
Short answer questions.

1. Define industrial chemistry and analytical chemistry.
2. How can you differentiate between organic and inorganic chemistry?
3. Give the scope of biochemistry.
4. How does homogeneous mixture differ from heterogeneous mixture?
5. What is the relative atomic mass? How is it related to gram?
6. Define empirical formula with an example.
7. State three reasons why do you think air is a mixture and water a compound?
8. Explain why are hydrogen and oxygen considered elements whereas water as a
compound.
9. What is the significance of the symbol of an element?
10. State the reasons: soft drink is a mixture and water is a compound.
11. Classify the following into element, compound or mixture:
i. He and H2 ii. CO and Co iii. Water and milk
iv. Gold and brass v. Iron and steel
12. Define atomic mass unit. Why is it needed?
13. State the nature and name of the substance formed by combining the
following:
i. Zinc + Copper ii. Water + Sugar
iii. Aluminium + Sulphur iv. Iron + Chromium + Nickel
14. Differentiate between molecular mass and formula mass, which of the
followings have molecular formula?
H2O, NaCl, KI, H2SO4
15. Which one has more atoms: 10 g of Al or 10 g of Fe?
16. Which one has more molecules: 9 g of water or 9 g of sugar (C12H22O11)?
17. Which one has more formula units: 1 g of NaCl or 1 g of KC1?
18. Differentiate between homoatomic and heteroatomic molecules with examples.
19. In which one of the followings the number of hydrogen atoms is more? 2 moles
of HC1 or 1 mole of NH3 (Hint: 1 mole of a substance contains as much number
of moles of atoms as are in 1 molecule of a substance
Long Answer Questions.
1. Define element and classify the elements with examples.
2. List five characteristics by which compounds can be distinguished from
mixtures.
3. Differentiate between the following with examples:
i. Molecule and gram molecule ii. Atom and gram atom
iii. Molecular mass and molar mass iv. Chemical formula and
gram formula
4. Mole is SI unit for the amount of a substance. Define it with examples?
Numericals
1. Sulphuric acid is the king of chemicals. If you need 5 moles of sulphuric acid for
a reaction, how many grams of it will you weigh?
2. Calcium carbonate is insoluble in water. If you have 40 g of it; how many Ca2+
and CO32 ions are present in it?
3. If you have 6.02 x 1023 ions of aluminium; how many sulphate ions will be
required to prepare Al2(SO4)3?
4. Calculate the number of molecules in the following compounds:
a. 16 g of H2CO3 b. 20 g of HNO3 c. 30 g of C6H12O6
5. Calculate the number of ions in the following compounds:
a. 10 g of AlCl3 b. 30 g of BaCl2 c. 58 g of H2SO4(aq)
6. What will be the mass of 2.05l016 molecules of H2SO4
7. How many atoms are required to prepare 60 g of HNO3?
8. How many ions of Na+ and Cl will be present in 30 g of NaCl?
9. How many molecules of HC1 will be required to have 10 grams of it?
10. How many grams of Mg will have the same number of atoms as 6 grams of C
have?
Chapter 2
Structure of Atoms
Major Concepts
2.1 Theories and Experiments related
Time allocation
to Atomic Structure Teaching periods 16
2.2 Electronic Configuration Assessment periods 03
2.3 Isotopes Weightage 10%

• Describe the contributions that Rutherford made to the development of the
Atomic Theory.
• Explain how Bohr's atomic theory differed.
• Describe the structure of atom including the location of the proton, electron
and neutron.
• Define isotopes.
• Compare istopes of an atom.
• Discuss the properties of the isotopes of H, C, CI, U.
• Draw the structure of different isotopes from mass number and atomic
number.
• State the importance and uses of isotopes in various fields of life.
• Describe the presence of subshells I shell.
• Distinguish between shells and subshells.
• Write the electronic configuration of first 18 elements in the Periodic Table.
Introduction
Ancient Greek philosopher Democritus suggested that matter is composed of
tiny indivisible particles called atoms. The name atom was derived from the Latin
word 'Atomos' meaning indivisible. In the beginning of 19th century John Dalton put
forward Atomic Theory. According to it 'all matter is made up of very small
indivisible particles called atoms'. Till the end of 19th century it was considered that
atom cannot be subdivided. However, in the beginning of 20th century experiments
performed by Goldstein, J. J. Thomson, Rutherford, Bohr and other scientist
revealed that atom is made up of subatomic particles like electron, proton and
neutron. Properties of these subatomic particles will be discussed in this chapter.
2.1 THEORIES AND EXPERIMENTS RELATED TO STRUCTURE OF
Chemistry - IX 28 Unit 2: Structure of Atoms
ATOM
According to Dalton, an atom is an indivisible, hard,
dense sphere. Atoms of the same element are alike. They
combine in different ways to form compounds. In the light of
Dalton's atomic theory, scientists performed a series of
experiments. But in the late 1800's and early 1900's, scientists
discovered new subatomic particles.
In 1886, Goldstein discovered positively charged
particles called protons. In 1897, J.J. Thomson found in an
atom, the negatively charged particles known as electrons. It
was established that electrons and protons are fundamental J.J. Thomson (1856-
particles of matter. Based upon these observations Thomson 1940) was a British
put forth his “plum pudding” theory. He postulated that physicist. He was
atoms were solid structures of positively charge with tiny awarded the 1906 Noble
negative particles stuck inside. It is like plums in the pudding. Prize in Physics for the
discovery of electron
and for his work on the
Cathode rays and Discovery of Electron conduction of electricity
in gases
In 1895 Sir William Crooks performed experiments
by passing electric current through gases in a discharge tube at
very low pressure.
He took a glass tube fitted with two metallic electrode,
which were connected to a high voltage battery. The pressure
inside the tube was kept 104 atm. When high voltage current
was passed through the gas, shiny rays were emitted from the
cathode which travel towards the anode as shown in figure
2.1. These rays were given the name of “cathode rays” as
these were originated from the cathode.
Beam of electrons
Sir William Crooks
(1832-1919) was a
(+)
Anode British chemist and
physicist. He was
pioneer of vacuum
to vacuum pump tubes. He worked on
Battery spectroscopy.
The cathode rays were studied in detail and their properties were determined,
which are given below:
i. These rays travel in straight lines perpendicular to the cathode surface.
ii. They can cast a sharp shadow of an opaque object if placed in their path.
iii. They are deflected towards positive plate in an electric field showing that
they are negatively charged.
iv. They raise temperature of the body on which they fall.
v. JJ. Thomson discovered their charge/mass (e / m) ratio.
vi. Light is produced when these rays hit the walls of the discharge tube.
vii. It was found that the same type of rays were emitted no matter which gas
and which cathode was used in the discharge tube.
All these properties suggested that the nature of cathode rays is independent of
the nature of the gas present in the discharge tube or material of the cathode. The fact that
they cast the shadow of an opaque object suggested that these are not rays but they are
fast moving material particles. They were given the name electrons. Since all the
materials produce same type of particles, it means all the materials contain electrons. As
we know materials are composed of atoms, hence the electrons are fundamental particles
of atoms.
Discovery of Proton
In 1886 Goldstein observed that in addition to cathode rays, other rays were also
present in the discharge tube. These rays were traveling in opposite direction to cathode
rays. He used a discharge tube having perforated cathode as shown in figure 2.2. He
found that these rays passed through holes present in the cathode and produced a glow on
the walls of the discharge tube. He called these rays as "canal rays".
Canal Rays Battery
+ - -
+
+ -
() perforated cathode (+) anode

to vacuum pump
Fig 2.2 Discharge tube used for the production of canal rays.
The properties of these rays were as following:

i. These rays travel in straight lines in a direction opposite to the cathode rays.
ii. Their deflection in electric and magnetic field proved that these are
positively charged.
iii. The nature of canal rays depends upon the nature of gas, present in the
discharge tube.
iv. These rays do not originate from the anode. In fact these rays are produced
when the cathode rays or electrons collide with the residual gas molecules
present in the discharge tube and ionize them as follows:
v. Mass of these particles was found equal to that of a proton or simple multiple
of it. The mass of a proton is 1840 times more than that of an electron.
Thus, these rays are made up of positively charged particles. The mass and
charge of these particles depend upon the nature of the gas in the discharge tube. Hence,
different gases produce different types of positive rays having particles of different
masses and different charges. Keep in mind that positive particles produced by a gas will
be of the same type i.e. positive rays produced by the lightest gas hydrogen contain
protons.
Discovery of Neutron
Rutherford observed that atomic mass of the element could not be explained on
the basis of the masses of electron and proton only. He predicted in 1920 that some
neutral particle having mass equal to that of proton must be present in an atom. Thus
scientists were in search of such a neutral particle. Eventually in 1932 Chadwick
discovered neutron, when he bombarded alpha particles on a beryllium target. He
observed that highly penetrating radiations were produced. These radiations were called
neutron.
Properties of neutron are as following:

i. Neutrons carry no charge i.e. they are neutral.
ii. They are highly penetrating.
iii. Mass of these particles was nearly equal to the mass of a proton.
i. Do you know any element having no neutrons in its atoms?

ii. Who discovered an electron, a proton and a neutron?
iii. How does electron differ from a neutron?
iv. Explain, how anode rays are formed from the gas present in the
Test yourself
2.1 discharge tube?
2.1.1 Rutherford's Atomic Model

Rutherford performed 'Gold Foil' experiment to understand how negative and
positive charges could coexist in an atom. He bombarded alpha particles on a 0.00004
cm thick gold foil. Alpha particles are emitted by radioactive elements like radium and
polonium. These are actually helium nuclei (He2+). They can penetrate through matter to
some extent.
He observed the effects of -particles on a photographic plate or a screen coated
with zinc sulphide as shown in figure 2.3. He proved that the 'plum-pudding' model of the
atom was not correct.
small
tion
deflec
majority of particles
pass undeflected
led
repel
back
large deflection
Fig 2.3 Scattering of alpha particles by the atoms of gold foil.
Observations made by Rutherford were as follows:

i. Almost all the particles passed through the foil un-deflected.
ii. Out of 20000 particles, only a few were deflected at fairly large angles and
very few bounced back on hitting the gold foil.
Results of the experiment
Keeping in view the experiment, Rutherford proposed planetary model for an
atom and concluded following results:
i. Since most of the particles passed through the foil un-

deflected, therefore most of the volume occupied by an
atom is empty .
ii. The deflection of a few particles proved that there is a
'center of positive charges' in an atom, which is called
'nucleus' of an atom.
iii. The complete rebounce of a few particles show that the
nucleus is very dense and hard.
iv. Since a few particles were deflected, it shows that the Rutherford was a British-
size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the total New Zealand chemist. He
performed a series of
volume of an atom. experiments using a -
v. The electrons revolve around the nucleus. particles. He won the 1908
Noble Prize in Chemistry.
vi. An atom as a whole is neutral, therefore the number of In 1911, he proposed the
electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons. nuclear model of the atom
and performed the first
vii. Except electrons, all other fundamental particles that lie experiment to split atom.
Because of his great
within the nucleus, are known as nucleons. contributions, he is
considered the father of
nuclear science.
Defects in Rutherford's Model
Although Rutherford's experiment proved that the 'plum-pudding' model of an
atom was not correct, yet it had following defects:
i. According to classical theory of radiation, electrons being the charged particles
should release or emit energy continuously and they should ultimately fall into
the nucleus.
ii. If the electrons emit energy continuously, they should form a continuous
spectrum but in fact, line spectrum was observed.
Although the scientists had objections on the atomic model presented by
Rutherford, yet it cultivated thought provoking ideas among them. They initiated the
quest to answer the following questions:
i. How can an atom collapse or why are atoms stable?
ii. Why does an atom give line spectrum?
iii. Scientists considered there must be another model of atom. It indicated that
Rutherford's model was not perfect.
2.1.2 Bohr's Atomic Theory

Keeping in view the defects in Rutherford's Atomic
Model, Neil Bohr presented another model of atom in 1913.
The Quantum Theory of Max Planck was used as foundation
for this model. According to Bohr's model, revolving electron
in an atom does not absorb or emit energy continuously. The
energy of a revolving electron is 'quantized' as it revolves
only in orbits of fixed energy, called 'energy levels' by him.
The Bohr's atomic model is shown in figure 2.4.
Neil Bohr was a
Danish physicist who
joined Rutherford in
1912 for his post
doctoral research. In
1913, Bohr presented
his atomic model based
upon Quantum theory.
He won the 1922 Noble
Prize for Physics for
his work on the
structure of an atom.
Fig 2.4 Bohr's atomic model showing orbits.

The Bohr's atomic model was based upon the following postulates:
i. The hydrogen atom consists of a tiny nucleus and electrons are revolving
in one of circular orbits of radius ‘r’ around the nucleus.
ii. Each orbit has a fixed energy that is quantized.
iii. As long as electron remains in a particular orbit, it does not radiate or
absorb energy. The energy is emitted or absorbed only when an electron
jumps from one orbit to another.
iv. When an electron jumps from lower orbit to higher orbit, it absorbs energy
and when it jumps from higher orbit to lower orbit it radiates energy. This
change in energy, E is given by following Planck's equation
Where, h is Planck's constant equal to 6.63  1034 Js, and v is frequency of light.
v. Electron can revolve only in orbits of a fixed angular moment mvr, given as:
Where 'n' is the quantum number or orbit number having values 1,2,3 and so on.
Quantum means fixed energy. It is the smallest amount of energy

that can be emitted or absorbed as electromagnetic radiation.
Quanta is plural of quantum.
In 1918 Noble prize in physics was awarded to German physicist
Do you know? Max Planck (1858-1947) for his work on the quantum theory.
Summary of differences between two theories:
Rutherford's Atomic Theory Bohr's Atomic Theory

i. It was based upon classical theory. It was based upon quantum theory.
ii. Electrons revolve around the nucleus. Electrons revolve around the nucleus in
orbits of fixed energy.
iii. No idea about orbits was introduced. Orbits had angular momentum.
iv. Atoms should produce continuous Atoms should produce line spectrum.
spectrum.
v. Atoms should collapse. Atoms should exist.
i. How was it proved that the whole mass of an atom is located at

its centre?
ii. How was it shown that atomic nuclei are positively charged ?
iii. Name the particles which determine the mass of an atom.
iv. What is the classical theory of radiation? How does it differ
from quantum theory?
v. How can you prove that angular momentum is quantized?
Hint: Let angular momentum (mvr) of 1st orbit is mvr = nh/2
Test yourself
2.2 By putting the values of h and 
2.2 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

Before discussing electronic configuration let us first understand the concept of
shells and subshells.
We have learnt about the structure of atom i.e. it consists of a tiny nucleus lying in
the center and electrons revolving around the nucleus. Now we will discuss how the
electrons revolve around the nucleus? The electrons revolve around the nucleus in
different energy levels or shells according to their respective energies (potential energy).
The concept of potential energy of an electron shall be discussed in higher classes.
Energy levels are represented by 'n' values 1, 2, 3 and so on. They are designated
by the alphabets K, L, M and so on. A shell closer to the nucleus is of minimum energy.
Since K shell is closest to the nucleus, the energy of shells increases from K shell
onwards. Such as:
Quantum means fixed energy. It is the smallest amount of energy

that can be emitted or absorbed as electromagnetic radiation.
Quanta is plural of quantum.
In 1918 Noble prize in physics was awarded to German physicist
Do you know? Max Planck (1858-1947) for his work on the quantum theory.
Summary of differences between two theories:
Rutherford's Atomic Theory Bohr's Atomic Theory

i. It was based upon classical theory. It was based upon quantum theory.
ii. Electrons revolve around the nucleus. Electrons revolve around the nucleus in
orbits of fixed energy.
iii. No idea about orbits was introduced. Orbits had angular momentum.
iv. Atoms should produce continuous Atoms should produce line spectrum.
spectrum.
v. Atoms should collapse. Atoms should exist.
i. How was it proved that the whole mass of an atom is located at

its centre?
ii. How was it shown that atomic nuclei are positively charged ?
iii. Name the particles which determine the mass of an atom.
iv. What is the classical theory of radiation? How does it differ
from quantum theory?
v. How can you prove that angular momentum is quantized?
Hint: Let angular momentum (mvr) of 1st orbit is mvr = nh/2
Test yourself
2.2 By putting the values of h and 
2.2 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

Before discussing electronic configuration let us first understand the concept of
shells and subshells.
We have learnt about the structure of atom i.e. it consists of a tiny nucleus lying in
the center and electrons revolving around the nucleus. Now we will discuss how the
electrons revolve around the nucleus? The electrons revolve around the nucleus in
different energy levels or shells according to their respective energies (potential energy).
The concept of potential energy of an electron shall be discussed in higher classes.
Energy levels are represented by 'n' values 1, 2, 3 and so on. They are designated
by the alphabets K, L, M and so on. A shell closer to the nucleus is of minimum energy.
Since K shell is closest to the nucleus, the energy of shells increases from K shell
onwards. Such as:
N shell can accommodate 32 electrons.

As we know there is a slight difference between the energies of the subshells
within a shell, therefore, filling of electrons in subshells of a shell is such as that V
subshell is filled first and then its p subshell and then other subshells are filled. The
maximum capacity of subshells to accommodate electrons is:
‘s’ subshell can accommodate 2 electrons.
‘p’ subshell can accommodate 6 electrons.
Let us write the electronic configuration of the elements and their ions with the
help of a few examples. Keep in mind, we should know three things:
i. The number of electrons in an atom.
ii. The sequence of shells and subshells according to the energy levels.
iii. The maximum number of electrons that can be placed in different shells and
subshells.
Example 2.1
1
Write the electronic configuration of an element having 11 8 M
electrons. 2 L
K
Solution:
Keep in mind that all electrons do not have the same energy.
Therefore, they are accommodated in different
shells according to increasing energy and capacity of the shell.
First of all, the electrons will go to K shell which has minimum energy. It can
accommodate 2 electrons. After this, electrons will go to L shell that can accommodate 8
electrons. Thus K and L shells have accommodated 10 electrons. The remaining 1
electron will go to M shell, the outermost shell of maximum energy in this case. The
electronic configuration will be written as:
But it is not necessary to write the subshells. Therefore, it is simply written as 2,8 and 1.
Further distribution of electrons in subshells will be:
Example 2.2
88
Write down the electronic configuration of Cl ion 2 M
K
L
Solution:
We know that chlorine has 17 electrons and chloride ion (Cl) has
17 + 1 = 18 electrons. Its electronic configuration will be 2, 8,
8, which is presented in the figure. The further distribution of
85
electrons in subshells will be 2 M
K
L
Example 2.3
An element has 5 electrons in M shell. Find out its atomic number.
Solution:
When there are 5 electrons in M shell, it means K and L shell are completely filled
with their maximum capacity of 10 electrons. Hence the electronic configuration of the
element is:
So the total number of electrons is 2 + 8 + 5 = 15

As we know, the number of electrons in an atom is equal to its atomic number. Therefore,
atomic number of this element is 15.
2.2.2 The electronic configuration of first 18 elements
The sequence of filling of electrons in different subshells is as following:
Where number represents the shell number, while letters (s and p) represent subshells.
The superscript shows the number of electrons in a subshell. The sum of superscripts
number is the total number of electrons in an atom. i.e. atomic number of an element. The
electronic configuration of first 18 elements is shown in the Table 2.1
Table 2.1 Electronic Configuration of First Eighteen Elements
i. How many the maximum number of electrons that can be

accommodated in a p-sub shell?
ii. How many subshells are there in second shell?
iii. Why does an electron first fill 2p orbital and then 3s orbital?
iv. If both K and L shells of an atom are completely filled; how many
Test yourself
total number of electrons are present in them?
2.3
v. How many electrons can be accommodated in M shell?
vi. What is the electronic configuration of a hydrogen atom?
vii. What is atomic number of phosphorus? Write down its electronic
configuration.
viii. If an element has atomic number 13 and atomic mass 27; how many
electrons are there in each atom of the element?
ix. How many electrons will be in M shell of an atom having atomic
number 15,
x. What is maximum capacity of a shell?
2.3 ISOTOPES
2.3.1 Definition
Isotopes are defined as the atoms of an element that have same atomic number
but different mass numbers. They have same electronic configuration and number of
protons but they differ in the number of neutrons. Isotopes have similar chemical
properties because these depend upon electronic configuration. But they have different
physical properties because these depend upon mass numbers. Most of the elements
have isotopes. Here we will discuss the isotopes of hydrogen, carbon, chlorine and
uranium only.
2.3.2 Examples
i) Isotopes of Hydrogen
The naturally occurring hydrogen is combination of its three isotopes, present
in different abundances. The three isotopes of hydrogen are named as protium,
deuterium and tritium Each one of them has 1 proton and 1
electron, but number of neutrons are different as shown in Table 2.2
The isotopes are represented as:
protium ( 11 H ) deuterium ( 21 H ) tritium ( 31 H )

ii) Isotopes of Carbon

There are two stable isotopes of carbon 12C and 13C and one radioactive isotope
14
C. The isotope 12C is present in abundance of 98.9 %, while 13C and 14C are both present
only 1.1 % in nature. All of them have the same number of protons and electrons but
differ in number of neutrons. They are represented as follows:
p=6 p=6 p=6

n=6 n=7 n=8
carbon (12
6 C) carbon (13
6 C) carbon (14
6 C)
iii) Isotopes of Chlorine

There are two isotopes of chlorine,
iv) Isotopes of Uranium
There are three isotopes of uranium i.e.
in nature nearly 99%.
The difference in their number of electrons, protons and neutrons is shown
below:
Table 2.2 Atomic Number, Mass Number, Number of Protons and Neutrons of
H, C, CI and U
APPLICATION OF ISOTOPES
In science and many different technological fields isotopes have vast
applications. The biggest application is in the field of medicine. They are
applied in diagnosis, radiotherapy and treatment of many diseases like cancer.
2.3.3 Uses
With the advancement of the scientific knowledge, the isotopes have found many
applications in our lives. Following are the major fields in which isotopes have vast
applications:
i. Radiotherapy (Treatment of Cancer)
For the treatment of skin cancer, isotopes like P-32 and Sr-90 are used because
they emit less penetrating beta radiations. For cancer, Co-60, affecting within the body, is
used because it emits strongly penetrating gamma rays.
ii. Tracer for Diagnosis and Medicine
The radioactive isotopes are used as tracers in medicine to diagnose the presence
of tumor in the human body. Isotopes of Iodine-131 are used for diagnosis of goiter in
thyroid gland. Similarly technetium is used to monitor the bone growth.
iii. Archaeological and Geological Uses
The radioactive isotopes are used to estimate the age of fossils like dead plants
and animals and stones, etc. The age determination of very old objects based on the half-
lives of the radioactive isotope is called radioactive-isotope dating. An important method
of age determination of old carbon containing objects (fossils) by measuring the
radioactivity of C-14 in them is called radio-carbon dating or simply carbon dating.
iv. Chemical Reaction and Structure Determination
The radioisotopes are used in a chemical reaction to follow a radioactive element
during the reaction and ultimately to determine the structure. For example: C-14 is used
to label CO2. As CO2 is used by the plants for photosynthesis to form glucose, its
movement is detected through the various intermediate steps up to glucose.
v. Applications in Power Generation
Radioactive isotopes are used to generate electricity by carrying out controlled
nuclear fission reactions in nuclear reactors. For example, when U-235 is bombarded
with slow moving neutrons, the uranium nucleus breaks up to produce Barium-139 and
Krypton-94 and three neutrons.
A large amount of energy is released which is used to convert water into steam in
boilers. The steam then drives the turbines to generate electricity. This is the peaceful use
of atomic energy for development of a nation.
i. Why do the isotopes of an element have different atomic masses?

