Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Materials Today: Proceedings

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/matpr

Artificial Intelligence: The road ahead for the accessibility of persons

with Disability
Nilanjan Chakraborty a, Yogesh Mishra b, Ripon Bhattacharya a, Bhupal Bhattacharya c,⇑
a
School of Law and Justice, Adamas University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
b
KIIT School of Law, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar, India
c
Department of Law, Raiganj University, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The excellent way to enhance the lives of the people with disabilities is technology. There have been sev-
Received 15 July 2021 eral avenues of research that has opened the room after the advent of Artificial Intelligence. The Lives of
Accepted 17 July 2021 people with disabilities can be improved by Artificial Intelligence. The smart devices have been support-
Available online xxxx
ing the people with sight loss and physical disabilities. Route planning software, ranging from robotic
arms and other prosthetic limbs has made true advances which is a significant contribution done by
Keywords: Artificial Intelligence in the lives of persons with disability. The dependency of human life on technology
People with Disability
is outreaching even to the Person with Disabilities. The prevailing technological trends have started
Artificial Intelligence
Public health
becoming a current favorite amongst those who need assistance because of any form of Disability.
Barrier While some artificially intelligent technology is still fairly new the potential is all there. The Paper dis-
Science & technology cusses how Artificial Intelligence has helped in improving the living standards of Person with
Physical environment Disability, its future possibilities, potential legal issues concerning the implication of Artificial
Intelligence in India. In this paper the authors want to put an emphasis on the ways by which life of per-
sons with disability can be easier and swift in respect of their day-to-day activities by using modern tech-
nology namely Artificial Intelligence.
Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Confer-
ence on Nanoelectronics, Nanophotonics, Nanomaterials, Nanobioscience & Nanotechnology.

1. Introduction John McCarthy. With the advancement and development of tech-

nology its usage was found to be more productive as today the data
‘‘I believe there is no deep difference between what can be volume has increased, algorithms have advanced and one can also
achieved by a biological brain and what can be achieved by a deduce the improvement in the storage and power of the Com-
computer. It, therefore, follows that computers can, in theory, puter Systems [2] (Bodh, 14). The reason for the increased usage
emulate human intelligence and exceed it”- Stephen Hawking of Artificial intelligence is to stimulate the reasoning power of
The origin of Artificial Intelligence can be traced back from the Human beings in Computer Programs. Artificial Intelligence is basi-
efforts that were taken to build thinking computers and machines cally about the thought process and reasoning, to act like humans,
do mathematics. With the financial support from the British thinking has to be rational [3] (Venebles, 2020).
Government, Charles Babbage was able to develop a ‘‘difference Artificial Intelligence has turned out to be one of the most
engine”, which was able to calculate polynomials value. Charles game-changing and also most controversial endeavors which
Babbage developed a machine for general-purpose computing [1] science has gifted in our life-time. AI has marked its presence
(Goldberg, 1994). In 1956, Artificial Intelligence was coined by already in some of the areas that are related to the Virtual, Social
and Physical realm in which it has helped in the decision-making
process of the medical, financial, transportation, and also recre-
⇑ Corresponding author.
ational systems [4] (A. Chaboud, 2015). It has always been evident
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (N. Chakra-
borty), [email protected] (Y. Mishra), ripon.bhattacharjee@adamasuniver- that some intelligent machines have at times outperformed human
sity.ac.in (R. Bhattacharya), [email protected] (B. Bhattacharya). experts. This thing particularly raises the question as to why and

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.07.374
2214-7853/Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Conference on Nanoelectronics, Nanophotonics, Nanomaterials,
Nanobioscience & Nanotechnology.