ii. How many neutrons are present in C-12 and C-13?
iii. Which of the isotopes of hydrogen contains greater number of
neutrons?
iv. Give one example each of the use of radioactive isotope in medicine
Test yourself and radiotherapy.
2.4
v. How is the goiter in thyroid gland detected?
vi. Define nuclear fission reaction.
vii. When U-235 breaks up, it produces a large amount of energy. How is
this energy used?
viii. How many neutrons are produced in the fission reaction of U-235?
ix. U-235fission produces two atoms of which elements?
TESTING PREVAILING THEORIES BRINGS ABOUT CHANGE IN

THEM
Science is a process for producing knowledge. The process
depends both on making careful observations of phenomenae and inventing
theories for making sense out of those observations. Change in knowledge is
inevitable because new observations may challenge prevailing theories. No
matter how well one theory explains a set of observations, it is possible that another theory may
fit just as well or better, or may fit a still wider range of observations. In science, the testing and
improving and occasional discarding of theories, whether new or old, go on all the time.
Scientists assume that even if there is no way to secure complete and absolute truth, increasingly
accurate approximations can be made to account for the world and how it works.
Key Points
Cathode rays were discovered in last decade of nineteen century. The properties
of cathode rays were determined and they led to the discovery of electron.
Canal rays were discovered in 1886 by Goldstein . The properties of canal rays
resulted in the discovery of proton in the atom.
Neutron in the atom was discovered in 1932 by Chadwick.
First of all structure of an atom was presented by Rutherford in 1911. He
proposed that an atom contains nucleus at the center and electrons revolve around
this nucleus.
Bohr presented an improved model of an atom in 1913 based upon four
postulates. He introduced the concept of circular orbit, in which electrons
revolve. As long as electron remains in a particular orbit, it does not radiate
energy. Release and gain of energy is because of change of orbit.
The concept of shells and subshells is explained.
A shell consists of subshells.
Isotopes are defined as the atoms of elements that have the same atomic number
but different atomic mass.
Hydrogen, carbon and uranium have three isotopes each, whereas chlorine has
two isotopes.
EXERCISE
1. Which one of the following results in the discovery of proton
(a) cathode rays (b) canal rays (c) X-rays (d) alpha rays.
2. Which one of the following is the most penetrating.
(a) protons (b) electrons (c) neutrons (d) alpha particles
3. The concept of orbit was used by
(a) J. J. Thomson (b) Rutherford (c) Bohr (d) Planck
4. Which one of the following shell consists of three subshells.
(a) O shell (b) N shell (c) L shell (d) M shell
5. Which radioisotope is used for the diagnosis of tumor in the body?
(a) cobalt-60 (b) iodine-131 (c) strontium-90 (d) phosphorus-30
6. When U-235 breaks up, it produces:
(a) electrons (b) neutrons (c) protons (d) nothing
7. The p subshell has:
(a) one orbital (b) two orbitals (c) three orbitals (d) four orbitals
8. Deuterium is used to make:
(a) light water (b) heavy water (c) soft water (d) hard water
9. The isotope C-12 is present in abundance of:
(a) 96.9 % (b) 97.6 % (c) 99.7 % (d) none of these
10. Who discovered the proton:
(a) Goldstein (b) J. J. Thomson (c) Neil Bohr (d) Rutherford Short
1. What is the nature of charge on cathode rays?
2. Give five characteristics of cathode rays.
3. The atomic symbol of a phosphorus ion is given as ^P3~
(a) How many protons, electrons and neutrons are there in the ion?
(b) What is name of the ion?
(c) Draw the electronic configuration of the ion.
(d) Name the noble gas which has the same electronic configuration as the
phosphorus ion has.
4. Differentiate between shell and subshell with examples of each.
5. An element has an atomic number 17. How many electrons are present in K, L and
M shells of the atom?
6. Write down the electronic configuration of Al3+. How many electrons are present in
its outermost shell?
7. Magnesium has electronic configuration 2, 8, 2,
(a) How many electrons are in the outermost shell?
(b) In which subshell of the outermost shell electrons are present?
(c) Why magnesium tends to lose electrons?
8. What will be the nature of charge on an atom when it loses an electron or when it
gains an electron?
9. For what purpose U-235 is used?
10. A patient has goiter. How will it be detected?
11. Give three properties of positive rays.
12. What are the defects of Rutherford's atomic model?
13. As long as electron remains in an orbit, it does not emit or absorb energy. When does
it emit or absorb energy?
Long Answer Questions.

1. How are cathode rays produced? What are its five major characteristics?
2. How was it proved that electrons are fundamental particles of an atom?
3. Draw a labeled diagram to show the presence of protons in the discharge tube and
explain how canal rays were produced.
4. How Rutherford discovered that atom has a nucleus located at the centre of the
atom?
5. One of the postulates of Bohr's atomic model is that angular momentum of a
moving electron is quantized. Explain its meaning and calculate the angular
momentum of third orbit (i.e. n=3)
6. How did Bohr prove that an atom must exist?
7. What do you mean by electronic configuration? What are basic requirements while
writing electronic configuration of an element (atom)?
8. Describe the electronic configuration of Na+, Mg2+ and Al3+ ions. Do they have the
same number of electrons in the outermost shell?
9. Give the applications of isotopes in the field of radiotherapy and medicines.
10. What is an isotope? Describe the isotopes of hydrogen with diagrams.
Chapter3
Periodic Table and

Periodicity of Properties
Major Concepts
Time allocation
Teaching periods 12
3.1 Periodic Table
Assessment periods 02
3.2 Periodic Properties
Weightage 10%

• Distinguish between period and group in the Periodic table.
• State the Periodic law.
• Classify elements (into two categories: groups and periods) according to the
configuration of their outermost electrons.
• Determine the demarcation of the periodic table into s-block and /?-block.
• Explain the shape of the periodic table.
• Determine the location of families of the periodic table.
• Recognize the similarity in the physical and chemical properties of elements
in the same family of the elements.
• Identify the relationship between electronic configuration and position of
elements in the periodic table.
• Explain how shielding effect influences periodic trends.
• Describe how electronegativities change within a group and within a period
in the periodic table.
Introduction
In nineteenth century, chemists devoted much of their efforts in attempts to
arrange elements in a systematic manner. These efforts resulted in discovery of periodic
law. On the basis of this law, the elements known at that time, were arranged in the form
of a table which is known as periodic table. One of the significant features of the table
was that it predicted the properties of those elements which were not even discovered at
that time. The vertical columns of that table were called groups and horizontal lines were
called periods. That orderly arrangement of elements generally coincided with their
Chemistry - IX 45 Unit 3: Periodic Table and Periodicity of Properties
increasing atomic number. The periodic table contains huge amount of information for
scientists.
3.1 PERIODIC TABLE
With the discovery of the periodic table the study of individual properties of the
known elements is reduced to study of a few groups. We will describe various attempts
which were made to classify the elements into a tabular form.
Dobereiner's Triads
A German chemist Dobereiner observed relationship between atomic masses of several
groups of three elements called triads. In these groups, the central or middle element had
atomic mass average of the other two elements. One triad group example is that of
calcium (40), strontium(88) and barium (137). The atomic mass of strontium is the
average of the atomic masses of calcium and barium. Only a few elements could be
arranged in this way. This classification did not get wide acceptance.
Newlands Octaves
After successful determination of correct atomic masses of
elements by Cannizzaro in 1860, attempts were again
initiated to organize elements. In 1864 British chemist
Newlands put forward his observations in the form of 'law of
octaves'. He noted that there was a repetition in chemical
properties of every eighth element if they were arranged by
their increasing atomic masses. He compared it with musical
notes. His work could not get much recognition as no space
was left for undiscovered element. The noble gases were also
not known at that time. Mendeleev (1834-1907)
was a Russian chemist
Mendeleev's Periodic Table and inventor. He was the
creator of first version of
Russian chemist, Mendeleev arranged the known elements periodic table of
(only 63) in order of increasing atomic masses, in horizontal elements. With help of
rows called periods. So that elements with similar properties the table, he predicted
the properties of
were in the same vertical columns. elements yet to be
discovered.
This arrangement of elements was called Periodic Table. He
put forward the results of his work in the form of periodic
law, which is stated as "properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic
masses"
Although, Mendeleev periodic table was the first ever attempt to arrange the elements,
yet it has a few demerits in it. His failure to explain the position of isotopes and wrong
order of the atomic masses of some elements suggested that atomic mass of an element
cannot serve as the basis for the arrangement of elements.
Periodic Law
In 1913 H. Moseley discovered a new property of the elements i.e. atomic number. He
observed that atomic number instead of atomic mass should determine the position of
element in the periodic table and accordingly the periodic law was amended as
"properties of the elements are periodic function of their atomic numbers". Atomic
number of an element is equal to the number of electrons in a neutral atom. So atomic
number provides the basis of electronic configurations as well.
Atomic number is a more fundamental property than atomic mass

because atomic number of every element is fixed and it increases
regularly by 1 from element to element. No two elements can have the
same atomic number.
Do you know?
I. What was the contribution of Dobereiner towards classification

of elements?
ii. How Newlands arranged the elements?
iii. Who introduced the name Periodic Table ?
iv. Why the improvement in Mendeleev's periodic table was made?
Test yourself v. State Mendeleev's periodic law.
3.1 vi. Why and how elements are arranged in a period?
Modern Periodic Table

Atomic number of an element is more fundamental property than atomic mass in
two respects, (a) It increases regularly from element to element, (b) It is fixed for every
element. So the discovery of atomic number of an element in 1913 led to change in
Mendeleev's periodic law which was based on atomic mass.
The modern periodic table is based upon the arrangement of elements according
to increasing atomic number. When the elements are arranged according to increasing
atomic number from left to right in a horizontal row, properties of elements were found
repeating after regular intervals such that elements of similar properties and similar
configuration are placed in the same group.
It was observed that after every eighth element, ninth element had similar
properties to the first element. For example, sodium (Z=ll) had similar properties to
lithium (Z=3). After atomic number 18, every nineteenth element was showing similar
behaviour. So the long rows of elements were cut into rows of eight and eighteen
elements and placed one above the other so that a table of vertical and horizontal rows
was obtained.
Long form of Periodic Table

The significance of atomic number in the arrangement of elements in the modern
periodic table lies in the fact that as electronic configuration is based upon atomic
number, so the arrangement of elements according to increasing atomic number shows
the periodicity (repetition of properties after regular intervals) in the electronic
configuration of the elements that leads to periodicity in their properties. Hence, the
arrangement of elements based on their electronic configuration created a long form of
periodic table as shown in figure 3.1.
The horizontal rows of elements in the periodic table are called periods. The
elements in a period have continuously increasing atomic number i.e. continuously
changing electronic configuration along a period. As a result properties of elements in a
period are continuously changing. The number of valence electrons decides the position
of an element in a period. For example, elements which have 1 electron in their valence
shell occupies the left most position in the respective periods, such as alkali metals.
Similarly, the elements having 8 electrons in their valence shells such as noble gases
always occupy the right most position in the respective periods.
The vertical columns in the periodic table are called groups. These groups are
numbered from left to right as 1 to 18. The elements in a group do not have continuously
increasing atomic numbers. Rather the atomic numbers of elements in a group increase
with irregular gaps.
But the elements of a group have similar electronic configuration i.e. same
number of electrons are present in their valence shells. For example, the first group
elements have only 1 electron in their valence shells. Similarly, group 2 elements have 2
electrons in their valence shells. It is the reason due to which elements of a group have
similar chemical properties.
Salient Features of Long Form of Periodic Table:
i. This table consists of seven horizontal rows called periods.
ii. First period consists of only two elements. Second and third periods consist of
8 elements each. Fourth and fifth periods consist of 18 elements each. Sixth
period has 32 elements while seventh period has 23 elements and is
incomplete.
iii. Elements of a period show different properties.
iv. There are 18 vertical columns in the periodic table numbered 1 to 18 from left
to right, which are called groups.
v. The elements of a group show similar chemical properties.
vi. Elements are classified into four blocks depending upon the type of the
subshell which gets the last electron.
Fig. 3.1 Modern Periodic Table or long form of the Periodic Table of Elements. Nobel
Light metals gases
1On the basis of completion of a particular subshell, elements with similar 18

Non-metals
subshell 1 electronic configuration are referred as a block of elements. There are 2four
blocks in the
1 H
2
periodic table named after the name of the subshell
13 which
14 15 is16in the
17 process
He
1.0079 4.00
of completion by the electrons. These are s, p, d and f blocks as shown in figure 3.2. For
3 4 Heavy metals 5 6 7 8 9 10
example,
2 Li Be elements of group 1 and 2 have valence electrons B in ‘s’
C subshell.
N O Therefore,
F Ne
they are 9.01 s-block elements as shown in figure 3.2.
6.94called 10.81 12.01 14.01 15.99 18.99 20.18
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 NaElements
Mg of group 13 to 18 have their valence electrons
Al Siin subshell.
P S Therefore,
Cl Ar
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
they are
22.99referred
24.30 as p-block elements. The d-block lies between 28.08s and
26.98 the 30.97 p blocks.
32.07 While
35.45 39.95
21 22 at23the 24
f-block19lies20separately 25 d-block
bottom. 28 29 30 period
26 27 constitutes 31 32 33 6.
4,5 and 34 Each
35 period
36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
consists of ten groups starting from group 3 to group 12. These are called transition
39.09 40.08 44.95 47.87 50.94 51.99 54.94 55.84 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.39 69.72 72.61 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
metals.37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.90 91.22 92.91 95.94 97.91 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.90 131.29
55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
*
6 Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.90 137.33 178.49 180.95 183.84 186.21 190.2 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.2 208.98 208.98 209.99 222.02
87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
**
7 Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo
223.02 226.02 261.11 262.11 263.12 262.12 265 266.14 269 272 277 284 289 288 292 293 294
* 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Lanthanides La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
138.90 140.11 140.91 144.24 144.91 150.36 151.96 157.25 158.92 162.5 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04 174.97
**
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Actinides Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
227.03 232.04 231.04 238.03 237.05 244.66 243.06 247.07 247.07 251.08 252.08 257.10 258.10 259.10 262.11
Key:
Colour of box of elements Colour of symbol of elements
Metals Black = Solid
Non metals Blue = Liquid
Metalloids Red = Gas
Nobel Gases Purple = Synthetic
1 18
13 14 15 16 17
2
s- block
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
p - block
d- block
f- block
Alchemy! For thousand years alchemy remained field of interest for the
scientists. They worked with two main objectives; change common metals
into gold and second find cure to diseases and give eternal life to people.
They believed all kinds of matter were same combination of four basic
elements. Substances are different because these elements combine
differently. Changing composition or ratio of any one element, new
substances can be formed. The way of making gold from silver or lead was
Do you know? never found and secret of eternal life was never discovered. However,
many methods and techniques invented by alchemists are still used in
chemistry.
3.1.1 Periods
First period is called short period. It consists of only two elements, hydrogen and
helium. Second and third periods are called normal periods. Each of them has eight
elements in it. Second period consists of lithium, beryllium, boron, carbon, nitrogen,
oxygen, fluorine and ends at neon, a noble gas. Fourth and fifth periods are called long
periods. Each one of them consists of eighteen elements.
Whereas, sixth and seventh periods are called very long periods. In these periods
after atomic number 57 and 89, two series of fourteen elements each, were
accommodated. Because of space problem, these two series were placed separately
below the normal periodic table to keep it in a manageable and presentable form. Since
the two series start after Lanthanum (Z=57) and Actinium (Z=89), so these two series of
elements are named as Lanthanides and Actinides respectively. Table 3.1 shows the
distribution of elements in periods.
All the periods except the first period start with an alkali metal and end at a noble
gas. It is to be observed that number of elements in a period is fixed because of maximum
number of electrons which can be accommodated in the particular valence shell of the
elements.
Table 3.1 Different Periods of the Periodic Table
*Since new elements are expected to be discovered, it is an incomplete period

3.1.2 Groups
Group 1 consists of hydrogen, lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium
and francium. Although elements of a group do not have continuously increasing atomic
numbers, yet they have similar electronic configuration in their valence shells. That is
the reason elements of a group are also called a family. For example, all the group 1
elements have one electron in their valence shells, they are given the family name of
alkali metals.
The groups 1 and 2 and 13 to 17 contain the normal elements. In the normal
elements, all the inner shells are completely filled with electrons, only the outermost
shells are incomplete. For example, group 17 elements (halogens) have 7 electrons in
their valence (outermost) shell.
The groups 3 to 12 are called transition elements. In these elements 'af' sub-shell
is in the process of completion. Table 3.2 shows the distribution of elements in groups.
Table 3.2 Different Groups of the Periodic Table
Fire Works
Beautiful fireworks display are common on celebrations like Pakistan Day
or even on marriages. A technology invented in China is used all over the
world. It is dangerous but careful use of various elements and particularly
Do you know? metal salts of different composition give beauty and colors to the fireworks.
Elements like magnesium, aluminium are used in powdered form. Salts of
sodium give yellow color, calcium - red; strontium-scarlet; barium-green
and copper-bluish green. Usually nitrates and chlorates are used. Other
chemicals are added to give brilliance and different shades. Because of fire
hazard and risk to life and property, only skilled professionals use them.
i. How the properties of elements repeat after regular intervals?

ii. In which pattern modern periodic table was arranged?
iii. How many elements are in first period and what are their names and
symbols?
iv. How many elements are placed in 4th period?
Test yourself v. From which element lanthanide series starts?
3.3 vi. From which period actinides series starts?
vii. How many elements are in 3rd period, write their names and
symbols?
viii. How many periods are considered normal periods ?
ix. What do you mean by a group in a periodic table?
x. What is the reason of arranging elements in a group?
xi. What do you mean by periodic function?
xii. Why the elements are called sorp block elements?
xiii. Write down the names of elements of group 1 with their symbols?
xiv. How many members are in group 17, is there any liquid, what is
its name ?
3.2 PERIODICITY OF PROPERTIES

3.2.1 Atomic Size and Atomic Radius
As we know that atoms are very small and don't have defined boundaries that fix
their size. So it is difficult to measure the size of an atom. Therefore, the common method
to determine the size of an atom is to assume that atoms are spheres. When they lie close
to each other, they touch each other.
Half of the distance between the nuclei of the two
bonded atoms is referred as the atomic radius of the atom.
For example, the distance between the nuclei of two
carbon atoms in its elemental form is 154 pm, its means its
half 77 pm is radius of carbon atom as shown in Figure 3.3:
When we move from left to right in a period
although atomic number increases, yet the size of atoms
decreases gradually. It is because with the increase of
Fig. 3.3 The radius of carbon atom.
atomic number, the effective nuclear charge increases gradually because of addition of
more and more protons in the nucleus. But on the other hand addition of electrons takes
place in the same valence shell i.e. shells do not increase. There is gradual increase of
effective nuclear charge which increases due to addition of protons. This force pulls
down or contracts the outermost shell towards the nucleus. For example, atomic size in
period 2 decreases from Li (152 pm) to Ne (69 pm).
1 group Atomic
2nd period elements elements radii (pm)
Atomic radii (pm) 152 113 88 77 75 73 71 69 Li 152
Na 186
The size of atoms or their radii increases from top to
bottom in a group. It is because a new shell of electrons is
K 227
added up in the successive period, which decreases the
effective nuclear charge.
Rb 248
The trend of atomic size of transition elements has
slight variation when we consider this series in a period. The
Cs 265
atomic size of the elements first reduces or atom contracts and
then there is increase in it when we move from left to right in
4th period.
3.2.2 Shielding Effect
The electrons present between the nucleus and the outer most shell of an atom,
reduce the nuclear charge felt by the electrons present in the outer most shell. The
attractions of outer electrons towards nucleus is partially reduced because of presence of
inner electrons. As a result valance electron experiences less nuclear charge than that of
the actual charge, which is called effective nuclear charge (Zeff). It means that the
electrons present in the inner shells screen or shield the force of attraction of nucleus felt
by the valence shell electrons. This is called shielding effect. With increase of atomic
number, the number of electrons in an atom also increases, that results in increase of
shielding effect.
The shielding effect increases down
the group in the periodic table as shown in
the figure 3.4. Because of this it is easy to
take away electron from Potassium (Z=19)
than from Sodium (Z=ll) atoms. Similarly
the shielding effect decreases in a period if
Sodium atom Potassium atom
we move from left to right.
Fig. 3.4: Shielding effect is more in potassium
atom than that of sodium atom.
3.2.3 Ionization Energy

The ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove the most
loosely bound electron from the valence shell of an isolated gaseous atom. The amount
of energy needed to remove successive electrons present in an atom increases. If there is
only 1 electron in the valence shell, the energy required to remove it will be called
first ionization energy. For example, the first ionization energy of sodium atom
is + 496 kJmol1.
496 .
But when there are more than one electrons in the valence shell, they can be
removed one by one by providing more and more energy. Such as group 2 and 3 elements
have more than one electrons in their shells. Therefore, they will have more than one
ionization energy values.
If we move from left to right in a period, the value of ionization energy increases.
It is because the size of atoms reduces and valence electrons are held strongly by the
electrostatic force of nucleus. Therefore, elements on left side of the periodic table have
low ionization energies as compared to those on right side of the periodic table as shown
for the 2nd period.
Ionization energy increasing in a period
st
As we move down the group more and more 1 group Ionization energy
1
(kJmol )
shells lie between the valence shell and the nucleus
Ionization energy decreasing in a group
of the atom, these additional shells reduce the

520
electrostatic force felt by the electrons present in the
outermost shell. Resultantly the valence shell
electrons can be taken away easily. Therefore, 496
ionization energy of elements decreases from top to
bottom in a group. 419
3.2.4 Electron Affinity
Electron Affinity is defined as the amount of 403
energy released when an electron is added in the
outermost shell of an isolated gaseous atom. 377
Affinity means attraction. Therefore, electron affinity means tendency of an

atom to accept an electron to form an anion. For example, the electron affinity of fluorine
is 328 kJ mol i.e. one mole atom of fluorine release 328 kJ of energy to form one mole
of fluoride ions.
Let us discuss the trend of electron affinity in the periodic table. Electron affinity
values increase from left to right in the period.
2nd period elements
Electron affinity
1 60 0 29 122 0 141 328 0
(kJmol )
Electron affinity increasing in a period
The reason for this increase is, as the size of atoms decreases in a period, the
attraction of the nucleus for the incoming electron increases. That means more is
attraction for the electron, more energy will be released.
In a group electron affinity values
Electron affinity
decrease from top to bottom because the size of (kJmol1)
atoms increases down the group. With the
Electron affinity decreasing in a group

increase in size of atom shielding effect increases 328
that results in poor attraction for the incoming
electron i.e. less energy is released out. For 349
example, as the size of iodine atom is bigger than
chlorine, its electron affinity is less than iodine, as
325
given in the adjacent table.
3.2.5 Electronegativity 295
The ability of an atom to attract the shared
pair of electrons towards itself in a molecule, is
called electronegativity. It is an important property especially when covalent type of
bonding of elements is under consideration.
The trend of electronegativity is same as of ionization energy and electron
affinity. It increases in a period from left to right because higher Zeff shortens distance
from the nucleus of the shared pair of electrons. This enhances the power to attract the
shared pair of electrons. For example, electronegativity values of group 2 are as follow:
Electronegativity 1.0 1.6 2.0 2.6 3.0 3.4 4.0
Electronegativity increasing in a period
It generally decreases down a group Electro

negativity
because size of the atom increases. Thus attraction
Electronegativity decreasing in a group

for the shared pair of electrons weakens. For 4.0
example, electronegativity values of group 17
(halogens) are presented here.
3.2
3.0
2.7
i. Define atomic radius?

ii. What are SI units of atomic radius?
iii. Why the size of atoms decreases in a period?
iv. Define ionization energy.
v. Why the 2nd ionization energy of an elements is higher than first
Test yourself one?
3.3 vi. What is the trend of ionization energy in a group?
vii. Why the ionization energy of sodium is less than that of magnesium?
viii. Why is it difficult to remove an electron from halogens?
ix. What is shielding effect?
x. How does shielding effect decrease the forces of electrostatic
attractions between nucleus and outer most electrons?
xi. Why does the bigger size atoms have more shielding effect?
xii. Why does the trend of electron affinity and electronegativity is same
in a period?
xiii. Which element has the highest electronegativity?
Key Points
In nineteenth century attempts were made to arrange elements in a systematic
manner.
Dobereiner arranged elements in a group of three called triads.
Newlands arranged elements in groups of eight like musical notes.
Mendeleev constructed Periodic Table containing periods and columns, by

arranging elements in order of increasing atomic weights.
There are total eighteen groups and seven periods in the modern Periodic Table.
Depending on outermost electrons and electronic configuration, element in
periodic table are grouped in s, p, d and f blocks.
Atomic size increases down a group but decreases along the period .
Ionization energy decreases down a group but increases along a period.
Shielding effect is greater in atoms with greater number of electrons.
Electronegativity increases along a period and decreases down the group.
EXERCISE
1. The atomic radii of the elements in Periodic Table:
(a) increase from left to right in a period
(b) increase from top to bottom in a group
(c) do not change from left to right in a period
(d) decrease from top to bottom in a group
2. The amount of energy given out when an electron is added to an atom is
called:
(a) lattice energy (b) ionization energy
(b) electronegativity (d) electron affinity
3. Mendeleev Periodic Table was based upon the:
(a) electronic configuration (b) atomic mass
(c) atomic number (d) completion of a subshell
4. Long form of Periodic Table is constructed on the basis of:
(a) Mendeleev Postulate (b) atomic number
(c) atomic mass (d) mass number
5. 4th and 5th period of the long form of Periodic Table are called:
(a) short periods (b) normal periods
(c) long periods (d) very long periods
6. Which one of the following halogen has lowest electronegativity?
(a) fluorine (b) chlorine
(c) bromine (d) iodine
7. Along the period, which one of the following decreases:
(a) atomic radius (b) ionization energy
(c) electron affinity (d) electronegativity
8. Transition elements are:

(a) all gases (b) all metals
(c) all non-metals (d) all metalloids
9. Mark the incorrect statement about ionization energy:
(a) it is measured in kJmol1 (b) it is absorption of energy
(c) it decreases in a period (d) it decreases in a group
10. Point out the incorrect statement about electron affinity:
(a) it is measured in kJmol1 (b) it involves release of energy
(c) it decreases in a period (d) it decreases in a group
1. Why are noble gases not reactive?
2. Why Cesium (at. no.55) requires little energy to release its one electron present in the
outermost shell?
3. How is periodicity of properties dependent upon number of protons in an atom?
4. Why shielding effect of electrons makes cation formation easy?
5. What is the difference between Mendeleev's periodic law and modern periodic law?
6. What do you mean by groups and periods in the Periodic Table?
7. Why and how are elements arranged in 4th period?
8. Why the size of atom does not decrease regularly in a period?
9. Give the trend of ionization energy in a period.