Please cite this article as: N. Chakraborty, Y. Mishra, R. Bhattacharya et al., Artificial Intelligence: The road ahead for the accessibility of persons with Dis-
ability, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.07.374
N. Chakraborty, Y. Mishra, R. Bhattacharya et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

when this should remain in the decision making. But yes, there is So, by the Act of 2016 disability has been given a vast definition
one possible answer to all this that of relying on the intuitions which includes within it more or less all forms of disability
and experience that humans are capable to identify the prevailing prevalent.
errors which can sometimes be very disastrous. However, in Accessibility is one of the major problems related to persons
today’s context if we look into the same scenario the argument sta- with disability and it gives rise to various discrimination and they
ted above will wear this as the technology has evolved to a much feel left apart from society. It is Civil and Human Rights of the peo-
significant level. What we need to realize and analyze is whether ple with Disability to have proper access to the contents that are
our system is ready and adaptative to the technological advance- available digitally as it is available for the other person who is
ments that we are taking up, can we think of Robbo-judges and without any form of Disability. To this existing problem, technol-
robot jury or we are just acting as sci-fi enthusiasts [5] (Marquez ogy has its solution that can make this thing a reality and can help
Brennan, 2019). in reducing the prevailing social inequality. Also, the digital con-
We have to just think beyond what is portrayed in Hollywood tents get incorporated with the ICT (Information and Communica-
movies and novels related to science fiction which occasionally tion Technology) can make things accessible for the Persons with
interpret Artificial Intelligence is something which is just confined Disability at either no cost or a very little cost [7] (Lazar Jonathan,
to some Human- alike Robots taking over the world and destroying 2017).
the whole mankind. Artificial Intelligence is a much smarter thing Access to ICT can play a very important role when it comes to
and its not scary. It has contributed to every industry and espe- education, livelihood, and full participation of persons with disabil-
cially its contribution to the medical and legal side is very remark- ities in society and hence playing a critical part. The Disability
able [6] (Jannu, 2019). which interfaces the issue related to reading books is termed as
Print Disabilities. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Con-
vention on Rights of Persons with Disabilities and various other
instruments have recognized print disabilities and also had
2. Disability Law in India accepted that there exists equality to access pieces of information
that have been contained in books as it’s a fundamental require-
2.1. Definition of ‘Disability’ under Indian laws ment [8] (Lazar Jonathan, ‘‘E-Books and Human Rights.” In Disabil-
ity, Human Rights, and Information Technology, 2017).
The Person with Disability (Equal Opportunities Protection of
Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995, has defined ‘Disability’
under Section 2(I) - it states ‘‘Disability means- 2.2. Accessibility provisions under the Rights of persons with
disabilities Act, 2016
1. Blindness - Visually impaired
2. Low vision  Accessibility - Section 40 has stated that in consultation with
3. Leprosy Cured the Chief Commissioner, the Central Government shall make
4. Hearing impairment rules with regards to accessibility for the Persons with Disabil-
5. Locomotors Disability ities. The Central government must lay down the standards for
6. Mental Retardation the accessibility for transportation, information, physical envi-
7. Mental Illness” ronment, and communication. This also includes the appropri-
ate technologies and system, and other facilities and services
Since India was also one of the signatories to the United Nation that are to be provided to the person with disabilities residing
it has to modify the laws to conform with the provisions of the in both Urban and Rural areas.
UNCRPD. So, in 2016, India has brought into effect new Act named  Access to Transport - Section 41 has stated - ‘‘Government
‘‘Right of Persons with Disability Act, 2016” it has included must take all appropriate measures to provide-
within the definition of disability as many as 21 disabilities, they (a) Facilities for persons with disabilities at bus stops, railway
are- stations and airports conforming to the accessibility stan-
dards relating to parking spaces, toilets, ticketing counters,
1. Blindness and ticketing machines;
2. Low-vision (b) Access to all modes of transport that conform the design
3. Leprosy Cured persons standards, including retrofitting old modes of transport,
4. Hearing Impairment (deaf and hard of hearing) wherever technically feasible and safe for persons with dis-
5. Locomotor Disability abilities, economically viable and without entailing major
6. Dwarfism structural changes in design;
7. Intellectual Disability (c) Accessible roads to address the mobility necessary for per-
8. Mental Illness sons with disabilities.”
9. Autism Spectrum Disorder  Access to Information and Communication Technology - Sec-
10. Cerebral Palsy tion 42 states ‘‘The appropriate Government shall take mea-
11. Muscular Dystrophy sures to ensure that-
12. Chronic Neurological conditions i. All contents available in audio, print and electronic media
13. Specific Learning Disabilities are inaccessible format;
14. Multiple Sclerosis ii. Persons with disabilities have access to electronic media by
15. Speech and Language disability providing audio description, sign language interpretation
16. Thalassemia and close captioning;
17. Hemophilia iii. Electronic goods and equipment which are meant for every-
18. Sickle Cell disease day use are available in universal design.”.
19. Multiple Disabilities including deaf, blindness
20. Acid Attack victim The increase in the number of types of disability recognized
21. Parkinson’s disease under the Right of Persons with Disability Act, 2016 has covered
2
N. Chakraborty, Y. Mishra, R. Bhattacharya et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