1. Explain the contributions of Mendeleev for the arrangement of elements in his
Periodic Table.
2. Show why in a 'period’ the size of an atom decreases if one moves from left to right.
3. Describe the trends of electronegativity in a period and in a group.
4. Discuss the important features of modern Periodic Table.
5. What do you mean by blocks in a periodic table and why elements were placed in
blocks?
6. Discuss in detail the periods in Periodic Table?
7. Why and how elements are arranged in a Periodic Table?
8. What is ionization energy? Describe its trend in the Periodic Table?
9. Define electron affinity, why it increases in a period and decreases in a group in the
Periodic Table.
10. Justify the statement, bigger size atoms have more shielding effect thus low ionization
energy.
Chapter 4
Structure of Molecules
Major Concepts
4.1 Why do atoms react?
Time allocation
4.2 Chemical bonds
Teaching periods 16
4.3 Types of bonds
4.4 Intermolecular forces
4.5 Nature of bonding and properties Weightage 8%

• Find the number of valence electrons in an atom using the Periodic Table.
• Describe the importance of noble gas electronic configurations.
• State the octet and duplet rule.
• Explain how elements attain stability.
• Describe the ways in which bonds may be formed.
• State the importance of electronic configurations in formation of ion.
• Describe formation of cations from an atom of a metallic element.
• Describe formation of anion from a non-metallic element.
• Describe characteristic of ionic bond.
• Recognize a compound as having ionic bonds.
• Identify characteristics of ionic compounds.
• Describe formation of covalent bond between two non-metallic elements.
• Describe with examples single, double and triple covalent bonds.
• Draw electron cross and dot structure of simple covalent molecules
containing single, double and triple covalent bonds.
Introduction
IThe things around us are composed of matter. All matter is made up of the
building units 'atoms'. These atoms combine to form molecules, which appear in
different states of matter around us. The forces responsible for binding the atoms
together in a molecule are called chemical forces or chemical bonds. These bonding
forces which keep the atom together will be discussed in this chapter.
Chemistry - IX 59 Unit 4: Structure of Molecules
4.1 WHY DO ATOMS FORM CHEMICAL BONDS?

It is a universal rule that everything in this world tends to become more stable.
Atoms achieve stability by attaining electronic configuration of noble gases (He, Ne or
Ar, etc) i.e. ns2 np6. Having 2 or 8 electrons in the valence shell is sign of stability.
Attaining two electrons in the valence shell is called duplet rule while attaining eight
electrons in the valence shell is called octet rule.
The noble gases do have 2 or 8 electrons in their valence shells. It means all the
noble gases have their valence shells completely filled. Their atoms do not have vacant
space in their valence shell to accommodate extra electrons. Therefore, noble gases do
not gain, lose or share electrons. That is why they are non-reactive.
The importance of the noble gas electronic configuration lies in the fact that all
other atoms try their best to have the noble gas electronic configuration. For this purpose,
atoms combine with one another, which is called chemical bonding. In other words,
atoms form chemical bonds to achieve stability by acquiring inert gas electron
configuration.
An atom can accommodate 8 electrons in its valence shell in three ways:
i. By giving valence shell electrons (if they are less than three) to other
atoms.
ii. By gaining electrons from other atoms (if the valence shell has five or
more electrons in it).
iii. By sharing valence electrons with other atoms.
It means every atom has a natural tendency to have 2 or 8 electrons in its valence
shell. The atoms having less than 2 or 8 electrons in their valence shells are unstable.
Now the question arises that how can we identify the way an atom reacts? The
position of an atom in the periodic table indicates its group number. As we have studied
in chapter 3, the group number is assigned on the basis of valence shell electrons. For
example, group 1 has only 1 electron in its valence shell and group 17 has 7 electrons in
its valence shell. Mode of reaction of an atom depends upon its number of valence shell
electrons. It is discussed in the next sections.
4.2 CHEMICAL BOND
A chemical bond is defined as a force of attraction between atoms that holds
them together in a substance. In other words, during bond formation there is some force
which holds the atoms together.
This attaining of 8 electrons configuration in the outermost shell either by
sharing, by losing or by gaining electrons, is called octet rule. This octet rule only
symbolizes that noble gas electronic configuration should be attained by atoms when
they combine or react. For elements like hydrogen or helium; which have only
s-subshell, this becomes 'duplet rule'. It plays a significant role in understanding the
formation of chemical bond between atoms.
If the bond formation is between ions, it is due to an electrostatic force of
attraction between them. But if bond formation is between similar atoms or between the
atoms that have comparable electronegativities, then the chemical bond formation is by
'sharing' of electrons. This sharing of electrons may be mutual or one sided.
When two approaching atoms come closer, the attractive as well as repulsive
forces become operative. The formation of a chemical bond is a result of net attractive
forces which dominate. The energy of that system is lowered and molecule is formed.
Otherwise if repulsive forces become dominant no chemical bond will be formed. In that
case there will be increase in the energy of the system due to creation of repulsive forces.
4.3 TYPES OF CHEMICAL BOND
The valence electrons, which are involved in chemical bonding, are termed as
bonding electrons. They usually reside in the incomplete or partially filled outermost
shell of an atom. Depending upon the way how these valence electrons are involved in
bonding, they result in following four types of chemical bonds:
Ionic Bond
Covalent Bond
Dative Covalent or Coordinate Covalent Bond
Metallic Bond
4.3.1 Ionic Bond
The elements of Group-1 and Group-2 being metals have the tendency to lose
their valence electrons forming positively charged ions. Whereas non-metals of Group-
15 to Group-17 have the tendency to gain or accept electrons. They are electronegative
elements with high electron affinities. If atoms belonging to these two different groups,
metals and non-metals, are allowed to react, chemical bond is formed. This type of
chemical bond, which is formed due to complete transfer of electron from one atom to
another atom, is called ionic bond.
The formation of NaCl is a good example of this type of bond.
Sodium chloride is a simple compound formed by sodium (Z =11) and chlorine

(Z=17) atoms. The ground state electronic configuration of these elements is shown
below:
The frames indicate electrons in the valence shells of these elements; sodium has only
one electron and chlorine has seven electrons. Sodium being electropositive element has
the tendency to lose electron and chlorine being an electronegative element has the
tendency to gain electron. Therefore, they form positive and negative ions by losing and
gaining electrons, respectively. They attain electronic configuration to the nearest noble
gases.
1s2, 2s2, 2p6 (Ne)
1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6 (Ar)
By losing one electron from the outermost shell, sodium becomes Na+ ion and it
is left with 8 electrons in the second shell which will now become the valence shell. By
gaining one electron, chlorine atom now also has eight electrons in its outermost shell
and becomes CI ion. Both of these atoms are now changed into oppositely charged ions.
They stabilize themselves by combining with each other due to electrostatic force of
attraction between them such as:
It is to be noted that only valence shell electrons take part in this type of bonding, while
other electrons are not involved. In such type of reaction heat is usually given out. The
compounds formed due to this type of bonding are called ionic compounds.
i. Why does sodium form a chemical bond with chlorine?

ii. Why does sodium lose an electron and attains +1 charge?
iii. How do atoms follow octet rule?
iv. Which electrons are involved in chemical bonding?
v. Why does group 1 elements prefer to combine with group 17
Test yourself elements.
4.1
vi. Why chlorine can accept only 1 electron?
vi. Why and how elements are arranged in a period?
4.3.2 Covalent Bond

The elements of Group-13 to Group-17 when allowed to react with each other,
they form a chemical bond by mutual sharing of their valence shell electrons. This type
of bond, which is formed due to mutual sharing of electrons, is called a covalent bond.
The energy changes during the covalent bond formation are of considerable
value. When two atoms approach each other attractive forces develop between electrons
of one atom and nucleus of the other atom. Simultaneously, repulsive forces between
electrons of the two atoms as well as between their nuclei are also created. When the
attractive forces dominate due to decrease in distance between those two atoms, a
chemical bond is formed between them. The formation of hydrogen, chlorine, nitrogen
and oxygen gases are few examples of this type of bonding.
Types of covalent bonds
As described above, the covalent bond is formed by mutual sharing of electrons
between two atoms. The electrons that pair up to form a chemical bond are called 'bond
pair' electrons. Depending upon the number of bond pairs, covalent bond is classified
into following three types:
Single Covalent bond
When one electron is contributed by each bonded atom, one bond pair is formed
and it forms a single covalent bond. While drawing the structure of such molecules the
single bond pair is indicated by a line between those two atoms. A few examples of
molecules with single covalent bonds are hydrogen (H2), chlorine (CI2), hydrochloric
acid (HQ) and
H methane
+ x H (CH4). H xH or H H ; H2
single covalent bond
xx xx
Cl x Cl x
x H xCl x
x H H
xx xx x
; ; H x Cx x H H C H
Cl Cl H Cl
H H
Double Covalent bond

When each bonded atom contributes two electrons, two bond pairs are shared
and a double covalent bond is formed. These bond pairs are indicated as double line
between those atoms in the structure of such molecules. The molecules like oxygen (O2)
gas and ethene (C2H4) show such type of double covalent bonds.
xx xx
x x
O + x O O x O or O O ; O2
xx xx
double covalent bond
H x
x H H H
x
C x C C C
x
x
H H H H
Triple Covalent Bond

When each bonded atom contributes three electrons, three bond pairs are
involved in bond formation. This type is called triple covalent bond. Three small lines
are used to indicate these three pairs of electrons between those atoms in the molecules of
such compounds. The examples of molecules having triple covalent bonds are nitrogen
(N2) and ethyne (C2H2).
x x
N + x N xx N x
x N x
x or N N ; N2
x
triple covalent bond
x
H x C xx C x H H C C H
By this mutual sharing of valence shell electrons, each of the contributing atom attains
the 'Octet' or nearest noble gas electronic configuration.
The electronic configuration of the valence shells of

atoms is shown in small 'dots' or 'crosses' around the
symbol of the element. Each dot or cross represents
an electron. This is a standard method of Lewis to
describe the electronic configuration of valence shell
Do you know? of an atom. It is called Lewis Structure Diagram.
4.3.3 Dative Covalent or Coordinate Covalent Bond

Coordinate covalent or dative covalent bonding is a type of covalent bonding
in which the bond pair of electrons is donated by one bonded atom only. The atom which
donates the electron pair is called donor and the atom which accepts the electron pair is
called acceptor. A small arrow is usually used to indicate the atom and pair of electron
being donated. The head of arrow is towards the acceptor atom.
The non-bonded electron pair available on an atom, like the one available on
nitrogen in ammonia,(NH3) is called a lone pair. When a proton (H+) approaches a
molecule with a lone pair of
electrons, that lone pair is donated +
H H
to H+ and a coordinate covalent x x
bond is formed, e.g. formation of H N + H+ H N H

x
+ x
ammonium radical (NH4 ).
x
H H
In the formation of BF3
x
x
x
x
(boron trifluoride) molecule, H xFx

x x H xFx
x x
x x x x
three valence electrons of boron
x
x
x
x
B F xx B F xx
atom (Z= 5) pair up with three H N + H N
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x x x
x x x x
electrons, one from each three H x Fx H x Fx
x
x
x
x
fluorine atoms. The boron atom

Fig. 4.1 Dative covalent bond (red arrow)
even after this sharing of electrons
(covalent bond formation),
remains short or deficit of two electrons in its outermost shell. Now if a molecule with a
lone pair approaches this molecule, it accepts lone pair from that donor and forms a
coordinate covalent bond. The lone pair on nitrogen of ammonia molecule makes it a
good donor molecule to form a coordinate covalent bond as shown in figure 4.1.
4.3.4 Polar and Non-polar Covalent Bond

If a covalent bond is formed between two similar atoms (homo-atoms), the
shared pair of electrons is attracted by both the atoms equally. Such type of bond is called
non-polar covalent bond. These bonds are formed by equal sharing of electron pair
between the two bonding atoms. This type of bond is called a pure covalent bond. For
example, bond formation in H2 and CI2.
If the covalent bond is formed between two different types of atoms (hetro-
atoms) then the bond pair of electrons will not be attracted equally by the bonded atoms.
One of the atoms will attract the bond pair of electrons more strongly than the other one.
This atom(element) will be called as more electronegative.
When there is difference of electronegativity between two covalently bonded
atoms, there will be unequal attraction for the bond pair of electrons between such atoms.
It will result in the formation of polar covalent bond. The difference between
electronegativities of hydrogen and chlorine is 1.0. As the electronegativity of chlorine is
more, it attracts the shared pair of electron towards itself with a greater force. A partial
negative charge is therefore created on chlorine and in turn a partial positive charge on
hydrogen due to electronegativity difference. It creates polarity in the bond and is called
polar covalent bond.
 
x
x
x
x
H + x Cl x
x H x Cl x
x
x
x
x
x
E.N. = 2.2 E.N. = 3.2
The delta ( ) sign indicates partial positive or partial negative charge that is
developed due to unequal sharing of shared pair or bonded pair of electrons. The
compounds resulting from polar covalent bonds are called polar compounds. For
example: water, hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen chloride.
By using electronegativity values, it is possible to predict whether a chemical

bond will be ionic or covalent in nature. A bond formed between elements of high
electronegativity (halogen group) and elements of low electronegativity (alkali metals)
are ionic in nature. There is complete transfer of electrons between them. The bond
between elements of comparable electronegativities will be covalent in nature as the
bond between carbon and hydrogen in methane, or nitrogen and hydrogen in ammonia. If
the difference of electronegativities between two elements is more than 1.7 the bond
between them will be predominantly ionic bond and if it is less than 1.7, the bond between
two atoms will be predominantly covalent.
i. Give the electronic configuration of carbon atom.

ii. What type of elements have tendency of sharing of electrons?
iii. If repulsive forces dominate to attractive forces will a covalent bond form?
iv. Considering the electronic configuration of nitrogen atom, how many
electrons are involved in bond formation and what type of covalent bond is
Test yourself formed.
4.2 v. Point out the type of covalent bonds in the following molecules
CH4, C2H4, H2, N2, and O2
vi. What is a lone pair? How many lone pairs of electrons are present on
nitrogen in ammonia?
vii. Why is the BF3 electron deficient?
viii. What types of electron pairs make a molecule good donor?
ix. What is difference between bonded and lone pair of electron and how many
bonded pair of electrons are present in NH3 molecule?
x. What do you mean by delta sign and why it develops?
xi. Why does oxygen molecule not form a polar covalent bond?
xii. Why has water polar covalent bonds?
4.3.5 Metallic Bond

The metallic bond is defined as a bond formed between metal atoms
(positively charged ions) due to mobile or free electrons. The different properties
shown by metals such as high melting and boiling points, good conductions of heat and
electricity, hard and heavy nature, suggest existence of different type of chemical bond
between atoms of metals.
In case of metals, the hold of nucleus over the outermost electrons is weak
because of large sized atoms and greater number of shells in between nucleus and
valence electrons. Furthermore, because of low ionization potentials, metals have the
tendency to lose their outermost electrons easily. Resultantly, these loose or free
electrons of all metal atoms move freely in the spaces between atoms of a metal. None
of these electrons is attached to any particular atom. Either they belong to a common
pool, or belong to all the atoms of that metal. Nuclei of metal atoms appear submerged
in sea of these free mobile electrons. These mobile electrons are responsible for
holding the atoms of metals together forming a metallic bond. A simple metallic bond
is shown in figure 4.2.
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
Fig. 4.2 A schematic diagram of Copper wire showing its positive
nuclei (+) embedded in sea of free electrons (o) making 'Metallic Bonding’
4.4 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

As discussed earlier, the forces that hold atoms in a compound are chemical
bonds. In addition to these strong bonding forces, relatively weak forces also exist in
between the molecules, which are called intermolecular forces. The bonding and
intermolecular forces of hydrochloric acid are shown below:
chemical bond
     
H Cl H Cl H Cl
intermolecular forces
It requires about 17 kJ energy to break these intermolecular forces between

one mole of liquid hydrogen chloride molecules to convert it into gas. Whereas, about
430 kJ energy's required to break the chemical bond between hydrogen and chlorine
atoms in 1 mole of hydrogen chloride.
4.4.1 Dipole - Dipole Interaction
All intermolecular forces, which are collectively called van der Waals forces,
are electrical in nature. They result from the attractions of opposite charges which may
be temporary or permanent. The unequal sharing of electrons between two different
types of atoms make one end of molecule slightly positive and other end slightly
negatively charged. As shared pair of electron is drawn towards more electronegative
atom, it is partially negatively charged, as chlorine in hydrogen chloride. The other end
automatically becomes partially positively charged.
When partial positive and partial negative charges exist at different positions in a
molecule, the adjacent molecules will arrange themselves in such a way that negative
end of that molecule comes near to positive end of other molecule. It results in a net
forces of attraction between oppositely charged ends of two adjacent molecules. These
attractive forces are called dipole – dipole interactions as represented in HC1:
4.4.2 Hydrogen Bonding

Hydrogen bonding is a special type of intermolecular forces present in the
permanently polar molecules. This bonding can be considered unique dipole-dipole
attraction. This force of attraction develops between molecules that have a hydrogen
atom bonded to a small, highly electronegative atom with lone pairs of electrons such as
nitrogen, oxygen and fluorine. The covalent bond between hydrogen atom and other
atom becomes polar enough to create a partial positive charge on hydrogen atom and a
partial negative charge on the other atom. The small size and high partial positive charge
on the hydrogen atom enables it to attract highly electronegative (N,O or F) atom of the
other molecule. So, partially positively charged hydrogen atom of one molecule attracts
and forms a bond with the partially negatively charged atom of the other molecule, the
bonding is called hydrogen bonding. This force of attraction is represented by a dotted
line between the molecules as shown below:
          
H O H O H O H O
H H H H
   
       
H O H O H O H O
 H  H  H  H
Hydrogen bonding affects the physical properties of the molecules. Due to this boiling
points of the compounds are affected greatly. For example, boiling point of water
(100 °C) is higher than that of alcohol (78 °C) because of more and stronger hydrogen
bonding in water.
The important phenomenon of floating of ice over water is because of hydrogen
bonding. The density of ice at 0 °C (0.917 gem3) is less than that of liquid water at
0°C (1.00 gem3). In the liquid state water molecules move randomly. However, when
water freezes, the molecules arrange themselves in an ordered form, that gives them
open structure. This process expands the molecules, that results in ice being less dense as
compared to water.
i. What type of elements form metallic bonds?

ii. Why is the hold of nucleus over the outermost electrons in metals weak?
iii. Why the electrons move freely in metals?
iv. Which types of electrons are responsible for holdings the atoms together
in metals.
v. Why a dipole develops in a molecule ?
vi. What do you mean by induced dipole ?
Test yourself vii. Why are dipole forces of attraction not found in halogen molecules?
4.3 viii. What types of attractive forces exist between HCl molecules?
ix. Define intermolecular forces; show these forces among HCl molecule.
4.5. NATURE OF BONDING AND PROPERTIES

Properties of the compounds depend upon the nature of bonding present in them.
Let us discuss the effects of nature of bonding on the properties of compounds.
4.5.1 Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds are made up of positively and negatively charged ions. Thus
they consist of ions and not the molecules. These positively and negatively charged ions
are held together in a solid or crystal form with strong electrostatic attractive forces. The
orderly arrangement of Na+ and CI" ions in a solid crystal of sodium chloride is shown in
figure 4.3.
Na Cl
Figure 4.3 Regular arrangement of Na+ and CI ions in solid crystal of NaCl
The ionic compounds have following properties:

i. Ionic compounds are mostly crystalline solids.
ii. Ionic compounds in solid state have negligible electrical conductance but they
are good conductors in solution and in the molten form. It is due to presence
of free ions in them.
iii. Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points. For example, sodium
chloride has melting point 800 °C and a boiling point 1413 °C. As ionic
compounds are made up of positive and negative ions, there exist strong
electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely charged ions. So, a great
amount of energy is required to break these forces.
iv. They dissolve easily in polar solvents like water. Water has high dielectric
constant that weakens the attraction between ions.
4.5.2 Covalent Compounds
The covalent compounds are made up of molecules that are formed by mutual
sharing of electrons between their atoms i.e. covalent bonds. A covalent bond is
generally regarded as weaker than an ionic bond. Covalent compounds are made up of
two or more non-metals, e.g. H2, CH4, CO2, H2SO4, C6H12O6. Lower molecular mass
covalent compounds are gases or low boiling liquids. Contrary to it, higher molecular
mass covalent compounds are solids. General properties shown by covalent compound
are as follows:
i. They have usually low melting and boiling points.
ii. They are usually bad conductors of electricity. The compounds having polar
character in their bonding are conductor of electricity when they dissolve in
polar solvents.
iii. They are usually insoluble in water but are soluble in non-aqueous solvents
like benzene, ether, alcohol and acetone.
iv. Large molecules with three dimensional bonding form covalent crystals which
are very stable and hard. They have very high melting and boiling points.
Polar and Non-Polar Compounds
As discussed earlier the polarity in a chemical bond is due to difference in
electronegativities of the bonding atoms. On the Pauling Scale, fluorine has been given
an electronegativity value of 4.0. The values for other elements are calculated relative to
it.
Properties of non-polar and polar covalent compounds differ to some extent.
Non-polar covalent compounds usually do not dissolve in water while polar covalent
compounds usually dissolve in water. Similarly non-polar compounds do not conduct
electricity but an aqueous solution of a polar compound usually conduct electricity due
to the formation of ions as a result of its reaction with water.
4.5.3 Coordinate Covalent Compounds

Their properties are mostly similar to those of covalent compounds. As the nuclei
in these compounds are held by shared pair of electrons, therefore, they do not form ions
in water. Due to their covalent nature they form solutions in organic solvents and are very
less soluble in water. Usually they are rigid compounds with a dipole.
4.5.4 Metals
Metals have common property of conducting heat and electricity. It gives them prime
role in many industires. Major properties shown by the metals are as follows:
i. They show metallic luster.
ii. They are usually malleable and ductile. Malleability is the property by virtue
of which a metal can be rolled into sheets, while ductility is the property by
virtue of which a metal can be drawn into wires.
iii. They have usually high melting and boiling points.
iv. Being greater in size they have low ionization energies and form cations (M+)
very easily.
v. They are good conductors of heat and electricity in solid and liquid state due
to mobile electrons.
i. Why the ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points?
ii. What do you mean by malleability?
iii. Why are ionic compounds easily soluble in water?
iv. What type of bond exists in sodium chloride ?
Test yourself v. Why the covalent compounds of bigger size molecules have high melting
4.4 points?
vi. (a): What is the electronegativity difference between the following pair of
elements (atoms). Predict the nature of the bond between them?
(a) H and CI (b)H and Na (c) Na and I (d) K and CI
(b): Comparing the electronegativity differences, arrange these
compounds in increasing ionic strength.
Synthetic Adhesives
Although natural adhesives are less expensive to produce, but most
important adhesives used now a days are synthetic. Adhesives based on
synthetic resins and rubbers excel in versatility and performance. Synthetic
adhesives can be produced in a sufficient supply with uniform properties and
they can be modified in many ways. The polymers or resins used in synthetic
adhesives fall into two general categories—thermoplastics and thermoseting.
One form of polymer used industrially is epoxy adhesive.
AIR CRAFTS, CARS, TRUCKS AND BOATS ARE PARTIALLY HELD TOGETHER WITH
EPOXY ADHESIVES
Epoxy is polymer that is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as
resin and the hardener. Epoxy adhesives are called structural adhesives. These high-
performance adhesives are used in the construction of aircraft, automobiles, bicycles, boats,
golf clubs, where high strength bonds are required. Epoxy adhesives can be developed to suit
almost any application. They can be made flexible or rigid, transparent or opaque even colored
as well as fast or slow setting. Epoxy adhesives are good heat and chemical resistant. Because of
these properties, they are given the name of engineering adhesives.
Key Points
Atoms of different elements react to attain noble gas configuration, which is
stable one.
Chemical bonds may be formed by complete transfer of electrons (ionic); mutual
sharing (covalent) or by donation from an atom(coordinate or dative covalent).
Metals have the tendency to lose electrons easily forming cations.
Non-metals have tendency to gain electrons and form anions.
In ionic bonding strong electrostatic force hold ions together.
Ionic compounds are solids with high melting and boiling points.
Covalent bonds among non-metals are weaker than ionic bonds.
Ionic bonds are non-directional, but covalent bonds are formed in a particular
direction.
Covalent bonds formed between similar atoms are non-polar while between
different atoms are polar.
In covalent bonding single, double or triple covalent bond is formed by sharing of
one, two or three electron pairs by the bonded atoms.
Coordinate covalent bond is formed between electron pair donors and electron
pair acceptors.
Metallic bond is formed between metal atoms due to free electrons.
In addition to chemical bonds, intermolecular forces of attraction exist between
polar molecules.
Hydrogen bonding exists between the hydrogen atom of one molecule and highly
electronegative atom of other molecule.
Hydrogen bonds affect the physical properties of the compounds.
Properties of the compounds depend upon the nature of bonding present in the
compound.
Ionic compounds are crystalline solid with high melting and boiling points.
Covalent compounds exist in molecular form in three physical states.
Polar and non- polar covalent compounds have different properties.
Metals have shining surface. They are good conductor of electricity and are
malleable and ductile
EXERCISE
1. Atoms react with each other because:
(a) they are attracted to each other. (b) they are short of electrons
(c) they want to attain stability (d) they want to disperse
2. An atom having six electrons in its valence shell will achieve noble gas
electronic configuration by:
(a) gaining one electron (b) losing all electrons
(c) gaining two electrons (d) losing two electrons
3. Considering the electronic configuration of atoms which atom with
the given atomic number will be the most stable one?
(a) 6 (b) 8 (c) 10 (d) 12
4. Octet rule is:
(a) description of eight electrons
(b) picture of electronic configuration
(c) pattern of electronic configuration
(d) attaining of eight electrons
5. Transfer of electrons between atoms results in:
(a) metallic bonding (b) ionic bonding
(c) covalent bonding (d) coordinate covalent bonding
6. When an electronegative element combines with an electropositive
element the type of bonding is:
(a) covalent (b) ionic
(c) polar covalent (d) coordinate covalent
7. A bond formed between two non-metals is expected to be:
(a) covalent (b) ionic
(c) coordinate covalent (d) metallic
8. A bond pair in covalent molecules usually has:
(a) one electron (b) two electrons
(c) three electrons (d) four electrons
9. Which of the following compounds is not directional in its bonding?

(a) CH4(b) Kbr (c) CO2 (d). H2O
10. Ice floats on water because:
(a) ice is denser than water (b) ice is crystalline in nature
(c) water is denser than ice (d) water molecules move randomly
11. Covalent bond involves the
(a) donation of electrons (b) acceptance of electrons
(c) sharing of electrons (d) repulsion of electrons
12. How many covalent bonds does C2H2 molecule have?
(a) two (b) three (c) four (d) five
13. Triple covalent bond involves how many electrons?
(a) eight (b) six (c) four (d) only three
14. Which pair of the molecules has same type of covalent bonds?
(a) O2 and HC1 (b) O2 and N2
(c) O2 and C2H4 (d) O2 and C2H2
15. Identify the compound which is not soluble in water.
(a) C6H6 (b)NaCl (c) KBr (d) MgCl2
16. Which one of the following is an electron deficient molecule?
(a) NH3 (b)BF3 (c) N2 (d) O2
17. Identify which pair has polar covalent bonds.
(a) O2 and Cl2 (b) H2O and N2
(c) H2O and 2H2 (d) H2O and Hc1
18. Which one of the following is the weakest force among the atoms?
(a) ionic force (b) metallic force
(c) intermolecular force (d) covalent force
1. Why do atoms react?

2. Why is the bond between an electropositive and an electronegative atom ionic in
nature?
3. Ionic compounds are solids. Justify.
4. More electronegative elements can form bonds between themselves. Justify.
5. Metals are good conductor of electricity. Why?
6. Ionic compounds conduct electricity in solution or molten form. Why?
7. What type of covalent bond is formed in nitrogen molecule.
8. Differentiate between lone pair and bond pair of electrons.
9. Describe at least two necessary conditions for the formation of a covalent

bond.
10. Why HC1 has dipole-dipole forces of attraction?
11. What is a triple covalent bond, explain with an example?
12. What is difference between polar and non-polar covalent bonds, explain
with one example of each?
13. Why a covalent bond becomes polar?
14. What is relationship between electronegativity and polarity?
15. Why does ice float on water?
16. Give the characteristic properties of ionic compounds.
17. What characteristic properties do the covalent compound have?
1. What is an ionic bond? Discuss the formation of ionic bond between sodium
and chlorine atoms?
2. How can you justify that bond strength in polar covalent compounds is
comparable to that of ionic compound?
3. What type of covalent bonds are formed between hydrogen, oxygen and
nitrogen? Explain their bonding with dot and cross model.
4. How a covalent bond develops ionic character in it? Explain.
5. Explain the types of covalent bonds with at least one example of each type.
6. How a coordinate covalent bond is formed? Explain with examples?
7. What is metallic bond? Explain the metallic bonding with the help of a
diagram.
8. Define hydrogen bonding. Explain that how these forces affect the physical
properties of compounds.
9. What are intermolecular forces? Compare these forces with chemical bond
forces with reference to HC1 molecule?
10. What is a chemical bond and why do atoms form a chemical bond?
11. What is octet rule? Why do atoms always struggle to attain the nearest noble
gas electronic configuration?
Chapter 5
Physical States of Matter

Major Concepts
Gaseous State Time allocation
5.1 Typical properties Teaching periods 16
5.2 Laws related to gases Assessment periods 04
Liquid State Weightage 10%
5.3 Typical Properties
Solid State
5.4 Typical Properties
5.5 Types of Solids
5.6 Allotropy

• Effect on the volume of a gas by a change in the a. pressure b. temperature.
• Compare the physical states of matter with regard to intermolecular forces
present between them.
• Account for pressure-volume changes in a gas using Boyle's Law.
• Account for temperature-volume changes in a gas using Charles' Law.
• Explain the properties of gases(diffusion, effusion and pressure).
• Explain the properties of liquids like evaporation, vapour pressure, boiling
point.
• Explain the effect of temperature and external pressure on vapour pressure
and boiling point.
• Describe the physical properties of solids (melting and boiling points).
• Differentiate between amorphous and crystalline solids. Explain the
allotropic forms of solids.
Chemistry - IX 76 Unit 5: Physical States of Matter
Introduction
Matter exists in three physical states i.e. gas, liquid and solid. The simplest form
of matter is the gaseous state. Liquids are less common and most of the matter exists as
solid. Matter in gaseous state does not have definite shape and volume. Therefore, gases
occupy all the available space. Their intermolecular forces are very weak. Pressure is a
significant property of gases. The effect of pressure and temperature on volume of a gas
has been studied quite extensively.
The liquid state has strong intermolecular forces hence it has definite volume but
it does not have definite shape. It attains the shape of the container in which it is kept.
Liquids evaporate and their vapours exert pressure. When vapour pressure of a liquid
becomes equal to external pressure, it boils. Liquids are less mobile than gases therefore,
they diffuse slowly.
The solid state has definite volume and shape. They are rigid and denser than
liquids and gases. They exist in amorphous or crystalline forms.
GASEOUS STATE
5.1 TYPICAL PROPERTIES
Gases have similar physical properties. A few typical properties are discussed here.
5.1.1 Diffusion
Gases can diffuse very rapidly. Diffusion is defined as spontaneous mixing up of
molecules by random motion and collisions to form a homogeneous mixture. Rate of
diffusion depends upon the molecular mass of the gases. Lighter gases diffuse rapidly
than heavier ones. For example, H2 diffuses four times faster than O2 gas .
5.1.2 Effusion
It is escaping of gas molecules through a tiny hole into a space with lesser
pressure. For example, when a tyre gets punctured, air effuses out. Effusion depends
upon molecular masses, lighter gases effuse faster than heavier gases.
5.1.3 Pressure
Gas molecules are always in continuous state of motion. Hence, when molecules
strike with the walls of the container or any other surface, they exert pressure.
Pressure (P) is defined as the force(F) exerted per unit surface area (A).
P = F/A
The SI unit of force is Newton and that of area is m2. Hence pressure has SI unit of N m2.
It is also called Pascal (Pa)
One Pascal (Pa) = 1 Nm2
Barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure and manometer is used to measure
pressure in the laboratory.
Standard Atmospheric Pressure

It is the pressure exerted by the atmosphere at the sea level. It is defined as the
pressure exerted by a mercury column of 760 mm height at sea level. It is sufficient
pressure to support a column of mercury 760 mm in height at sea level.
1 atm = 760 mm of Hg = 760 torr (I mm of Hg = one torr)
= 101325 Nm2 = 101325 Pa
5.1.4 Compressibility
Gases are highly compressible due to empty spaces between their molecules. When
gases are compressed, the molecules come closer to one another and occupy less volume
as compared to the volume in uncompressed state.
5.1.6 Mobility
Gas molecules are always in state of continuous motion. They can move from
one place to another because gas molecules possess very high kinetic energy. They move
through empty spaces that are available for the molecules to move freely. This mobility
or random motion results in mixing up of gas molecules to produce a homogeneous
mixture.
5.1.7 Density of Gases
Gases have low density than liquids and solids. It is due to light mass and more
volume occupied by the gas molecules. Gas density is expressed in grams per dm3.
Whereas, liquid and solid densities are expressed in grams per cm3 i.e. liquids and solids
are 1000 times denser than gases. The density of gases increases by cooling because their
volume decreases. For example, at normal atmospheric pressure, the density of oxygen
gas is 1.4 g dm3 at 20°C and 1.5 g dm3 at 0°C.
i. Why the rate of diffusion of gases is rapid than that of liquids?

ii. Why are the gases compressible?
iii. What do you mean by Pascal. How many Pascals are equal to
1 atm?
iv. Why the density of a gas increases on cooling?
v. Why is the density of gas measured in g dm3 while that of a
liquid in g cm3?
Test yourself
5.1 vi. Convert the following
a. 70 cm Hg to atm
b. 3.5 atm to torr
c. 1.5 atm to Pa
5.2 LAWS RELATED TO GASES

5.2.1 Boyle's Law
In 1662 Robert Boyle studied the relationship between the volume and pressure
of a gas at constant temperature. He observed that volume of a given mass of a gas is
inversely proportional to its pressure provided the temperature remains constant.
According to this law, the volume (V) of a given mass of a gas decreases with the
increase of pressure (P) and vice versa. Mathematically, it can be written as:
Where 'k' is proportionality constant. The value of k

is same for the same amount of a given gas. Therefore,
Boyle's law can be stated as the product of pressure and
volume of a fixed mass of a gas is constant at a constant
temperature. Robert Boyle (1627-
1691) was natural
philosopher, chemist,
physicist and inventor.
He is famous for
'Boyle's law of gases'.
As both equations have same constant therefore,

their variables are also equal to each other.
This equation establishes the relationship between pressure and volume of the gas.
Experimental Verification of Boyle's law
The relationship between volume and pressure can be verified experimentally by
the following series of experiments. Let us take some mass of a gas in a cylinder having a
movable piston and observe the effect of increase of pressure on its volume. The
phenomenon is represented in figure.5.1. When the pressure of 2 atmosphere (atm) is
applied, the volume of the gas reads as 1 dm3. When pressure is increased equivalent to 4
atm, the volume of the gas reduces to 0.5 dm3. Again when pressure is increased three
times i.e. 6 atm, the volume reduces to 0.33 dm3. Similarly, when pressure is increased up
to 8 atm on the piston, volume of the gas decreases to 0.25 dm3.
2 atm 4 atm 6 atm 8 atm
3 3 3 3
1 dm 0.5 dm 0.33 dm 0.25 dm
Fig. 5.1 The decrease of volume with increase of pressure.
When we calculate the product of volume and pressure for this experiment, the
product of all these experiments is constant i.e. 2 atm dm'. It proves the Boyle's law
i. Is the Boyle's law applicable to liquids?

ii. Is the Boyle's law valid at very high temperature?
iii. What will happen if the pressure on a sample of gas is raised three times
Test yourself and its temperature is kept constant?
5.2
In which units blood pressure is measured?

Blood pressure is measured using a pressure
gauge. It may be a mercury manometer or
some other device. Blood pressure is reported
Do you know? by two values, such as 120/80, which is a
normal blood pressure. The first measurement
shows the maximum pressure when the heart
is pumping. It is called systolic pressure.
When the heart is in resting position, pressure decreases and it is the second value
called diastolic. Both of these pressures are measured in torr units. Hypertension
is because of high blood pressure due to tension and worries in daily life. The
usual criterion for hypertension is a blood pressure greater than 140/90.
Hypertension raises the level of stress on the heart and on the blood vessels. This
stress increases the susceptibility of heart attacks and strokes.
Example 5.1
A gas with volume 350 cm3 has a pressure of 650 mm of Hg. If its pressure is
reduced to 325 mm of Hg, calculate what will be its new volume?
Data
Solution
By using the equation of Boyle's Law
By putting the values
Thus volume of the gas is doubled by reducing its pressure to half.

Example 5.2
785 cm3 of a gas was enclosed in a container under a pressure of 600 mm Hg. If
volumes is reduced to 350 cm3, what will be the pressure?
Date
Solution
By using the Boyle's equation or
By putting the values or
Thus pressure is increased by decreasing volume.

Absolute Temperature Scale

Lord Kelvin introduced absolute temperature scale or Kelvin scale. This scale
of temperature starts from 0 K or 273.15 °C, which
0C 273 K
is given the name of absolute zero. It is the
temperature at which an ideal gas would have zero
Celsius scale
Kelvin scale
volume. As both scales have equal degree range, 100C 173K
therefore, when 0 K equal to 273 °C then 273 K is
equal to 0 °C as shown in the scales.
Conversion of Kelvin temperature to Celsius 200C 73K
temperature and vice versa can be carried out as
273C 0K
follows:
5.2.2 Charles's Law

The relationship between volume and temperature keeping the pressure constant
was also studied. French scientist J. Charles in 1787 presented his law that states "the
volume of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature if the
pressure is kept constant'. When pressure P is constant, the volume V of a given mass of a
gas is proportional to absolute temperature T. Mathematically, it is represented as:
Where k is proportionality constant. If temperature of the gas is increased, its

volume also increases. When temperature is changed from T1 to T2, the volume changes
from V1 to V2. The mathematical form of Charles' Law will be:
As both equations have same value of constant, therefore, their variables are also
equal to each other
Experimental Verification of Charles's Law

Let us take a certain amount of gas enclosed in a
cylinder having a movable piston. If the initial volume of the
gas V1 is 50 cm3 and initial temperature T1 is 25 °C, on heating
the cylinder up to 100 °C, its new volume V2 is about 62.5 cm3.
The increase in temperature, increases the volume that can be
observed as elaborated below in the figure 5.2.
Frictionless J. Charles (1746-1823)

piston T1 25C T2 100C
was a French inventor,
V1 50 cm3 V2 62.5 cm3 scientist, mathematician
and balloonist. He
described in 1802, how
gases tend to expand
Fig. 5.2: Representation of increase of volume with the increase in
temperature.
Remember
Always convert temperature scale from °C to K scale while solving
problems. K = 273 + °C
Example 5.3
A sample of oxygen gas has a volume of 250 cm3 at 30 °C. If gas is allowed
to expand up to 700 cm3 at constant pressure, find out its final temperature.
Data
( 30 + 273)
Solution
By using the equation
By putting the value in equation
Thus expansion is caused due to increasing temperature

Example 5.4
A sample of hydrogen gas occupies a volume 160 cm3 at 30 °C. If its temperature
is raised to 100 °C, calculate what will be its volume if the pressure remains constant.
Data
Solution
By using the equation of Charles' Law
By putting the values in above equation.
Thus volume of the gas has increased by raising the temperature.
Remember!
Degree sign (°) is used with Celsius scale not with Kelvin scale.
i. Which variables are kept constant in Charles's law?

ii. Why volume of a gas decreases with increase of pressure?
iii. What is absolute zero?
iv. Does Kelvin scale show a negative temperature?
v. When a gas is allowed to expand, what will be its effect on its
Test yourself temperature?
5.3 vi. Can you cool a gas by increasing its volume?
In which units' body temperature is measured?

Body temperature is measured in Fahrenheit scales. Normal body
temperature is 98.6 °F, it is equivalent to 37 °C. This temperature is close to
average normal atmospheric temperature. In winter atmospheric
temperature falls lower than that of our body temperature.
According to principle of heat flow, heat flows out from our body and we
Do you know? feel cold. To control this outward flow of heat, we wear black and warm
clothes. To maintain body temperature we use dry fruits, tea, coffee and
meats, etc.
Physical States of Matter and Role of Intermolecular Forces

As you know that matter exists in three physical states; gas, liquid and solid. In
the gaseous state, the molecules are far apart from each other. Therefore, intermolecular
forces are very weak in them. But in the liquid and solid states intermolecular forces play
a very important role on their properties.
In the liquid state molecules are much closer to each other as compared to gases
as shown in figure 5.3. As a result liquid molecules develop stronger intermolecular
forces, which affect their physical properties like diffusion, evaporation, vapour
pressure and boiling point. Compounds having stronger intermolecular forces have
higher boiling points, as you will see in section 5.3.3.
A. Gas molecules B. Liquids molecules C. Solid molecules

Fig 5.3 Three states of matter showing intermolecular forces.
The intermolecular forces become so dominant in solid state that the molecules
look motionless. They arrange in a regular pattern therefore they are denser than
molecules of liquids.
LIQUID STATE
Liquids have a definite volume but their shape is not definite. A liquid attains
shape of the container in which it is put. A few typical properties of the liquids are
discussed here.
5.3.1 Evaporation
The process of changing of a liquid into a gas phase is called evaporation. It is
reverse to condensation in which a gas changes into liquid. Evaporation is an
endothermic process (heat is absorbed). Such as when one mole of water in liquid state is
converted into vapour form, it requires 40.7 kJ of energy.
In the liquid state, molecules are in a continuous state of motion. They possess
kinetic energy but all the molecules do not have same kinetic energy. Majority of the
molecules have average kinetic energy and a few have more than average kinetic energy.
The molecules having more than average kinetic energy overcome the attractive forces
among the molecules and escape from the surface. It is called as evaporation.
Evaporation is a continuous process taking place at all temperatures. The rate of
evaporation is directly proportional to temperature. It increases with the increase in
temperature because of increase in kinetic energy of the molecules.
Evaporation is a cooling process. When the high kinetic energy molecules
vapourize, the temperature of remaining molecules falls down. To compensate this
deficiency of energy, the molecules of liquid absorb energy from the surroundings. As a
result the temperature of surroundings decreases and we feel cooling. For example,
when we put a drop of alcohol on palm, the alcohol evaporates and we feel cooling effect.
Evaporation depends upon following factors:
i. Surface area: Evaporation is a surface phenomenon. Greater is surface area,
greater is evaporation and vice verse. For example, sometimes a saucer is used
if tea is to be cooled quickly. This is because evaporation from the larger
surface area of saucer is more than that from the smaller surface area of a tea
cup.
ii. Temperature: At high temperature, rate of evaporation is high because at high
temperature kinetic energy of the molecules increases so high that they over-
come the intermolecular forces and evaporate rapidly. For example, water level
in a container with hot water decreases earlier than that of a container with cold
water. This is because the hot water evaporates earlier than the cold water.
iii. Intermolecular forces: If intermolecular forces are stronger, molecules face
difficulty in evaporation. For example, water has stronger intermolecular forces
than alcohol, therefore, alcohol evaporates faster than water.
5.3.2 Vapour Pressure
The pressure exerted by the vapours of a liquid at equilibrium with the liquid at a
particular temperature is called vapour pressure of a liquid.
The equilibrium is a state when rate of vapourization and rate of condensation is
equal to each other but in opposite directions.
vapourize
Liquid Vapours
condense
From the open surface of a liquid, molecules evaporate and mix up with the air
but when we close a system, evaporated molecules start gathering over the liquid
surface. Initially the vapours condense slowly to return to liquid. After sometime
condensation process increases and a stage reaches when the rate of evaporation
becomes equal to rate of condensation. At that stage the number of molecules
evaporating will be equal to the number of molecules coming back(condensing) to

liquid. This state is called dynamic equilibrium as shown in figure 5.4.
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 5.4 A state of Dynamic Equilibrium between liquid and its vapours
Vapour pressure of a liquid depends upon the following factors.
i. Nature of liquid: Vapour pressure depends upon the nature of liquid. Polar
liquids have low vapour pressure than non-polar liquids at the same
temperature. This is because of strong intermolecular forces between the polar
molecules of liquids. For example, water has less vapour pressure than that of
alcohol at same temperature.
ii. Size of molecules: Small sized molecules can easily evaporate than big sized
molecules hence, small sized molecular liquids exert more vapour pressure. For
example, hexane (C6H14) has a small sized molecule as compared to decane
(C10H22).
Therefore, C6H14 evaporates rapidly and exerts vapour more pressure than C10H22.
iii. Temperature: At high temperature, vapour pressure is higher than at low
temperature. At elevated temperature, the kinetic energy of the molecules
increases enough to enable them to vaporize and exert pressure.
For example, vapour pressure of water at different temperatures is given in the
Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 Relationship of Vapour Pressure of Water with Temperature
4.58
17.5
55.3
5.3.3 Boiling Point
When a liquid is heated, its molecules gain energy. The number of molecules
which have more than average kinetic energy increases. More and more molecules
become energetic enough to overcome the intermolecular forces. Due to this, rate of
evaporation increases that results in increase of vapour pressure until a stage reaches
where the vapour pressure of a liquid becomes equal to atmospheric pressure. At this
stage, the liquid starts boiling. Hence, boiling point is defined as the temperature at
which the vapour pressure of a liquid becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure or any
external pressure.
The figure 5.5 shows the increase of vapour pressure of diethyl ether, ethyl
alcohol and water with the increase of temperature. At 0°C the vapour pressure of diethyl
ether is 200 mm Hg, of ethyl alcohol 25 mm Hg while that of water is about 5 mm Hg.
When they are heated, vapour pressure of diethyl ether increases rapidly and becomes
equal to atmospheric pressure at 34.6°C, while vapour pressure of water increases
slowly because intermolecular forces of water are stronger. The figure shows the vapour
pressure increases very rapidly when the liquids are near to boiling point.
Fig. 5.5 Boiling point curves of Ether, Alcohol and Water.