a good number of populations and its implementation has become Getting on to the critical side of the Artificial Intelligence is
a great challenge on the part of the government. However, Artificial regarding the privacy and ethical issues which are involved with
Intelligence can prove to be a great call to make the environment the evolution of AI and that is one the primary reason why it has
accessible for persons with disabilities. been the major concern of the Public, Private Sectors, Corporations
and also World Institute of Disability (WID). Some of the difficul-
ties that may arise are-

2.3. Why Artificial Intelligence for persons with Disability is necessary? 1. A continuation of historical biases can be sensed from Models
learning;
As we know technology can act as a force multiplier which can 2. Data related to training might be under to under-represent the
help in unlocking some persisting problems in society be it a cli- outlier population and it includes persons with disabilities
matic issue, water, or agriculture. Likewise, AI can act as a game- which will ultimately lead to denial or thwart of inclusion in
changer for persons with disabilities. It is being witnessed that toto.
there is an expansion in the usage of computer for hearing, seeing 3. The speed takes up the priority than the criteria of accessibility,
and reasons with impressive accuracy and AI is very promising and security, safety, and bias.
have all the potentiality to enable people with vision, learning, 4. The inclusions of the person with disabilities might be ignored
hearing, mobility disability, cognitive and also with a mental when it comes to data collection, machine learning training
health condition, so they can perform more in scenarios related protocols.
to modern life, employment and connections with the human 5. The Privacy Rights of Persons with disabilities will also be one
beings. It is very saddened to notice that only one out of ten per- of the major concerns.
sons with disabilities is accessible to assistive technologies and
its products [9] (Bugtan, 2018). If we look into the world-wide sce- It has also been recommended by WID that the person who
nario 15% of the World’s Population is experiencing disability in holds expertise in Disability culture and their problems related to
one form or the other and the prevalence of the persons with dis- accessibility has to be engaged early for the AIs standards develop-
ability is found much on developing nations [10] (W, 2020). The ment, and also who holds expertise in addressing and recognizing
number is huge but the exposure to the AI technologies is not the implicit bias. If all these things get included with proper exper-
up-to-the-mark. tise it will fetch to achieve complete inclusion of the persons with
It has been found that technology can be very productive when disability in a future set of data [13] (Harrason, 7).
it comes to making the life of Persons with disabilities much easier.
Smartphone apps, in particular, are helping people with navigation,
2.4. The Paralympics Games- an evolution in sports
transport, and commerce. The Replacement of Keyboards, the
tablets, the conversions of phones from the keypad to touch screen,
In 2012, the visual language of Paralympic Games was orga-
and also the system of voice assistance and commands with the
nized which posed a good point of departure as to people’s percep-
help of the internet has increased the accessibility environment
tion related to disability in sports. It has changed people’s
for the Persons with Disability and also the person of old ages. Var-
viewpoints in recent years regarding the involvement of persons
ious other devices have been launched and brought into usage in
with disabilities in general. The Paralympics has turned out to be
recent times like Amazon’s Alexa, Apple Homepage, Google’s
the biggest games of their kind and got amazing media covering
Now which have been used by many people. The Voice-Activated
London Paralympics at that time 146 countries took part in around
Personal Assistant (VAPAs) has acted as next-generation technolo-
4,237 participants. The whole game was organized with various
gies and is going beyond that. VAPA is now ubiquitously found on
assistive AI technologies which can create a barrier-free environ-
Smartphones and IPad devices. Interactions with VAPAs are ever