The boiling point of the liquid depends upon the following factors.
i. Nature of liquid: The polar liquids have higher boiling points than that of non-
polar liquids because polar liquids have strong intermolecular force. Boiling
points of a few liquids are given in the table 5.2
ii. Intermolecular forces: Intermolecular forces play a very important role on the
boiling point of liquids. Substances having stronger intermolecular forces have
high boiling points, because such liquids attain a level of vapour pressure equal
to external pressure at high temperature. It is given in figure 5.5.
iii. External pressure: Boiling points of a liquid depends upon external pressure.
Boiling point of a liquid is controlled by external pressure in such a way, that
it can be increased by increasing external pressure and vice versa. This principle
is used in the working of 'Pressure Cooker'.
5.3.4 Freezing Point
When liquids are cooled, the vapour pressure of liquid decreases and a stage
reaches when vapour pressure of a liquid state becomes equal to the vapour pressure of
the solid state. At this temperature, liquid and solid coexist in dynamic equilibrium and
this is called the freezing point of a liquid. Boiling point and freezing point of a few
liquids are given in the table 5.2
Table 5.2 Freezing and Boiling Points of Common Liquids
5.3.5 Diffusion
The liquid molecules are always in a state of continuous
motion. They move from higher concentration to lower
concentration. They mix up with the molecules of other liquids,
so that they form a homogeneous mixture. For example, when a
few drops of ink are added in a beaker of water, ink molecules
move around and after a while spread in whole of the beaker.
Thus diffusion has taken place. Liquids diffuse like gases but
the rate of diffusion of liquid is very slow.
The diffusion of liquid depends upon the following
factors.
i. Intermolecular forces: Liquids having weak
Fig. 5.6 Diffusion in liquids
intermolecular forces diffuse faster than those having
strong intermolecular forces.
ii. Size of molecules: Big sized molecules diffuse slowly. For example, honey
diffuses slowly in water than that of alcohol in water.
iii. Shapes of molecules: Regular shaped molecules diffuse faster than
irregular shaped molecules because they can easily slip over and move
faster.
iv. Temperature: Diffusion increases by increasing temperature because at high
temperature the intermolecular forces become weak due to high kinetic energy
of the molecules.
5.3.6 Density
The density of liquid depends upon its mass per unit volume. Liquids are denser
than gases because molecules of liquid are closely packed and the spaces between their
molecules are negligible. As the liquid molecules have strong intermolecular forces
hence they cannot expand freely and have a fixed volume. Like gases, they cannot
occupy all the available volume of the container that is the reason why densities of
liquids are high. For example: density of water is 1.0 g cm3 while that of air is 0.001 g cm3.
That is the reason why drops of rain fall downward. The densities of liquids also vary.
You can observe kerosene oil floats over water while honey settles down in the water.
I. Why does evaporation increase with the increase of temperature?

ii. What do you mean by condensation?
iii. Why is vapour pressure higher at high temperature?
iv. Why is the boiling point of water higher than that of alcohol?
v. What do you mean by dynamic equilibrium ?
vi. Why are the rates of diffusion in liquids slower than that of gases?
Test yourself vii. Why does rate of diffusion increase with increase of temperature?
5.4 viii. Why are the liquids mobile?
SOLID STATE
It is third state of matter which has definite shape and volume. In solid state, the
molecules are very close to one another and they are closely packed. The intermolecular
forces are so strong that particles become almost motionless. Hence, they cannot diffuse.
Solid particles possess only vibrational motion.
Solids exhibit typical properties, a few of which are discussed here.
5.4.1 Melting point
The solid particles possess only vibrational kinetic energy. When solids are
heated, their vibrational energies increase and particles vibrate at their mean position
with a higher speed. If the heat is supplied continuously, a stage reaches at which the
particles leave their fixed positions and then become mobile. At this temperature solid
melts. The temperature at which the solid starts melting and coexists in dynamic
equilibrium with liquid state is called melting point. The ionic and covalent solids make
network structure to form macromolecules. So all such solids have very high melting
points.
5.4.2 Rigidity
The particles of solids are not mobile. They have fixed positions. Therefore, solids are
rigid in their structure.
5.4.3 Density
Solids are denser than liquids and gases because solid particles are closely
packed and do not have empty spaces between their particles. Therefore, they have the
highest densities among the three states of matter. For example, density of aluminium is
2.70 g cm3, iron is 7.86 g cm3and gold is 19.3 g cm3.
5.5 Types of Solids
According to their general appearance solids can be classified into two types:
amorphous solids and crystalline solids.
5.5.1 Amorphous Solids
Amorphous means shapeless. Solids in which the particles are not regularly
arranged or their regular shapes are destroyed, are called amorphous solids. They do
not have sharp melting points. Plastic, rubber and even glass are amorphous solids as
they do not have any sharp melting points.
5.5.2 Crystalline Solids
Solids in which particles are arranged in a definite three-dimensional pattern
are called crystalline solids. They have definite surfaces or faces. Each face has definite
angle with the other. They have sharp melting points. Examples of crystalline solids are
diamond, sodium chloride, etc.
5.6 Allotropy
The existence of an element in more than one forms in same physical state is
called allotropy. Allotropy is due to:
i. The existence of two or more kinds of molecules of an element each
having different number of atoms such as allotropes of oxygen are oxygen
(O2) and ozone (O3)
ii. Different arrangement of two or more atoms or molecules in a crystal of
the element. Such as, sulphur shows allotropy due to different arrangement
of molecules (S8) in the crystals.
They always show different physical properties but have same chemical
properties.
Allotropes of solids have different arrangement of atoms in space at a given
temperature. The arrangement of atoms also change with the change of temperature and
new allotropic form is produced. The temperature at which one allotrope changes into
another is called transition temperature. For example, transition temperature of sulphur
is 96 °C. Below this temperature rhombic form is stable. If rhombic form is heated above
96 °C, its molecules rearrange themselves to give monoclinic form.
Other examples are tin and phosphorus.

13.2
White phosphorus is very reactive, poisonous and waxy solid. It exists as tetra-atomic
molecules. While red phosphorous is less reactive, non-poisonous and a brittle powder.
i. Which form of sulphur exists at room temperature?
ii. Why is white tin available at room temperature?
iii. Why is the melting point of a solid considered its 'identification'
characteristic?
iv. Why amorphous solids do not have sharp melting points while
crystalline solids do have?
v. Which is lighter one aluminium or gold?
Test yourself vi. Write the molecular formula of a sulphur molecule?
5.5 vii. Which allotropic form of carbon is stable at room temperature
(25 °C)?
viii. State whether allotropy is shown by elements or compounds or both?
Curing with salt to preserve meat

Table salt is the most important ingredient for curing meat and is used
in large quantities. Salt kills and inhibits the growth of putrifying bacteria by
drawing water out of the meat. Concentrations of salt up to 20% are required
to kill most species of unwanted bacteria. Once properly salted, the meat
contains enough salt to prevent the growth of many undesirable microbes.
CHANGE OF INSTRUMENTATION AS THE SCIENCE PROGRESSES
There are many aspects to be considered about the functioning of instruments. Scientific
observation is determined by the human sensory system. It generally relies on instruments that
serve as mediators between the world and the senses. Thus, instruments can be considered as a
reinforcement of the senses. They provide a great capacity for increasing the power of
observation and making induction processes easier. Furthermore, scientific instruments
constitute a major factor in checking, refuting or changing previously established theories.
Key Points
Gases diffuse very rapidly. Diffusion is mixing up of a gas throughout a space or
other gases.
Effusion is escaping of a gas molecule through a fine hole into an evacuated
space.
Gases exert pressure. The SI unit of pressure is Nm which is also called Pascal.
Standard atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by a mercury column of
760 mm height at sea level, it is equivalent to 1 atmosphere.
Gases are highly mobile and they can be compressed.

Gases are 1000 times lighter than liquids or solids hence their density is measured
in g dm3.
Boyle's law states that volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to
the pressure at constant temperature.
Charles' Law states that volume of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional to
the absolute temperature at a constant pressure.
Absolute zero is the temperature at which an ideal gas would have zero volume, it
is 273.15 °C.
The conversion of a liquid into vapours at all temperatures is called evaporation.
It is a cooling process.
Evaporation depends upon surface area, temperature and intermolecular forces.
Vapour pressure of a liquid is defined as the pressure exerted by the vapours when
liquid and vapour states are in dynamic equilibrium with each other.
Boiling point is the temperature at which the vapour pressure of a liquid becomes
equal to the atmospheric pressure or any external pressure.
Boiling point depends upon the nature of liquid, intermolecular forces and
external pressure.
Freezing point of a liquid is that temperature at which vapour pressure of liquid
phase is equal to the vapour pressure of the solid phase. At this temperature liquid
and solid coexist in dynamic equilibrium with one another.
Melting point of solid is the temperature at which solid when heated melts and
coexist in dynamic equilibrium with liquid.
Solids are rigid and denser than liquids.
Solids are classified as amorphous and crystalline .
Amorphous solids are shapeless and do not have sharp melting point.
Crystalline solids have definite three dimensional pattern of arrangement of
particles .They have sharp melting points.
The existence of a solid in different physical forms is called allotropy.
EXERCISE
1. How many times liquids are denser than gases?
(a) 100 times (b) 1000 times
(c) 10,000 times (d) 100,000 times
2. Gases are the lightest form of matter and their densities are expressed in
terms of:
(a) mg cm3 (b) g cm3 (c) g dm3 (d) kg dm3
At freezing point which one of the following coexists in dynamic
3. equilibrium:
(a) gas and solid (b) liquid and gas
(c) liquid and solid (d) all of these
Solid particles possess which one of the following motions?
4.
(a) rotational motions (b) vibrational motions
(c) translational motions (d) both translational and vibrational motions
Which one of the following is not amorphous?
5.
(a) rubber (b) plastic (c) glass (d) glucose.
One atmospheric pressure is equal to how many Pascals:
6.
(a) 101325 (b) 10325 (c) 106075 * (d) 10523
In the evaporation process, liquid molecules which leave the surface of
7. the liquid have:
(a) very low energy (b) moderate energy
(c) very high energy (d) none of these
8. Which one of the following gas diffuses fastest?
(a) hydrogen (b) helium
(c) fluorine (d) chlorine
9. Which one of the following does not affect the boiling point?
(a) intermolecular forces (b) external pressure
(c) nature of liquid (d) initial temperature of liquid
10. Density of a gas increases, when its:
(a) temperature is increased (b) pressure is increased
(c) volume is kept constant (d) none of these
11. The vapour pressure of a liquid increases with the:
(a) increase of pressure
(b) increase of temperature
(c) increase of intermolecular forces
(d) increase of polarity of molecules

1. What is diffusion, explain with an example?
2. Define standard atmospheric pressure. What are its units? How it is related to Pascal?
3. Why are the densities of gases lower than that of liquids?
4. What do you mean by evaporation how it is affected by surface area.
5. Define the term allotropy with examples.
6. In which form sulphur exists at 100 °C.
7. What is the relationship between evaporation and boiling point of a liquid?
Long Answer Questions

1. Define Boyle's law and verify it with an example.
2. Define and explain Charles' law of gases.
3. What is vapour pressure and how it is affected by intermolecular forces.
4. Define boiling point and also explain, how it is affected by different factors.
5. Describe the phenomenon of diffusion in liquids along with factors which influence it.
6. Differentiate between crystalline and amorphous solids.
Numerical
1. Convert the following units:
(a) 850 mm Hg to atm (b) 205000 Pa to atm
(c) 560 torr to cm Hg (d) 1.25 atm to Pa
2. Convert the following units:
(a) 750 °C to K (b) 150 °C to K
(c)100Kto°C (d)172Kto°C.
3. A gas at pressure 912 mm of Hg has volume 450cm3. What will be its volume at 0.4
atm.
4. A gas occupies a volume of 800 cm3 at 1 atm, when it is allowed to expand up to
1200 cm3 what will be its pressure in mm of Hg.
5. It is desired to increase the volume of a fixed amount of gas from 87.5 to 118 cm3 while
holding the pressure constant. What would be the final temperature if the initial
temperature is 23 °C.
6. A sample of gas is cooled at constant pressure from 30 °C to 10 °C. Comment:
a. Will the volume of the gas decrease to one third of its original
volume?
b. If not, then by what ratio will the volume decrease?
7. A balloon that contains 1.6 dm3 of air at standard temperature (0 °C) and (latm)
pressure is taken under water to a depth at which its pressure increases to 3.0 atm.
Suppose that temperature remain unchanged, what would be the new volume of the
balloon. Does it contract or expand?
8. A sample of neon gas occupies a volume of 75.0 cm3 at very low pressure of 0.4 atm.
Assuming temperature remain constant what would be the volume at 1.0 atm.
pressure?
9. A gas occupies a volume of 35.0 dm3 at 17 °C. If the gas temperature rises to 34°C at
constant pressure, would you expect the volume to double? If not calculate the new
volume.
10. The largest moon of Saturn, is Titan. It has atmospheric pressure of 1.6  l05 Pa. What
is the atmospheric pressure in atm? Is it higher than earth's atmospheric pressure?
Chapter 6
Solutions
Major Concepts
6.1 Solution, aqueous solution, solute and solvent
6.2 Saturated, unsaturated, supersaturated solutions and dilution of solution
6.3 Types of solutions
6.4 Concentration units
Time allocation
6.5 Comparison of solutions,
Teaching periods 16
suspensions and colloids
Weightage 14%

• Define the terms: solution, aqueous solution, solute and solvent and give an
example of each.
• Explain the difference between saturated, unsaturated and supersaturated
solutions.
• Explain the formation of solutions (mixing gases into gases, gases into
liquids, gases into solids) and give an example of each.
• Explain the formation of solutions (mixing liquids into gases, liquids into
liquids, liquids into solids) and give an example of each.
• Explain the formation of solutions (mixing solids into gases, solids into
liquids, solids into solids) and give an example of each.
• Explain what is meant by the concentration of a solution.
• Define molarity.
• Define percentage solution.
• Solve problems involving the molarity of solution.
• Describe how to prepare dilute solutions from concentrated solutions of
known molarity.
• Convert between the molarity of a solution and its concentration in g/dm .
• Use the rule that "like dissolves like" to predict the solubility of one substance
in another.
Chemistry - IX 97 Unit 6: Solutions
Introduction
Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more components. Generally,
solutions are found in three physical states depending upon the physical state of the
solvent, e.g. alloy is a solid solution; sea water is a liquid solution and air is a gaseous
solution. There are nine types of solutions ranging from gas-gas e.g air we breathe to
solid-solid solutions e.g dental amalgam for filling of tooth. Liquid solutions are the
most common solutions because of the most common solvent water. Therefore, there is a
wide variety of liquid solutions ranging from a drop of rain to oceans. Sea water is a
resource of 92 naturally occurring elements.
6.1 SOLUTION
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. The boundaries
of the components can't be distiguished i.e. a solution exist as one phase. For example,
the air we breathe is a solution of several gases, brass is a solid solution of Zn and Cu.
Sugar dissolved in water is an example of liquid solution.
The simplest way to distinguish between a solution and a pure liquid is
evaporation. The liquid which evaporates completely, leaving no residue, is a pure
compound, while a liquid which leaves behind a residue on evaporation is solution. An
alloy like brass or bronze is also a homogeneous mixture. Although, it cannot be
separated by physical means, yet it is considered a mixture as:
i. It shows the properties of its components and
ii. It has a variable composition.
6.1.1 Aqueous Solutions
The solution which is formed by dissolving a substance in water is called an
aqueous solution. In aqueous solutions water is always present in greater amount and
termed as solvent. For example, sugar in water and table salt in water. Aqueous solutions
are mostly used in the laboratories. Water is called a universal solvent because it
dissolves majority of compounds present in earth's crust.
6.1.2 Solute
The component of solution which is present in smaller quantity is called solute. A
solute is dissolved in a solvent to make a solution. For example, salt solution is made by
dissolving salt in water. So in salt solution, salt is the solute and water is solvent. More
than one solutes may be present in a solution. For example, in soft drinks, water is a
solvent while other substances like sugar, salts and CO2 are solutes.
6.1.3 Solvent
The component of a solution which is present in larger quantity is called
solvent. Solvent always dissolves solutes. In a solution, if more than two substances
are present, one substance acts as solvent and others behave as solutes. For example,
as referred above in soft drinks, water is solvent while other substances like sugar, salts
and CO2 are solutes.
6.2 SATURATED SOLUTION
When a small amount of solute is added in a solvent, solute dissolves very easily
in the solvent. If the addition of solute is kept on, a stage is reached when solvent cannot
dissolve any more solute. At this stage, further added solute remains undissolved and it
settles down at the bottom of the container.
A solution containing maximum amount of solute at a given temperature is called

saturated solution. On the particle level, a saturated solution is the one, in which
undissolved solute is in equilibrium with dissolved solute.
At this stage, dynamic equilibrium is established. Although dissolution and

crystallization continues at a given temperature, but the net amount of dissolved solute
remains constant.
6.2.1 Unsaturated Solution
A solution which contains lesser amount of solute than that which is required to
saturate it at a given temperature, is called unsaturated solution. Such solutions have
the capacity to dissolve more solute to become a saturated solution.
6.2.2 Supersaturated Solution
When saturated solutions are heated, they develop further capacity to dissolve
more solute. Such solutions contain greater amount of solute than is required to form a
saturated solution and they become more concentrated. The solution that is more
concentrated than a saturated solution is known as supersaturated solution. Super-
saturated solutions are not stable. Therefore, an easy way to get a supersaturated solution
is to prepare a saturated solution at high temperature. It is then cooled to a temperature
where excess solute crystallizes out and leaves behind a saturated solution. For example,
a saturated solution of sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3) in water at 20 °C has 20.9 g of salt
per 100 cm3 of water. Less than this amount of salt per 100 cm3 of water at 20 °C will be an
unsaturated solution. A solution having more amount than 20.9 g of salt per 100 cm3 of
water at 20 °C will be a supersaturated solutuion.
6.2.3 Dilution of Solution

The solutions are classified as dilute or concentrated on the basis of relative
amount of solute present in them. Dilute solutions are those which contain relatively
small amount of dissolved solute in the solution. Concentrated solutions are those
which contain relatively large amount of dissolved solute in the solution. For example,
brine is a concentrated solution of common salt in water. These terms describe the
concentration of the solution. Addition of more solvent will dilute the solution and its
concentration decreases.
The preparation of dilute solutions from concentrated solutions has been
explained in Section 6.4.3.1.
6.3 TYPES OF SOLUTION
Each solution consists of two components, solute and solvent. The solute as well
as solvent may exist as gas, liquid or solid. So, depending upon the nature of solute and
solvent different types of solutions may form, which are given in table 6.1.
Table 6.1 Different Types of Solutions with Examples
i. Why is a solution considered mixture?

ii. Distinguish between the following pairs as compound or
solution:
(a) water and salt solution (b) vinegar and benzene
(c) carbonated drinks and acetone
iii. What is the major difference between a solution and a mixture?
iv. Why are the alloys considered solutions?
Test yourself v. Dead sea is so rich with salts that it forms crystals when
6.1
temperature lowers in the winter. Can you comment why is it
named as "Dead Sea"?
6.4 CONCENTRATION UNITS

Concentration is the proportion of a solute in a solution. It is also a ratio of the
amount of solute to the amount of solution or ratio of amount of solute to the amount of
the solvent. Please keep in mind that concentration does not depend upon the total
volume or total amount of the solution. For example, a sample taken from the bulk
solution will have the same concentration. There are various types of units uspd to
express concentration of solutions. A few of these units are discussed here.
6.4.1 Percentage
Percentage unit of concentration refers to the percentage of solute present in a
solution. The percentage of solute can be expressed by mass or by volume.
It can be expressed in terms of percentage composition by four different ways.
6.4.1.1 Percentage - mass/mass (%m/m)
It is the number of grams of solute in 100 grams of solution. For example, 10%
m/m sugar solution means that 10 g of sugar is dissolved in 90 g of water to make 100 g of
solution. Calculation of this ratio is carried out by using the following formula:
mass
mass mass
mass mass
mass
mass
6.4.1.2 Percentage - mass/volume (%m/v)
It is the number of grams of solute dissolved in 100 cm3 (parts by volume) of the
solution. For example, 10 % m/v sugar solution contains 10 g of sugar in 100 cm3 of the
solution. The exact volume of solvent is not mentioned or it is not known.
% m/v =
6.4.1.3 Percentage - volume/mass (%v/m)

It is the volume in cm3 of a solute dissolved in 100 g of the solution. For example,
10 % v/m alcohol solution in water means 10 cm of alcohol is dissolved in (unknown)
volume of water so that the total mass of the solution is 100 g. In such solutions the mass
of solution is under consideration, total volume of the solution is not considered.
% v/m
6.4.1.4 Percentage - volume /volume (% v/v)
It is the volume in cm3 of a solute dissolved per 100 cm3 of the solution. For
example, 30 percent alcohol solution means 30 cm of alcohol dissolved in sufficient
amount of water, so that the total volume of the solution becomes 100 cm3.
Example 6.1
If we add 5 cm3 of acetone in water to prepare 90 cm3 of aqueous solution.
Calculate the concentration(v/v) of this solution.
Solution
of the
% volume/volume of the
Thus concentration of solution is 5.5 percent by volume.

6.4.2 Molarity
It is a concentration unit defined as number of moles of solute dissolved in one
3
dm of the solution. It is represented by M. Molarity is the unit mostly used in chemistry
and allied sciences. The formula used for the preparation of molar solution is as follows:
6.4.2.1 Preparation of Molar Solution

One Molar solution is prepared by dissolving 1 mole (molar mass) of the solute
in sufficient amount of water to make the total volume of the solution up to 1 dm3 in a
measuring flask. For example, 1M solution of NaOH is prepared by dissolving 40 g of
NaOH in sufficient water to make the total volume 1 dm3.
As amount of solute is increased, its concentration or molarity also increases.
2.0 M solution is more concentrated than 1.0 M solution.
i. Does the percentage calculations require the chemical formula of the
solute ?
ii. Why is the formula of solute necessary for calculation of the molarity of
the solution?
iii. You are asked to prepare 15 percent (m/m) solution of common salt. How
much amount of water will be required to prepare this solution ?
iv. How much water should be mixed with 18 cm3 of alcohol so as to obtain
18 % (v/v) alcohol solution?
Test yourself
6.2 v. Calculate the concentration % (m/m) of a solution which contains 2.5 g
of salt dissolved in 50 g of water.
vi. Which one of the following solutions is more concentrated: one molar or
three molar
6.4.3 Problems involving the molarity of a solution

The following solved examples will help you to understand how molar solutions
are prepared.
Example 6.2
Calculate the molarity of a solution which is prepared by dissolving 28.4 g of
Na2SO4 in 400 cm3 of solution.
Solution
Example 6.3
How much NaOH is required to prepare its 500 cm3 of 0.4 M solution.
Solution
the sol
6.4.3.1 Dilution of Solution

Dilute molar solution is prepared from a concentrated solution of known
molarity as explained below:
Suppose we want to prepare 100 cm3 of 0.01 M solution from given 0.1 M
solution of potassium permanganate. First 0.1 M solution is prepared by dissolving
15.8 g of potassium permanganate in 1 dm3 of solution.
Then 0.01 M solution is prepared by the dilution
according to following calculations:
Concentrated solution Dilute solution
water
Measuring flasks
solution
Putting the values in above equation we get:
Concentrated solution Dilute solution Fig. 6.1 Dilution of a solution.

Concentrated solution of KMnO4 has dense purple colour. Take 10 cm3 of this solution
with the help of a graduated pipette and put in a measuring flask of 100 cm3. Add water
upto the mark present at the neck of the flask. Now it is 0.01 molar solution of KMnO4.
Example 6.4
10 cm3 of 0.01 molar KMnO4 solution has been diluted to 100 cm3. Find out the
molarity of this solution.
Solution:
Data
6.5 SOLUBILITY
Solubility is defined as the number of grams of the solute dissolved in 100 g of a
solvent to prepare a saturated solution at a particular temperature. The concentration of
a saturated solution is referred to as solubility of the solute in a given solvent.
Following are the factors which affect the solubility of solutes:
1. The general principle of solubility is, like dissolves like.
i. The ionic and polar substances are soluble in polar solvents. Ionic solids
and polar covalent compounds are soluble in water e.g., KC1, Na2CO3,
CuSO4, sugar, and alcohol are all soluble in water.
ii. Non-polar substances are not soluble in polar solvents. Non-polar
covalent compounds are not soluble in water such as ether, benzene, and
petrol are insoluble in water.
iii. Non-polar covalent substances are soluble in non-polar solvents (mostly
organic solvents). Grease, paints, naphthalene are soluble in ether or
carbon tetrachloride etc.
2. Solute-solvent interaction.
3. Temperature.
6.5.1 Solubility and Solute-solvent interaction

The solute-solvent interaction can be explained in terms of creation of attractive
forces between the particles of solute and those of solvent. To dissolve one substance
(solute) in another substance (solvent) following three events must occur :
i. Solute particles must separate from each other
ii. Solvent particles must separate to provide space for solute particles.
iii. Solute and solvent particles must attract and mix up.
Solution formation depends upon the relative strength of attractive forces
between solute-solute, solvent-solvent and solute-solvent. Generally solutes are solids.
Ionic solids are arranged in such a regular pattern that the inter-ionic forces are at a
maximum. If the new forces between solute and solvent particles overcome the solute-
solute attractive forces, then solute dissolves and makes a solution. If forces between
solute particles are strong enough than solute-solvent forces, solute remains insoluble
and solution is not formed. Figure 6.2 shows dissolution process by the interaction of
solvent molecules with the solute ions. The solvent molecules first pull apart the solute
ions and then surround them. In
this way, solute dissolves and
solution forms. H
o H
For example, when NaCl
is added in water it dissolves
readily because the attractive
interaction between the ions of
NaCl and polar molecules of
H
water are strong enough to
H o
overcome the attractive forces
between Na+ and Cl ions in solid
NaCl crystal. In this process, the Fig. 6.2 Interaction of solute and solvent to form solution.
positive end of the water dipole is
oriented towards the CI ions and the negative end of water dipole is oriented towards the
Na+ ions. These ion-dipole attractions between Na+ ions and water molecules, Cl ions
and water molecules are so strong that they pull these ions from their positions in the
crystal and thus NaCl dissolves. It is shown in the figure 6.2.
6.5.2 Effect of Temperature on solubility
Temperature has major effect on the solubility of most of the substances.
Generally, it seems that solubility increases with the increase of temperature, but it is
not always true. When a solution is formed by adding a salt in solvent, there are
different possibilities with reference to effect of temperature on solubility as shown in

the figure 6.3. These possibilities are discussed here.
i. Heat is absorbed
When salts like KNO3, NaNO3 and KC1 are added in water, the test tube becomes cold. It
means during dissolution of these salts heat is absorbed. Such dissolving process is
called 'endothermic’.
Solubility usually increases with the increase in temperature for such solutes. It
means that heat is required to break the attractive forces between the ions of solute. This
requirement is fulfilled by the surrounding molecules. As a result, their temperature falls
down and test tube becomes cold.
(grams of salt dissolved in 100 grams of watet)
100
90 NO3
Na
80
2
Cl
7
O
3
Cr
O
Ca
2
70
KN
)2 K2
60 O3
(N
Solubility
50 Pb KCl
40 NaCl
30 lO3
KC
20
10 Ce2(SO4)3
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
o
Temperature ( C)
Fig. 6.3 Effect of temperature on solubility of different salts in water.
ii. Heat is given out

On the other hand, when salts like Li2SO4 and Ce2(SO4)3 are dissolved in water,
the test tube becomes warm. i.e. heat is released during this dissolution.
In such cases, the solubility of salt decreases with the increase of temperature. In
such cases, attractive forces among the solute particles are weaker and solute-solvent
interactions are stronger. As a result, there is release of energy.
iii. No change in heat

In some cases, during a dissolution process neither the heat is absorbed nor
released. When salt like NaCl is added in water, the solution temperature remains almost
the same. In such case temperature has a minimum effect on solubility .Figure 6.3 shows
the trend of solubilities of different salts with the increase in temperature.
i. What will happen if the solute-solute forces are stronger than

those of solute-solvent forces?
ii. When solute-solute forces are weaker than those of solute-solvent
forces? Will solution form?
iii. Why is iodine soluble in CCI4 and not in water.
Test yourself
6.3 iv. Why test tube becomes cold when KNO3 is dissolved in water
6.6 COMPARISON OF SOLUTION, SUSPENSION AND COLLOID

6.6.1 Solution
Solutions are the homogeneous mixtures of two or more than two components.
Each component is mixed in such a way that their individual identity is not visible. The
simplest example is that of a drop of ink mixed in water. This is an example of true
solution.
6.6.2 Colloid
These are solutions in which the solute particles are larger than those present in
the true solutions but not large enough to be seen by naked eye. The particles in such
system dissolve and do not settle down for a long time. But particles of colloids are big
enough to scatter the beam of light. It is called Tyndall effect. We can see the path of
scattered light beam inside the colloidal solution. Tyndall effect is the main
characteristic which distinguishes colloids from solutions. Hence, these solutions are
called false solutions or colloidal solutions. Examples are starch, albumin, soap
solutions, blood, milk, ink, jelly and toothpaste, etc.
Solution, no scattering of light Colloids, having scattering of light
Fig. 6.4 Tyndall effect by colloids.

6.6.3 Suspension
Suspensions are a heterogeneous mixture of undissolved particles in a given
medium. Particles are big enough to be seen with naked eyes. Examples are chalk in
water(milky suspension), paints and milk of magnesia (suspension of magnesium oxide
in water).
For better understanding of true solutions, false solution and suspension, a
comparison of their characteristics is given in table 6.2.
Table 6.2 Comparison of the Characteristics of Solutions, Colloidals and
Suspensions
i. What is difference between colloid and suspension?

ii. Can colloids be separated by filtration, if not why?
iii. Why are the colloids quite stable?
iv. Why does the colloid show tyndall effect?
v. What is tyndall effect and on what factors it depends?
Test yourself vi. Identify as colloids or suspensions from the following: Paints,
6.4 milk, milk of magnesia, soap solution.
vii. How can you justify that milk is a colloid.
RELATIONSHIP OF SOLUTIONS TO DIFFERENT PRODUCTS IN

THE COMMUNITY
Our body is made up of tissues, which are all composed of water based
chemicals. The water becomes the best solvent in our body. We need an
adequate supply of chemicals in the form of food, vitamins, hormones, and
enzymes. For taking care of our health we need medicines. We find that
chemicals and chemistry penetrate into every aspect of our life. Paper,
sugar, starch, vegetable oils, ghee, essential oils, tannery, soap, cosmetics, rubber, dyes, plastics,
petroleum, infact, there is almost nothing that we use in our daily life that is not a chemical. Some
are usable as solid or gas but majority of them are used as solutions or suspensions.
Key Points
Solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
Aqueous solution is formed by dissolving substances in water.
The component which is lesser in quantity is called solute and the component in
greater quantity is called solvent.
A solution containing less amount of solute than that is required to saturate it at a
given temperature is called unsaturated solution.
A solution that is more concentrated than that of a saturated solution is called as
supersaturated solution at that particular temperature.
Solution may be dilute or concentrated depending upon the quantity of dissolved
solute in solution.
Concentration of solutions are expressed as % w/w, % w/v, % v/w and % v/v.
The practical unit of concentration is molarity. It is the number of moles of solute
dissolved in one dm of solution.
Solubility is defined as the number of grams of the solute dissolved in 100 g of
solvent to prepare a saturated solution at a given temperature . It depends upon
solute-solvent interactions and temperature.
Colloidal solutions are false solutions and in these solutions particles are bigger
than in the true solutions.
EXERCISE
1. Mist is an example of solution:
(a) liquid in gas (b) gas in liquid
(c) solid in gas (d) gas in solid
2. Which one of the following is a ‘liquid in solid’ solution?
(a) sugar in water (b) butter
(c) opal (d) fog
3. Concentration is ratio of:
(a) solvent to solute (b) solute to solution
(c) solvent to solution (d) both a and b
4. Which one of the following solutions contains more water?
(a) 2 M (b) 1 M
(c) 0.5 M (d) 0.25 M
5. A 5 percent (w/w) sugar solution means that:
(a) 5 g of sugar is dissolved in 90 g of water
(b) 5 g of sugar is dissolved in 100 g of water
(c) 5 g of sugar is dissolved in 105 g of water
(d) 5 g of sugar is dissolved in 95 g of water
6. If the solute-solute forces are strong enough than those of solute - solvent
forces. The solute:
(a) dissolves readily (b) does not dissolve
(c) dissolves slowly (d) dissolves and precipitates.
7. Which one of the following will show negligible effect of temperature on
its solubility?
(a) KCl (b) KNO3
(c) NaNO3 (d) NaCl
8. Which one of the following is heterogeneous mixture?
(a) milk (b) ink
(c) milk of magnesia (d) sugar solution
9. Tyndall effect is shown by:
(a) sugar solution (b) paints
(c) jelly (d) chalk solution
10. Tyndall effect is due to:

(a) blockage of beam of light
(b) non-scattering of beam of light
(c) scattering of beam of light
(d) passing through beam of light
11. If 10 cm3 of alcohol is dissolved in 100 g of water, it is called:
(a) % w/w (b) %w/v
(c) % v/w (d) %v/v
12. When a saturated solution is diluted it turns into:
(a) supersaturated solution (b) unsaturated solution
(c) a concentrated solution (d) non of these
13. Molarity is the number of moles of solute dissolved in:
(a) 1kg of solution (b) 100 g of solvent
3
(c) 1 dm of solvent (d) 1 dm3 of solution.

1. Why suspensions and solutions do not show tyndall effect, while colloids do?
2. What is the reason for the difference between solutions, colloids and suspensions?
3. Why the suspension does not form a homogeneous mixture?
4. How will you test whether given solution is a colloidal solution or not?
5. Classify the following into true solution and colloidal solution:
Blood, starch solution, glucose solution, toothpaste, copper sulphate solution, silver
nitrate solution.
6. Why we stir paints thoroughly before using?
7. Which of the following will scatter light and why? sugar solution, soap solution and
milk of magnesia.
8. What do you mean, like dissolves like? Explain with examples
9. How does nature of attractive forces of solute-solute and solvent-solvent affect the
solubility?
10. How you can explain the solute-solvent interaction to prepare a NaCl solution?
11. Justify with an example that solubility of a salt increases with the increase in
temperature.
12. What do you mean by volume/volume %?

1. What is saturated solution and how it is prepared?
2. Differentiate between dilute and concentrated solutions with a common example.
3. Explain, how dilute solutions are prepared from concentrated solutions?
4. What is molarity and give its formula to prepare molar solution?
5. Explain the solute-solvent interaction for the preparation of solution.
6. What is general principle of solubility?
7. Discuss the effect of temperature on solubility.
8. Give the five characteristics of colloid.
9. Give at least five characteristics of suspension.
Numerical
1. A solution contains 50 g of sugar dissolved in 450 g of water. What is concentration of
this solution?
2. If 60 cm3 of alcohol is dissolved in 940 cm3 of water, what is concentration of this
solution?
3. How much salt will be required to prepare following solutions (atomic mass:
K=39; Na=23; S=32; 0=16 and H=l)
a. 250 cm3 of KOH solution of 0.5 M
b. 600 cm3 of NaN03 solution of 0.25 M
c. 800 cm3 of Na2SO4 solution of 1.0 M
4. When we dissolve 20 g of NaCl in 400 cm3 of solution, what will be its molarity?
5. We desire to prepare 100 cm3 0.4 M solution of MgCl2, how much MgCl2 is needed?
6. 12 M H2SO4 solution is available in the laboratory. We need only 500cm3 of 0.1 M
solution , how it will be prepared?
Chapter 7
Electrochemistry
Major Concepts
7.1 Oxidation and reduction
7.2 Oxidation states and rules for
assigning oxidation states Time allocation
7.3 Oxidizing and reducing agents. Teaching periods 18
7.4 Oxidation - reduction reactions Assessment periods 03
7.5 Electrochemical cells Weightage 18%
7.6 Electrochemical industries
7.7 Corrosion and its prevention

• Define oxidation and reduction in terms of loss or gain of oxygen or
hydrogen.
• Define oxidation and reduction in terms of loss or gain of electrons.
• Identify the oxidizing and reducing agents in a redox reaction.
• Define oxidizing and reducing agents in a redox reaction.
• Define oxidation state.
• State the common rules used for assigning oxidation numbers to free
elements, ions (simple and complex), molecules, atoms .
• Determine the oxidation number of an atom of any element in a compound.
• Describe the nature of electrochemical processes.
• Sketch an electrolytic cell, label the cathode and the anode.
• Identify the direction of movement of cations and anions towrds respective
electrodes.
• List the possible uses of an electrolytic cell.
• Sketch a Daniel cell, labelling the cathode, the anode, and the direction of
flow of the electrons.
• Describe how a battery produces electrical energy.
• Identify the half-cell in which oxidation occurs and the half-cell in which
reduction occurs given a voltaic cell.
• Distinguish between electrolytic and voltaic cells.
• Describe the methods of preparation of alkali metals.
• Describe the manufacture of sodium metal from fused NaCl.
• Identify the formation of by products in the manufacture of sodium metal
from fused NaCl.
Chemistry - IX 114 Unit 7: Electrochemistry
• Describe the method of recovering metal from its ore.

• Explain electrolytic refining of copper.
• Define corrosion.
• Describe rusting of iron as an example of corrosion.
• Summarize the methods used to prevent corrosion.
• Explain electroplating of metals on steel (using examples of zinc, tin and
chromium plating).
Introduction
Electrochemistry is the branch of Chemistry that deals with the relationship
between electricity and chemical reactions. It involves oxidation and reduction
reactions, which are also known as redox reactions. Redox reactions either take place
spontaneously and produce electricity or electricity is used to drive non-spontaneous
reactions. Spontaneous reactions are those which take place on their own without any
external agent. Non-spontaneous reactions are those which take place in the presence of
an external agent. These reactions take place in galvanic or electrolytic cells.
Electrolysis of fused sodium chloride produces sodium metal and that of brine solution
produces sodium hydroxide. The corrosion process of iron along with its preventions,
are discussed in detail.
7.1 OXIDATION AND REDUCTION REACTIONS
One concept of oxidation and reduction is based upon either addition or removal
of oxygen or addition or removal of hydrogen in a chemical reaction. So according to this
concept:
Oxidation is defined as addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen during a
chemical reaction. Reduction is defined as addition of hydrogen or removal of oxygen
during a chemical reaction. Both of these processes take place simultaneously in a
reaction, we can say where there is oxidation there is reduction.
Let us first discuss an example to understand the concept based on addition and
removal of oxygen. A reaction between zinc oxide and carbon takes place by the
removal of oxygen (reduction) from zinc oxide and addition of oxygen (oxidation) to
carbon. It is represented as
Let us have another example based upon removal or addition of hydrogen.

A reaction between hydrogen sulphide and chlorine takes place by oxidation of
hydrogen sulphide and reduction of chlorine. Hydrogen is being removed from H2S and
added to chlorine. It is represented as
So, a chemical reaction in which oxidation and reduction processes are involved
is called oxidation- reduction reaction or redox reaction.
7.1.1 Oxidation and Reduction in Terms of Loss or Gain of Electron
In chemistry, there are many chemical reactions which do not involve oxygen or
hydrogen, but they are considered redox reactions. To deal with these reactions, new
concept 'loss or gain of electrons' is used. Therefore, reactions which involve 'loss or
gain of electrons' are also called oxidation and reduction reactions. According to this
concept:
Oxidation is loss of electrons by an atom or an ion. e.g.
Reduction is gain of electrons by an atom or ion. e.g.
The overall redox reaction is sum of both processes, written as
Let us have another simple example to understand this concept. A reaction

between sodium metal and chlorine takes place in three steps.
First sodium atom losses an electron, to form sodium ion, such as:
Simultaneously, this electron is accepted by chlorine atom (reduction process),

as chlorine atom needs one electron to complete its octet. As a result, chlorine atom
changes to chloride ion. Such as;
Ultimately, both these ions attract each other to form sodium chloride.
Complete redox reaction is sum of the oxidation and reduction reactions between
sodium and chlorine atoms and it is represented as:
Keep in mind chlorine element exists as a molecule (CI2) not as atoms (CI).
Therefore, the actual balanced chemical reaction is represented as:
We can summarize all these concepts as:
i. How can you justify that a reaction between magnesium and oxygen is a
redox reaction, while the reaction shows only addition of oxygen
(oxidation)
ii. A reaction between carbon and oxygen involved only addition of oxygen
(oxidation), but, it is called a redox reaction. Comment on this.
iii. Oxidation and reduction proceed simultaneously. Explain, with an
example.
iv. Identify which of the following is oxidation or reduction reaction
v. An element M reacts with another element X to form MX2. In terms of loss

or gain of electrons, identify the element which is oxidized and which is
reduced.
vi. How can you justify that the following reaction is not only an oxidation
reaction but also a complete redox reaction.
vii. Explain the term oxidation on the basis of electronic concept with an
example
7.2 OXIDATION STATE AND RULES FOR ASSIGNING OXIDATION

STATE
Oxidation state or oxidation number (O.N.) is the apparent charge assigned to an
atom of an element in a molecule or in an ion. For example: in HC1, oxidation number of
H is + 1 and that of CI is 1.
Rules for assigning oxidation numbers (O.N.)
I. The oxidation number of all elements in the free state is zero.
ii. The oxidation number of an ion consisting of a single element is the same as the
charge on the ion.
iii. The oxidation number of different elements in the periodic table is: in Group 1 it
is +1, in Group 2 it is +2 and in Group 13 it is +3.
iv. The oxidation number of hydrogen in all its compounds is +1. But in metal
hydrides it is -1.
v. The oxidation number of oxygen in all its compounds is -2. But it is -1 in
peroxides and +2 in OF2.
vi. In any substance, the more electronegative atom has the negative oxidation
number.
vii. In neutral molecules, the algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers of all the
elements is zero.
viii. In ions, the algebraic sum of oxidation number equals the charge on the ion.
Remember!
It is important to note that while assigning oxidation
numbers the sign precedes the number. It is written as +2.
Whereas, the apparent charge on an atom, ion or molecule
which is called valency, is written as the sign followed by the
number i.e. 2+.
Example 7.1
Find oxidation number of nitrogen in HNO3 when the oxidation numbers of H
= +1 and O = 2.
Solution
By applying formula in compound, sum of all oxidation numbers is zero. In case
of this compound HNO3it becomes:
Putting the values in above formula

Example 7.2
Calculate the oxidation number of sulphur in H2SO4, when O. N. of
H = + l and O.N. of O = 2.
Solution
Applying the formula for H2SO4,
Putting the values in above formula
Example 7.3
Find out the oxidation number of chlorine in KCIO3,
As O.N. of K = +1 and O.N. of O = 2
Solution
Putting the values in formula, we get
i. Find out the oxidation numbers of the following elements marked in bold in
the formulae:
ii. In a compound MX3 , find out the oxidation number of M and X.

iii. Why the oxidation number of oxygen in OF2 is +2
iv. In H2S, SO2 and H2SO4 the sulphur atom has different oxidation number.
Find out the oxidation number of sulphur in each compound.
v. An element X has oxidation state 0. What will be its oxidation state when it
gains three electrons?
vi. An element in oxidation state +7 gains electrons to be reduced to oxidation
state +2. How many electrons did it accept?
vii. If the oxidation state of an element changes from +5 to 3. Has it been reduced
or oxidized? How many electrons are involved in this process?
7.3 OXIDIZING AND REDUCING AGENTS

An oxidizing agent is the specie that oxidise a substance by taking electrons
from it. The substance (atom or ion) which is reduced itself by gaining electrons is also
called oxidizing agent. Non-metals are oxidizing agents because they accept electrons
being more electronegative elements.
Reducing agent is the specie that reduces a substance by donating electron to it.
The substance (atom or ion) which is oxidized by losing electrons is also called
reducing agent. Almost all metals are good reducing agents because they have the
tendency to lose electrons. An outline of oxidation and reduction processes is given

below.
Oxidation is 'losing electrons in a chemical reaction’
Reduction is 'gaining electrons in a chemical reaction’
Reducing agent – is a substance that oxidizes itself and reduces
other.
Oxidizing agent – is a substance that reduces itself and oxidizes
other.
7.4 OXIDATION - REDUCTION REACTIONS

Chemical reactions in which the oxidation state of one or more substances
changes are called oxidation-reduction or redox reactions. Following are the examples
of redox reactions. Each reaction system consists of oxidizing and reducing agents.
Let us discuss a reaction of zinc metal with hydrochloric acid:
(aq) (aq)
The oxidation states or oxidation numbers of all the atoms or ions in this reaction
are indicated below:
Let us find out the atoms that are oxidized or reduced or whether there is a change
in their oxidation state, it is indicated as follows:
Similarly, in the case of formation of water from hydrogen and oxygen gases,
redox reaction takes place as follows:
The oxidation states or oxidation numbers of all the atoms or ions in this reaction
are:
Let us find out the atoms that are oxidized or reduced in this reaction; with the
help of figure below:
i. In the following reaction, how can you justify that H2S is oxidized and SO2 is
reduced.
ii. The reaction between MnO2 and HCl is a redox reaction written as balance
chemical equation.
Find out:
a. The substance oxidized.
b. The substance reduced.
c. The substance which acts as an oxidizing agent.
d. The substance which acts as a reducing agent.
iii. The following reactions are redox reactions.
Find out the element which has been reduced and the element which has been
oxidized.
iv. Why the following reaction is not a redox reaction. Explain with reasons?
7.5 ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS

Electrochemical cell is a system in which two electrodes are dipped in the
solution of an electrolyte which are connected to the battery. Electrochemical cell is an
energy storage device in which either a chemical reaction takes place by using electric
current (electrolysis) or chemical reaction produces electric current(electric
conductance).
Electrochemical cells are of two types.
i. Electrolytic cells ii. Galvanic cells
7.5.1 Concept of Electrolytes
The substances, which can conduct electricity in their aqueous solutions or
molten states, are called electrolytes. For example, solutions of salts, acids or bases are
good electrolytes. The electricity cannot pass through solid NaCl but in aqueous solution
and in molten state, it does conduct. Electrolytes are classified into two groups
depending upon their extent of ionization in solution.
7.5.1.1 Strong Electrolytes
The electrolytes which ionize almost completely in their aqueous solutions and
produce more ions, are called strong electrolytes. Example of strong electrolytes are
aqueous solutions of NaCl, NaOH and H2SO4, etc.
7.5.1.2 Weak Electrolytes

The electrolytes which ionize to a small extent when dissolved in water and could
not produce more ions are called weak electrolytes. Acetic acid (CH3COOH) and
Ca(OH)2 when dissolved in water, ionize to a small extent and are good examples of
weak electrolytes. Weak electrolytes do not ionize completely. For example, ionization
of acetic acid in water produces less ions:
As a result the weak electrolyte is a poor conductor of electricity.

7.5.1.3 Non-Electrolytes
The substances, which do not ionize in their aqueous solutions and do not allow
the current to pass through their solutions, are called non-electrolytes. For example,
sugar solution and benzene are non-electrolytes.
7.5.2 Electrolytic cells
The type of electrochemical cell in which a non-spontaneous chemical reaction
takes place when electric current is passed through the solution, is called an electrolytic
cell. The process that takes place in an
electrolytic cell is called electrolysis. It is
defined as the chemical decomposition of a
compound into its components by passing
current through the solution of the
compound or in the molten state of the
compound. Examples of these cells are
Downs cell, Nelson's cell.
7.5.2.1 Construction of an
Electrolytic Cell
An electrolytic cell consists of a
solution of an electrolyte, two electrodes
Fig. 7.1 Electrolytic cell
(anode and cathode) that are dipped in the electrolytic solution and connected to the
battery. The electrode connected to positive terminal is called anode and electrode
connected to the negative terminal is called cathode as shown in figure 7.1.
7.5.2.2 Working of an Electrolytic Cell
When electric current is applied from battery, the ions in the electrolyte migrate
to their respective electrodes. The anions, which are negatively charged, move towards
the anode and discharge there by losing their electrons. Thus oxidation takes place at
anode. While cations, which are positively charged ions, move towards cathode. Cations
gain electrons from the electrode and as a result reduction takes place at cathode. For
example, when fused salt of sodium chloride is electrolysed the following reactions take
place during this process:
Oxidation reaction at anode:
Reduction reaction at cathode:
Overall reaction:
7.5.2.3 Electrolysis of Water

Pure water is a very weak electrolyte. It ionizes to a very small extent. The
concentrations of hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxyl ions (OH-) are both at 107 mol dm3
respectively. When a few drops of an acid are added in water, its conductivity improves.
When an electric current is passed through this acidified water, OH anions move
towards positive electrode (anode) and H+ cations move towards negative electrode
(cathode) and discharge takes place at these electrodes. They produce oxygen and
hydrogen gases respectively at anode and cathode as shown in figure 7.2.
Oxygen gas Hydrogen gas
Water
Platinum
electrodes
Battery
Anode + Cathode
Fig. 7.2 Electrolytic cell showing electrolysis of water
The redox reaction taking place in the electrolytic bath can be shown as
following:
Oxidation reaction at anode:
Reduction reaction at cathode:
Overall reaction:
7.5.3. Galvanic Cell

The electrochemical cell in which a spontaneous
chemical reaction takes place and generates electric current
is called galvanic or voltaic cell. Example of this type of cell
is a Daniel cell.
7.5.3.1Construction of a Daniel Cell
A galvanic cell consists of two cells, each called as A. Volta (1745-1827) was
half-cell, connected electrically by a salt bridge. In each of an Italian physicist
known especially for the
the half-cell, an electrode is dipped in 1 M solution of its own development of the first
electric cell in 1800.
salt and connected through a wire to an external circuit.
Figure.7.3 shows a typical galvanic cell.
Zinc sulphate solution Copper sulphate solution
The left half-cell consists of an electrode of zinc metal dipped in 1 M solution of

zinc sulphate. The right half cell is a copper electrode dipped in I M solution of copper
sulphate. Salt bridge is a U shaped glass tube. It consists of saturated solution of strong
electrolyte supported in a jelly type material. The ends of the U tube are sealed with a
porous material like glass wool. The function of the salt bridge is to keep the solutions of
two half cells neutral by providing a pathway for migration of ions.
7.5.3.2 Working of the Cell
The Zn metal has tendency to lose electrons more readily than copper. As a result
oxidation takes place at Zn-electrode. The electrons flow from Zn-electrode through the
external wire in a circuit to copper electrode. These electrons are gained by the copper
ions of the solution and copper atoms deposit at the electrode. The respective oxidation
and reduction processes going on at two electrodes are as follows:
Half-cell reaction at anode (oxidation)
Half-cell reaction at cathode (reduction)
Overall galvanic reaction is the sum of these two half-cell reactions
As a result of redox reaction, electric current is produced. The batteries which are
used for starting automobiles, running calculators and toys and to lit the bulbs work on
the same principle.
A Comparison of Electrolytic and Galvanic Cells
i. Why are the strong electrolytes termed as good conductors?

ii. Does non-electrolytes forms ions in solution?
iii. What is difference between a strong electrolyte and a weak electrolyte?
iv. Identify a strong or weak electrolyte among the following compounds:
CuSO4, H2CO3, Ca(OH)2, HCl, AgNO3
v. Which force drives the non-spontaneous reaction to take place?
vi. Which type of chemical reaction takes place in electrolytic cell?
vii. What type of reaction takes place at anode in electrolytic cell?
viii. Why the positively charged electrode is called anode in electrolytic cell?
ix. In the electrolysis of water, towards which terminal H+ ions move?
x. In the electrolysis of water, where is the oxygen produced?
xi. Towards which electrode of the electrolytic cell moves the cations and
what does they do there ?
xii. How the half-cells of a galvanic cell are connected? What is function of
salt bridge?
7.6 ELECTROCHEMICAL INDUSTRIES

7.6.1 Manufacture of Sodium Metal from Fused NaCl
On the industrial scale, molten sodium metal is obtained by the electrolysis of
fused NaCl in the Downs cell. This electrolytic cell is a circular furnace. In the center
there is a large block of graphite, which acts as an anode while cathode around it is made
of iron as shown in figure 7.4.
Fig. 7.4 Downs Cell for production of Sodium Metal

7.6.1.1 Working of Downs Cell
The fused NaCl produces Na+ and Cl ions, which migrate to their respective
electrodes on the passage of electric current. The electrodes are separated by steel gauze
to prevent the contact between the products. The CI ions are oxidized to give CI2 gas at
the anode. It is collected over the anode within an inverted cone-shaped structure. While
Na+ are reduced at cathode and molten Na metal floats on the denser molten salt mixture
from where it is collected in a side tube. Following reactions take place during the
electrolysis of the molten sodium chloride:
Molten NaCl ionizes as:
Half-cell reaction at anode (oxidation)
Half-cell reaction at cathode (reduction)
Overall galvanic reaction is the sum of these two half-cell reactions
7.6.2 Manufacture of NaOH from Brine

On industrial scale caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) NaOH, is produced in
Nelson's cell by the electrolysis of aqueous solution of NaCl called brine. The schematic
diagram of the cell is shown in figure 7.5. It consists of a steel tank in which graphite
anode is suspended in the center of a U shaped perforated iron cathode. This iron cathode
is internally lined with asbestos diaphragm. Electrolyte brine is present inside the iron
cathode.
Fig. 7.5 Nelson's Cell for production of NaOH
Working of Nelson's Cell

Aqueous solution of sodium chloride consists of Na+, CI, H+ and OH ions.
These ions move towards their respective electrodes and redox reactions take place at
these electrodes. When electrolysis takes place Cl ions are discharged at anode and CI2
gas rises into the dome at the top of the cell. The H+ ions are discharged at cathode and H2
gas escapes through a pipe. The sodium hydroxide solution slowly percolates into a
catch basin.
Brine ionizes to produce ions:
Reaction at anode (oxidation):
Reaction at cathode (reduction):

4OH 4e
Overall cell reaction of this process:
i. Anode of Downs cell is made of a non-metal, what is its name? What is

the function of this anode?
ii. Where does the sodium metal is collected in Downs cell?
iii. What is the name of the by-product produced in the Downs cell?
iv. Are anodes of Downs cell and Nelson cell made of same element? If yes,
what is its name ?
v. What is the shape of cathode in Nelson's cell? Why is it perforated?
vi. Which ions are discharged at cathode in Nelson's cell and what is
produced at cathode?
7.7 CORROSION AND ITS PREVENTION

Corrosion is slow and continuous eating away of a metal by the surrounding
medium. It is a redox chemical reaction that takes place by the action of air and moisture
with the metals. The most common example of corrosion is rusting of iron.
7.7.1 Rusting of Iron
Corrosion is a general term but corrosion of iron is called rusting. The important
condition for rusting is moist air (air having water vapours in it). There will be no rusting
in water vapours free of air or air free of water.
Now we study the chemistry of the rusting process. Stains and dents on the
surface of the iron provide the sites for this process to occur. This region is called anodic
region and following oxidation reaction takes place here:
s
This loss of electrons damage the object. The free electrons move through iron
sheet ,until they reach to a region of relatively high O2 concentration near the surface
surrounded by water layer as shown in figure 7.6. This region acts as cathode and
electrons reduce the oxygen molecule in the presence of H+ ions:
The H+ ions are provided by the carbonic acid, which is formed because of
presence of CO2 in water. That is why acidic medium accelerates the process of rusting.
The overall redox process is completed without the formation of rust.
The Fe+2 formed spreads through out the surrounding water and react with O2 to
form the salt Fe2O3 .nH2O which is called rust. It is also a redox reaction.
The rust layer of iron is porous and does not prevent further corrosion. Thus
rusting continues until the whole piece of iron is eaten away
Fig. 7.6 Rusting of iron.

Does Aluminium Rust?

Aluminium corrodes but it does not rust. Rust refers only to iron and steel corrosion. A
very hard material aluminium oxide protects the aluminium from further corrosion. In
comparison to that when iron corrodes, its color changes and produces large red
flakes known as rust. Unlike aluminium oxide, the expanding and flaking of rust
exposes new metal surface to further rusting.
7.7.2 Prevention of Corrosion
7.7.2.1 Removal of stains
The regions of stains in an iron rod act as the site for corrosion. If the surface of
iron is properly cleaned and stains are removed, it would prevent rusting.
7.7.2.2 Paints and greasing
Greasing or painting of the surface can prevent the rusting of iron. With
development of technologies, modern paints contain a combination of chemicals called
stabilizers that provide protection against the corrosion in addition to prevention against
the weathering and other atmospheric effects.
7.7.2.3 Alloying
Alloy is a homogeneous mixture of one metal with one or more other metals or
non-metals. Alloying of iron with other metals has proved to be very successful
technique against rusting. The best example of alloying is the 'stainless steel', which is a
good combination of iron, chromium and nickel.
7.7.2.4 Metallic coating
The best method for protection against the corrosion of metals exposed to acidic
conditions is coating the metal with other metal. Corrosion resistant metals like Zn, Sn
and Cr are coated on the surface of iron to protect it from corrosion. It is the most widely
applied technique in the food industry where food is 'tin-packed'. The containers of iron
are coated with tin to give it a longer life. Metallic coating can take place by physical as
well as electrolytic methods.
1- Physical Methods (galvanizing and tin coating)
a. Zinc coating or Galvanizing
The process of coating a thin layer of zinc on iron is called galvanizing. This
process is carried out by dipping a clean iron sheet in a zinc chloride bath and then
heating it. After this iron sheet is removed, rolled into molten zinc metal bath and finally
air-cooled. Advantage of galvanizing is that zinc protects the iron against corrosion even
after the coating surface is broken.
b. Tin Coating
It involves the dipping of the clean sheet of iron in a bath of molten tin and then
passing it through hot rollers. Such sheets are used in the beverage and food cans. The tin
protects the iron only as long as its protective layer remains intact. Once it is broken and
the iron is exposed to the air and water, a galvanic cell is established and iron rusts
rapidly.
i. What is the difference between corrosion and rusting?
ii. What happens to iron in the rusting process?
iii. Rusting completes in how many redox reactions?
iv. Explain the role of O2 in rusting?
v. State the best method for protection of metal from corrosion.
vi. What do you mean by galvanizing ?
vii. What is the advantage of galvanizing?
viii. Why tin plated iron is rusted rapidly when tin layer is broken?
ix. Name the metal which is used for galvanizing iron?
2- Electrolytic method (Electroplating)

Electroplating is depositing of one metal over the other by means of electrolysis.
This process is used to protect metals against corrosion and to improve their appearance.
Principle of electroplating is to establish an electrolytic cell in which anode is made of
the metal to be deposited and cathode of the object on which metal is to deposit. The
electrolyte is in aqueous solution of a salt of the respective metal.
Procedure for Electroplating
In this process the object to be electroplated is cleaned with sand, washed with
caustic soda solution and finally it is thoroughly washed with water. The anode is made
of the metal, which is to be deposited like Cr, Ni. The cathode is made up of the object
that is to be electroplated like some sheet made up of iron. The electrolyte in this system
is a salt of the metal being deposited. The electrolytic tank is made of cement, glass or
wood in which anode and cathode are suspended. These electrodes are connected with a
battery. When the current is passed, the metal from anode dissolves in the solution and
metallic ions migrate to the cathode and discharge or deposit on the cathode (object). As
a result of this discharge, a thin layer of metal deposits on the object, which is then pulled
out and cleaned. Some examples of electroplating are discussed here.
a. Electroplating of Silver
The electroplating of silver is carried out by establishing an electrolytic cell.
The pure piece of silver strip acts as anode that is dipped in silver nitrate solution.
The cathode is the metallic object to be coated such as spoon. When the current
is passed through the cell, the anode dissolves to produce Ag+ ions, that migrate towards
the cathode. At cathode they are discharged and deposited on the object e.g. spoon. The
chemical reaction can be represented as:
Fig. 7.7 Electroplating of an object.
Common examples of silver plating are tablewares, cutlery, jewelry and steel
objects.
b. Electroplating of Chromium
The electroplating of chromium is carried out in the same way as that of silver.
The object to be electroplated is dipped in aqueous solution of chromium sulphate
containing a little sulphuric acid, that acts as an electrolyte. The object to be electroplated
acts as cathode while anode is made of antimonial lead. The electrolyte ionizes and
provides Cr3+ ions, which reduce and deposit at cathode.
Electrolyte produces the following ions:
Reactions at the electrodes are as follows:
For practical convenience, the steel is usually plated first with nickel or copper
and then by chromium because it does not adhere well on the steel surface. Moreover, it
allows moisture to pass through it and metal is stripped off. The nickel or copper
provides adhesion and then chromium deposited over the adhesive layer of copper lasts
longer. This type of electroplating resists corrosion and gives a bright silvery appearance
to the object.
c. Electroplating of zinc
The target metal is cleaned in alkaline detergent solutions and it is treated with
acid, in order to remove any rust or surface scales. Then, the zinc is deposited on the
metal by immersing it in a chemical bath containing electrolyte zinc sulphate. A current
is applied, which results in depositing of zinc on the target metal i.e. cathode.
d. Electroplating of tin
Tin is usually electroplated on steel by placing the steel into a container
containing a solution of tin salt. The steel is connected to an electrical circuit, acting as
cathode. While the other electrode made of tin metal acts as anode. When an electrical
current passes through the circuit, tin metal ions present in the solution deposit on steel.
e. Electrolytic refining of copper
Impure copper is refined by the electrolytic method in the electrolytic cell.
Impure copper acts as anode and a pure copper plate acts as cathode as shown in
figure 7.8. Copper sulphate solution in water is used as an electrolyte.
Oxidation reaction takes place at the anode. Copper atoms from the impure
copper lose electrons to the anode and dissolve in solution as copper ions:
Reduction reaction takes place at the cathode. The copper ions present in the
solution are attracted to the cathode. Where they gain electrons from the cathode and
become neutral and deposit on the cathode.
In the process, impure copper is eaten away and purified copper atoms deposit on
the cathode.
(Cu SO4)
Fig. 7.8 Refining of copper in an electrolytic cell.

i. Define electroplating?
ii. How electroplating of zinc is carried out?
iii. Which material is used to make cathode in electroplating ?
iv. Why is the anode made up of a metal to be deposited during
electrolysis?
A COMPARISON OF EFFECT OF Al2O3 AND Fe2O3 FORMATION ON THEIR PARENT

METALS
Aluminium has a great tendency to corrosion. However, aluminium corrosion is
aluminium oxide (AI2O3 ), a very hard material that actually protects the aluminium from further
corrosion. Aluminium oxide corrosion also looks a lot more like aluminium, so it isn't as easy to
notice as rusted iron.
When iron corrodes the color changes and it actually expands. This expanding and
color change can produce large red flakes that we all know as rust. Unlike aluminium oxide, the
expanding and flaking of rust in iron exposes new metal to further rusting. That is why it is so
important to provide a barrier to stop rust.
INTERACTION OF CHEMISTRY WITH PHOTOGRAPHY
In early nineteenth century photographers produced crude images using papers
covered with silver nitrate or silver chloride. The exposure of light on photographic plate
initiated chemical reaction. The light exposed portion became dark, depending the amount or
time of exposure. That exposed plate was later on developed to show the image. Those early days
"photographs" darkened with time because of ongoing chemical reaction on them. Later on
procedures were developed to make the image permanent by use of mercury vapors, followed by
washing with sodium hyposulfite (Na2S2O3). It dissolved away the silver iodide from the
unexposed portion of the plate and stopped the reaction further. Although, technologically more
advanced, the basic procedures developed originally are still used in all silver-based
photography today.
EXPLAIN HOW DECORATIVE AND PRACTICAL OBJECTS CONTAINING SILVER
CAN DIFFER SIGNIFICANTLY IN THEIR PROPERTIES AND DURABILITY
DEPENDING ON WHETHER THEY ARE SOLID, THICKLY PLATED WITH SILVER OR
THINLY PLATED WITH SILVER.
Pure silver, also called fine silver, is relatively soft, very malleable, and easily damaged
so it is commonly combined with other metals to produce a more durable product. The most
popular of these alloys is sterling silver, which consists of 92.5 percent silver and 7.5 percent
copper. Although, any metal can make up the 7.5 percent non-silver portion of sterling, centuries
of experimentation have shown copper to be its best companion, improving the metal's hardness
and durability without affecting its beautiful color. The small amount of copper added to sterling
has very little effect on the metal's value. Instead, the price of the silver item is affected by the
labour involved in making the item, the skill of the craftsperson, and the beauty of the design.
Care should also be taken to prevent silver tarnish in air, (a dulling that naturally occurs when
silver reacts with sulfur or hydrogen sulfide in the ambient air.) Likewise, the art of covering a
metal with other metal is also used as silver plating. Depending upon the nature of the object, the
layer of silver upon a metal is kept thick. It may be for decorative purpose of some industrial
applications. Plating by silver metal has vast applications.
Key Points
Oxidation is addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen or loss of electrons by an
element and as a result oxidation number increases.
Reduction is addition of hydrogen or removal of oxygen or gain of electrons by an
element and as a result oxidation number decreases.
Oxidation number is the apparent charge on an atom. It may be positive or
negative.
Oxidizing agents are the species that oxidize the other element and reduce
themselves. Non-metals are oxidizing agents.
Reducing agents are species that reduce the other elements and oxidize
themselves. Metals are reducing agents.
Chemical reactions in which the oxidation state of species change are termed as
redox reaction. A redox reaction involves oxidation and reduction processes
taking place simultaneously.
Redox reactions either take place spontaneously and produce energy or
electricity is used to drive the reaction.
The process in which electricity is used for the decomposition of a chemical
compound is called electrolysis. It takes place in electrolytic cells such as Downs
cell and Nelson's cell.
Galvanic cells are those in which spontaneous reactions take place and generate
electric current. They are also called voltaic cells.
Sodium metal is manufactured from fused sodium chloride in the Downs cell.
NaOH is manufactured from brine in Nelson's cell.
Corrosion is slow and continuous eating away of a metal by the surrounding
medium. The most common example of corrosion is rusting of iron.
The rusting principle is electrochemical redox reaction, in which iron behaves as
anode. Iron is oxidized to form rust Fe2O3. nH2O.
Corrosion can be prevented by many methods. The most important is
electroplating .
Electroplating is depositing of one metal over the other by means of electrolysis .
Iron can be electroplated by tin, zinc, silver or chromium.
EXERCISE
1. Spontaneous chemical reactions take place in:
(a) Electrolytic cell (b) Galvanic cell
(c) Nelson's cell (d) Downs cell
2. Formation of water from hydrogen and oxygen is:
(a) Redox reaction (b) Acid-base reaction
(c) Neutralization (d) Decomposition
3. Which one of the following is not an electrolytic cell?
(a) Downs cell (b) Galvanic cell
(c) Nelson's cell (d) Both a and c
4. The oxidation number of chromium in K2Cr2O7 is:
(a) +2 (b) +6
(c) +7 (d) +14
5. Which one of the following is not an electrolyte?
(a) Sugar solution (b) Sulphuric acid solution
(c) Lime solution (d) Sodium chloride solution
6. The most common example of corrosion is:
(a) Chemical decay (b) Rusting of iron
(c) Rusting of aluminium (d) Rusting of tin
7. Nelson's cell is used to prepare caustic soda along with gases. Which of the
following gas is produced at cathode:
(a) Cl2 (b) H2
(c) O3 (d) O2
8. During the formation of water from hydrogen and oxygen, which of the
following does not occur:
(a) Hydrogen has oxidized (b) Oxygen has reduced
(c) Oxygen gains electrons (d) Hydrogen behaves as oxidizing agent
9. The formula of rust is:
(a) Fe2O3.nH2O (b) Fe2O3
(c) Fe(OH)3.nH2O (d) Fe(OH)3
10. In the redox reaction between Zn and HC1, the oxidizing agent is:
(a) Zn (b) H+
(c) Cl (d) H2

1. Define oxidation in terms of electrons. Give an example.
2. Define reduction in terms of loss or gain of oxygen or hydrogen. Give an
example.
3. What is difference between valency and oxidation state?
4. Differentiate between oxidizing and reducing agents
5. Differentiate between strong and weak electrolytes.
6. How electroplating of tin on steel is carried out?
7. Why steel is plated with nickel before the electroplating of chromium.
8. How can you explain, that following reaction is oxidation in terms of increase
of oxidation number?
9. How can you prove with an example that conversion of an ion to an atom is an
oxidation process?
10. Why does the anode carries negative charge in galvanic cell but positive charge
in electrolytic cell? Justify with comments.
11. Where do the electrons flow from Zn electrode in Daniel's cell?
12. Why do electrodes get their names 'anode' and cathode in galvanic cell?
13. What happens at the cathode in a galvanic cell?
14. Which solution is used as an electrolyte in Nelson's cell?
15. Name the by-products produced in Nelson's cell?
16. Why is galvanizing done?
17. Why an iron grill is painted frequently?
18. Why is O2 necessary for rusting?
19. In electroplating of chromium, which salt is used as an electrolyte?
20. Write the redox reaction taking place during the electroplating of chromium?
21. In electroplating of silver, from where Ag+ ions come and where they deposit?
22. What is the nature of electrode used in electrolyting of chromium?

1. Describe the rules for assigning the oxidation state
2. Find out the oxidation numbers of the underlined elements in the following
compounds.
3. How can a non-spontaneous reaction be carried out in an electrolytic cell?

Discuss in detail.
4. Discuss the electrolysis of water.
5. Discuss the construction and working of a cell in which electricity is produced.
6. How can we prepare NaOH on commercial scale? Discuss its chemistry along
with the diagram.
7. Discuss the redox reaction taking place in the rusting of iron in detail.
8. Discuss, why galvanizing is considered better than that of tin plating.
9. What is electroplating? Write down procedure of electroplating.
10. What is the principle of electroplating? How electroplating of chromium is

carried out?
Chapter 8
Chemical Reactivity
Major Concepts
Time allocation
1.1 Metal
Teaching periods 07
1.2 Non-Metals Assessment periods 02
Weightage 10%

• Show how cation and anion are related to the terms metals and non-metals.
• Explain Alkali metals are not found in the free state in nature.
• Explain the differences in ionization energies of alkali and alkaline earth
metals.
• Describe position of sodium metal in the periodic table its simple properties
and uses.
• Position of calcium and magnesium in the periodic table, their simple
properties and uses.
• Differentiate between soft and hard metals (iron and sodium)
• Describe the inertness of noble metals.
• Identify commercial value of silver, gold and platinum.
• Compile some important reactions of halogens.
• Name some elements that exist in nature in uncombined form.
Introduction
The different kinds of materials around us exist in variety of forms. Things like
aeroplanes, trains, building frames, automobiles or even different machines and tools,
are due to different properties of various metals. The non-metals exist as gases, liquids
and soft or hard solids. They occupy upper right positions in the Periodic Table. Carbon,
nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen, sulphur, most of the halogens and the noble gases are
non-metals. They show a variety of chemical reactivities. They form different ionic and
covalent compounds, many of which are solids or gases.
8.1 METALS
Metals are the elements (except hydrogen) which are electropositive and form
cations by losing electrons. Metals can be categorized.
Chemistry - IX 139 Unit 8: Chemical Reactivity
a.Very reactive: potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium and

aluminium.
b. Moderately reactive : zinc, iron, tin and lead.
c. Least reactive or noble : copper, mercury, silver and gold.
Some common metals and non-metals in the periodic table are shown in figure 8.1.
Fig. 8.1 Some common metals and non-metals.

Important physical characteristics of metals are listed below:
i. Almost all metals are solids (except mercury)
ii. They have high melting and boiling points, (except alkali metals)
iii. They possess metallic luster and can be polished.
iv. They are malleable (can be hammered into sheets), ductile (can be drawn
into wires) and give off a tone when hit.
v. They are good conductor of heat and electricity.
vi. They have high densities.
vii. They are hard (except sodium and potassium).
Important chemical properties of metals are:
i. They easily lose electrons and form positive ions.
ii. They readily react with oxygen to form basic oxides.
iii. They usually form ionic compounds with non-metals.
iv. They have metallic bonding.
The most abundant metal is aluminium

The most precious metal is platinum
The most useable metal is iron
The most reactive metal is cesium
The most valuable metal is uranium
The lightest metal is lithium (d = 0.53 g cm3)
The heaviest metal is osmium (d = 22.5 g cm3)
The least conductor of heat is lead.
The best conductor metals are silver and gold
The most ductile and malleable metals are gold and silver
8.1.1 Electropositive Character

Metals have the tendency to lose their valance electrons. This property of a metal
is termed as electropositivity or metallic character. The more easily a metal loses its
electrons, the more electropositive it is. The number of electrons lost by an atom of a
metal is called its valency. For example, sodium atom can lose 1 electron to form a
positive ion
So the valency of sodium metal is 1.

Similarly zinc metal can lose 2 electrons from its valence shell. Therefore, its
valency is 2.
Trends of electropositivity
Electropositive character increases down the group because size of atoms
increases. For example, lithium metal is less electropositive than sodium which is in turn
less electropositive than potassium.
Electropositive character decreases across the period from left to right in the
periodic table because atomic sizes decrease due to increase of nuclear charge. It means
elements at the start of a period are more metallic. This character decreases as we move
from left to right along the period.
Electropositivity and ionization energy
Electropositive character depends upon the ionization energy which in turn
depends upon size and nuclear charge of the atom. Small sized atoms with high nuclear
charge have high ionization energy value. In this way, atoms having high ionization
energy are less electropositive or metallic. That is the reason alkali metals have the
largest size and the lowest ionization energy in their respective periods. Therefore, they
have the highest metallic character. For example, a comparison of sodium and
magnesium metals is given below for understanding.
Sodium Atom Magnesium Atom

3s1 electron configuration 3s2 electron configuration
having atomic size 186 pm, having atomic size 160pm,
and ionization energy 496 klmoll. and ionization energy 738 kJmol.
The 1st ionization energy of magnesium is high but the 2nd ionization energy of
magnesium is very high. It becomes very difficult to remove second electron from the
Mg+ ion as nuclear charge attracts the remaining electrons strongly. As a result of this
attraction size of the ion decreases.
Similarly, all the elements of alkaline earth metals have high ionization energies
as compared to alkali metals as shown in table 8.1.
Table 8.1 Atomic Number, Electronic Configurations and Ionization Energies
(kj/mol) of Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals
Low ionization energies of alkali metals make them more reactive than alkaline
earth metals.
i. What type of elements are metals?

ii. Name a metal which exists in liquid form?
iii. What is the nature of metal oxide?
iv. Which group of metals is highly reactive?
v. Why sodium metal is more reactive than magnesium metal?
vi. Name a metal which can be cut with knife?
vii. Name the best ductile and malleable metal?
viii. Name the metal which is the poorest conductor of heat?
ix. What do you mean by malleable and ductile?
x. Why alkali metals are more reactive than alkaline earth metals?
xi. What do you mean by metallic character?
xii. Why metallic character decreases along a period and increases in a group?
8.1.2 Comparison of Reactivities of Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals

A comparison of physicals properties of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals is
given table 8.2
Table 8.2 Comparison of Physical Properties of Alkali and Alkaline Earth
Metals
186, 102 160, 72
839
The elements in first two groups of the periodic table Group 1 and Group 2 are
called ‘Alkali’ and ‘Alkaline earth’ metals, respectively. Alkali metals are extremely
reactive elements because of their ns1 valence shell electronic configuration. As there is
only one electron in their valence shell, it can be easily given out. It is the reason that they
are always found in nature as cations with +1 oxidation state. Therefore, they readily
form salts with non-metals.
The alkaline earth metals atoms are smaller and have more nuclear charge. They
have two electrons in their valence shells i.e. ns2. They are also reactive but less than
alkali metals.
A comparison of chemical properties and reactivities of alkali metals and

alkaline earth metals is given in table 8.3
Table 8.3 Comparison of Chemical Properties and Reactivities
2Na + H 2NaH
Uses of sodium
i. Sodium-potassium alloy is used as a coolant in nuclear reactors.
ii. It is used to produce yellow light in sodium vapour lamps.
iii. It is used as a reducing agent in the extraction of metals like Ti.
Uses of magnesium
i. Magnesium is used in flash light bulbs and in fireworks.
ii. It is used in the manufacture of light alloys.
iii. Magnesium ribbon is used in Thermite process to ignite aluminium
powder
iv. Magnesium is used as anode for prevention of corrosion.
Uses of calcium
i. It is used to remove sulphur from petroleum products.
ii. It is used as reducing agent to produce Cr, U and Zr.
Inertness of Noble Metals
The elements in which d-orbital are in the process of filling, constitute a group of
metals called transition metals or d-group elements. They exhibit a variety of oxidation
states. Figure 8.2 shows 'transition metals' of 4th, 5th and the 6th period of the periodic
table. There are three series of transition elements; each series consisting of ten
elements.
Fig. 8.2 The Transition Elements in the Periodic Table.

Chemical behaviour of the first transition series is similar to active metals except
copper. Three transition metals belonging to group 11 are copper, silver and gold. Out of
them gold and silver are relatively inactive metals because they do not lose electrons
easily.
Silver is white lustrous metal. It is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity.
It is also highly ductile and malleable metal. Its polished surfaces are good reflectors
of light. Formation of thin layer of oxide or sulphide on its surface makes it
relatively unreactive. Under normal conditions of atmosphere, air does not affect
silver. It tarnishes in presence of sulphur containing compounds like H2S.

Being very soft metal, it is rarely used as such. Alloys of silver with copper are
widely used in making coins, silver-ware and ornaments. Compounds of silver are
widely used in photographic films and dental preparations. Silver also has important
applications in mirror industry.
Gold is a yellow soft metal. It is most malleable and ductile of all the metals. One
gram of gold can be drawn into a wire of one and a half kilometre long. Gold is very non-
reactive or inert metal. It is not affected by atmosphere. It is not even affected by any
single mineral acid or base.
Because of its inertness in atmosphere, it is an ornamental metal as well as used
in making coins. Gold is too soft to be used as such. It is always alloyed with copper,
silver or some other metal.
Purity of gold is shown by carats that indicates the number of

parts by weight of gold that is present in 24 parts of alloy. Twenty
four carat gold is pure. 22 carats gold means that 22 parts pure
gold is alloyed with 2 parts of either silver or copper for making
ornaments and jewelry. White gold is its alloy with palladium,
nickel or zinc.
Platinum is used to make jewelry items because of its unique characteristics like
colour, beauty, strength, flexibility and resistance to tarnish. It provides a secure setting
for diamonds and other gemstones, enhancing their brilliance.
An alloy of platinum, palladium and rhodium is used as catalyst in automobiles
as catalytic converter. It converts most of the toxic gases (CO, NO2) being emitted by
vehicles into less harmful carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water vapour.
Platinum is used in the production of hard disk drive coatings and fibre optic
cables. Platinum is used in the manufacturing of fibre glass reinforced plastic and glass
for liquid crystal displays (LCD).
i. Give the applications of silver?

ii. Why is silver not used in pure form?
iii. What do you mean by 24 carat gold?
iv. Why is gold used to make jewelry?
v. Why is platinum used for making jewelry?
vi. What is difference between steel and stainless steel?
vii. How is platinum used as a catalyst in automobiles and what are
advantages of this use?
8.2 NON-METALS
Non-metals form negative ions (anions) by gaining electrons. In this way,
non-metals are electronegative in nature and form acidic oxides. The valency of some
non-metals depend upon the number of electrons accepted by them. For example,
valency of chlorine atom is 1, as it accepts only 1 electron in its outermost shell.
Similarly, oxygen atom can accept 2 electrons, therefore, its valency is 2.
The non-metallic character depends upon the electron affinity and

electronegativity of the atom. Small sized elements having high nuclear charge are
electronegative in nature. They have high electron affinity. Therefore, they possess non-
metallic character. Hence, non-metallic character decreases in a group downward and
increases in a period from left to right up to halogens. Fluorine is the most non-metallic
element.
The non-metals are, therefore, elements in Group-14(Carbon), Group-15
(nitrogen and phosphorus), Group-16 (oxygen, sulphur and selenium) and in Group-17
halogens (fluorine, chorine, bromine and iodine) of the
periodic table. Figure 8.3 shows position of non-metals in
the periodic table.
Important physical properties of non-metals are as
follows:
Physical properties of non-metals change
gradually but uniquely in a group of non-metals. Non-
metals usually exist in all three physical states of matter.
The non-metals at the top of the group are usually gases
while others are either liquids or solids.
i. Solids non-metals are brittle (break easily).
ii. Non-metals are bad conductors of heat and
electricity (except graphite).
iii. They are not shiny, they are dull except
iodine (it is lustrous like metals).
iv. They are generally soft (except diamond). Fig. 8.3 The Non-Metals in
Period Table
v. They have low melting and boiling points
(except silicon, graphite and diamond).
vi. They have low densities.
Important chemical properties of non-metals are as follows:
i. Their valence shells are deficient of electrons, therefore, they readily
accept electrons to complete their valence shells and become
stable.
ii. They form ionic compounds with metals and covalent compounds by
reacting with other non-metals e.g. CO2, NO2, etc.
iii. Non-metals usually do not react with water.
iv. They do not react with dilute acids because non-metals are itself electron
acceptors.
Electonegativity of first member of group 14, 15, 16 and 17 are higher than that
of other members of the group decreasing trend of electronegativity is shown below
8.2.1 Comparison of Reactivity of the Halogens

Elements of Group-17 of the periodic table consist of fluorine, chlorine,
bromine, iodine and astatine. They are collectively called halogens. Fluorine and
chlorine exist as diatomic gases at room temperature. Interestingly, the intermolecular
forces of attraction increase downward in the group due to the increase in the size of
atom. Due to this reason bromine exists as a liquid and iodine as solid. Some physical
properties of halogens are shown in Table 8.4
Table 8.4 Some Physical Characteristics of Halogens
In general, their valence shell electronic configuration is ns2 np5. Since halogens
have only one electron deficit in their valence shell; either they can readily accept an
electron from a metal or they can share an electron with other non-metals. Thus halogens
form ionic bonds with metals and covalent bond with non-metals.
8.2.2 Important Reactions of Halogens
1) Oxidizing properties
All halogens are oxidizing agents. Fluorine is the strongest oxidizing element
while iodine is the least i.e is mild oxidizing agent. Fluorine will oxidize any of halide ion
(X) in solution and changes itself to F ion. Similarly, chlorine will displace Br and
I ion s from their salt solutions and oxidize them to bromine and iodine.
2KCl
Solution turns from colourless to reddish brown.
Similarly,
2) Reaction with hydrogen

All halogens (X2) combine with hydrogen to give hydrogen halides (HX). However the
chemical affinity for H2 decreases down the group from F2 to l2. Fluorine combines with
hydrogen even in the dark and cold state. Chlorine reacts with hydrogen only in the
presence of sunlight. Bromine and iodine react with hydrogen only on heating.
state
sunlight
3) Reaction with water

Fluorine (F2) decomposes water in cold state and in dark. Chlorine decomposes
water in presence of sunlight. Bromine only react with water under special conditions.
Iodine does not give this reaction.
4) Reaction with methane

Fluorine (F2) reacts violently with methane (CH4) in dark, while chlorine (CI2)
does not react with methane in dark. However, the presence of bright sunlight the
reaction is violent.
In presence of diffused sunlight the reaction of chlorine with methane is slow and
gives series of compounds i.e CH3C1, CH2CI2, CHCI3 and CCI4.
5) Reaction with Sodium hydroxide
Chlorine reacts with cold ditute NaOH to give sodium hypochlorite and sodium
chloride
Cl2 reacts with hot cone NaOH to give sodium chloride and sodium chlorate
8.2.3 Significance of Non-metals

Although non-metals are fewer than metals, yet they are highly significant. They
are equally important for human beings, animals and plants. In fact, life would not have
been possible without the presence of non-metals on earth.
i. Major components of earth's crust, oceans and atmosphere (as shown in table
1.1) are non-metals: oxygen has the highest percentage in earth's crust (47%) and
oceans (86%) and it is second (21%) to nitrogen in atmosphere. It indicates the
importance of oxygen in nature. To maintain the balance for the amount of non-
metals in nature, different cycles like water cycle, nitrogen cycle, etc have been
established naturally.
ii. Non-metals are essential part of the body structure of all living things. Human
body is made up of about 28 elements. But about 96% of the mass of the human
body is made up of just 4 elements i.e. oxygen 65%, carbon 18%, hydrogen 10%
and nitrogen 3%. Similarly, plant bodies are made up of cellulose, which is
composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
iii. Life owes to non-metals as without O2 and CO2 (essential gases for respiration of
animals and plants, respectively), life would not have been possible. In fact,
these gases are essential for the existence of life.
iv. All eatables like carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, water, milk etc which
are necessary for the growth and development of body that are made up of non-
metals; carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Its shows non- metals play a vital role for
the maintenance of life.
v. The essential compound for the survival of life of both animals and plants is
water, which is made up of non-metals. Water is not only the major part by mass
of animals and plants bodies, but it is also essential to maintain the life. We can
survive without water for days but not for a long period; its shortage may cause
death.
vi. Another important non-metal is nitrogen, which is 78% in atmosphere, is
necessary for the safety of life on earth. It controls the fire and combustion
processes, otherwise all the things around us could burn with a single flame.
vii. Non-metals are playing essential role for the communication in life. All fossil
fuels which are major source of energy; coal, petroleum and gas are made up of
carbon and hydrogen. Even the essential component of combustion of fossil
fuels, oxygen is also a non-metal.
viii. Non-metals protect us in a way, the clothes we wear are made of cellulose
(natural fibre) or polymer (synthetic fibre).
ix. In addition to all of these, other items used in daily life such as wooden or plastic
furniture, plastic sheets and bags, plastic pipes and utensils are made of non-
metallic elements. Even all the pesticides, insecticides, fungicides and
germicides consist of non-metals as major constituents.
i. Why valency of chlorine is I?

ii. Which factor controls the non-metallic character of the elements?
iii. Why fluorine is more non-metallic than chlorine?
iv. Iodine exists in solid state, can it be beaten with hammer to form sheets?
v. Can liquids and gases be brittle?
vi. Why the oxygen is called non-metal?
vii. Name two non-metals which are both brittle and non-ductile
viii. Name the most abundant non-metal in the earth's crust
ix. Give the non-metallic trend in halogens
x. Why do the non-metals accept electrons readily?
xi. Why non-metals do not react with dilute acids while metals do react?
xii. How can we distinguish a metal from a non-metal by simple physical methods?
xiii. How we can distinguish a substance is metal or non-metal with the help of an acid?
xiv. Why is HF a weak acid?
Key Points
Formation of cations of alkali and alkaline earth metals is due to their
electropositive behavior.
The chemical reactivity of alkali and alkaline earth metals, is quite different.
Calcium and magnesium are less reactive than sodium.
Halogens form very stable compounds with alkali metals.
Mercury and gold exist in free elemental form in nature.
EXERCISE
1. Metals can form ions carrying charges:
(a) Uni-positive (b) Di-positive (c) Tri-positive (d) All of them
2. Which one of the following metal burns with a brick red flame?
(a) Sodium (b) Magnesium (c) Iron (d) Calcium
3. Sodium is extremely reactive metal, but it does not react with:
(a) Hydrogen (b) Nitrogen (c) Sulphur (d) Phosphorus
4. Which one of the following is the lightest metal?
(a) Calcium (b) Magnesium (c) Lithium (d) Sodium
5. Pure alkali metals can be cut simply by knife but iron cannot because of
alkali metals have:
(a) Strong metallic bonding (b) Weak metallic bonding
(c) Non-metallic bonding (d) Moderate metallic bonding
6. Which of the following is less malleable?
(a) Sodium (b) Iron (c) Gold (d) Silver
7. Metals lose their electrons easily because:
(a) They are electronegative (b) They have electron affinity
(c) They are electropositive (d) Good conductors of heat
8. Which one of the following is brittle?

(a) Sodium (b) Aluminium (c) Selenium (d) Magnesium
9. Which one of the following non-metal is lustrous?
(a) Sulphur (b) Phosphorus (c) Iodine (d) Carbon
10. Non-metals are generally soft, but which one of the following is
extremely hard?
(a) Graphite (b) Phosphorus (c) Iodine (d) Diamond
11. Which one of the following will not react with dilute HC1?
(a) Sodium (b) Potassium (c) Calcium (d) Carbon

1. Why reactivity of metals increases down the group?
2. State the physical properties of metals.
3. Why nitrogen forms compounds with alkaline earth metals directly?
4. Why the second ionization energy of magnesium is higher than the first one?
5. How oxygen reacts with group II A metals?
6. What is relationship between electropositivity and ionization energy?
7. Why electropositivity decreases from left to right in a period?
8. How electropositivity depends upon size and nuclear charge of an atom?
9. Why ionization energies of alkaline earth metals are higher than alkali metals?
10. Why silver and gold are least reactive?
11. Can pure gold be used for making ornaments? If not why?
12. Why copper is used for making electrical wires?
13. What is the trend of variation in densities of alkali metals?
14. Which metal is used for metal work?
15. Why magnesium is harder than sodium?
16. Why calcium is more electropositive than magnesium?
17. Why ionization energy of Na is less than Mg?
18. Why the ionization energy of Na is more than K?
1. Compare and contrast the properties of alkali and alkaline earth metals.
2. Discuss the inert character of silver and gold.
3. Why cations are smaller and anions are bigger in size than their respective
neutral atoms.
4. Discuss why hardness and softness of a metal depends upon its metallic
bonding.
5. Give the reaction of sodium with: H2O, O2, CI2 and H2.
6. What are physical properties of calcium metal? Give its uses.
7. Write down the chemical properties of the non-metals?
8. Compare the physical properties of metals and non-metals.
9. How you can compare the softness and hardness of metals?
10. Give the chemical properties of magnesium and its uses.
11. Write a comprehensive note on the electropositive character of metals?
12. Compare the ionization energies of alkali and alkaline earth metals.

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Chapter1

Students Learning Outcomes

Students will be able to:

1.1 BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY

1.1.1 Physical Chemistry

1.1.2 Organic Chemistry

1.1.3 Inorganic Chemistry

1.1.5 Industrial Chemistry

1.1.6 Nuclear Chemistry

1.1.7 Environmental Chemistry

1.1.8 Analytical Chemistry

i. In which branch of chemistry behaviour of gases and liquids is

1.2 BASIC DEFINITIONS

Fig. 1.1. Classification of matter

1.2.1 Elements, Compounds and Mixtures

Major part of a living body is made up of water i.e. 65% to 80% by

The valency of chlorine, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon is 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively.

Compounds can be classified as ionic or covalent. Ionic compounds do not exist

Air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, noble gases and

Table 1.4 Difference between a Compound and a Mixture

i. Can you identify mixture, element or compound out of the

1.2.1 Atomic Number and Mass Number

Number of Neutrons =A- Z

i) How many amu 1 g of a substance has?

side by side, in the order of positive ion It indicates It is in fact

They are written as:

Molecules are formed by the combination of atoms. These molecules are

i.What is the relationship between empirical formula and formula unit?

Table 1.7 Difference between Atoms and Ions

1.3.1.1 Molecular Ion

1.3.1.2 Free Radicals

Most of the universe exists in the

Table 1.9 Differencesunlight

1.3.2 Types of Molecules

mass of a substance. Avogadro's Number is a collection of 6.02  1023 particles. It is

6.02 x 1023 (Contains) gram

(is equivalent to)

6.02 x 1023 (Contains) gram 6.02 x 1023 gram

i. Which term is used to represent the mass of 1 mole of molecules of a

Therefore, 40 grams will contain 0.408 gram molecule (mol) of H3PO4.

1.6.1 Mole-Mass Calculations

So, 9.0 g of coal is equivalent to 0.75 mol.

On rearranging above equation we get,

Summary of Molar Calculations:

Mass of Substances Mole Number of Particles

known mass number of particles

The number of molecules contained in 6 grams of water are 1.98 x 1023

THE MOLECULARITY OF THE PHYSICAL WORLD.

7. Which one of the following molecule is not tri-atomic?

11. How many number of moles are equivalent to 8 grams of Co2?

Short answer questions.

Students Learning Outcomes

Students will be able to:

Canal Rays Battery

() perforated cathode (+) anode

The properties of these rays were as following:

Properties of neutron are as following:

i. Do you know any element having no neutrons in its atoms?