ment for persons with disabilities and also help them to get an
more tailored, more personalized, and friendlier due to the
opportunity to stand with others in the same footings. This game
improvements in AI, as we talk to rather than through our phones,
got great public attention and various campaigns were launched
computers, tablets, and appliances [11] (Deborah Vollmer Dahlke,
such as ‘‘Meet the Superhumans” and it got the widest-ranging
2017).
campaign even launched by a private TV company, Channel 4 of
Artificial Intelligence has proved to be a remarkable tool for the
Britain [14] (Harrassen, 2017)
Persons with Disability when it comes to inclusion and accessibil-
ity as stated by the World Institute on Disability (WID). The recog-
nition of images, sound, and expressions of linguistics has now 2.5. The Trung’s device
opened a wide opportunity for persons with disabilities. There
have been technologies which are designed to have data sets which A College Student in Vietnam, Nguyen Thanh Trung has come
cover all sort of inclusions [12] (Chugh, 2020). There can be certain out with one of the blessings for the person who is blind, as he
positive modifications which can be a blessing for persons with made a reading machine. The machine however has not named
disabilities, like- yet but was brought into notice at the ‘International Exhibition
of Young Inventors’. It was welcomed by many of the participants
(a) Artificial intelligence with auto-captioning that can be pro- and the organizers. A blind Student at IIT-Mumbai Tony Kurian
ductive for the person suffering from hearing impairment; believes that this particular device will change the lives of many
(b) Cars of autonomous nature having features of Universal blind people.
Design Principles, which can make it useful for the person ‘‘We are heavily dependent on technology, mainly computers.
who has issues related to driving. So, this new device that scans books and converts them to Braille
(c) The technologies like facial recognition, image recognition is going to be something different. What makes it even more
can be found supportive for the people who are blind or hav- unique is that it is priced low. Hence, people from different walks
ing low visions and are facing issues to interact with the of life can buy this. Most of the Braille devices are quite expensive. I
environment. use a similar Braille device named BrailleMe that was created by a
(d) The language technology which facilitates comprehensions student from my college. It is handy and has helped me a lot”, say
can be helpful for a person with cognitive disabilities. Kurian.
3
N. Chakraborty, Y. Mishra, R. Bhattacharya et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

These steps leap into the interest for more innovation in the cess which has nowadays been taken up by many organizations
field of artificially intelligent devices for persons with disabilities and if the persons with disabilities are not provided with much
and it can be stated that these developing technologies with make assistive technology, then the percentage of employment of per-
the path easier for the person with a disability in days to come [15] sons with disabilities with further get reduced to a greater extent.
(Hook, 2018). So, on one side, AI is a boon to the Persons with a disability it can
also prove out to deteriorate their conditions further.
2.6. Major loopholes
 Law Implementation failure - The Right of Persons with Dis-
ability Act, 2016 has however included the punishment clause
 Lack of research innovation - In today’s scenario though the
within the Act but the Punishment clause has no specific as to
present Indian Government had taken up its leap into the arena
what will be done if proper accessibilities are not provided
of Artificial Intelligence and is setting its eye to counter China in
and the punishments have been made generally for all the pro-
AI. $480 million has been allocated to moot for the modest
visions of the Act. Accessibility needs special attention as it has
beginning of the recent work in the field of if you compare
been neglected from long ago and hence if any public and pri-
the same data, we will get to know that where china spends
vate bodies do not follow the directions of the Central Govern-
2% of its GDP on research India spends just 0.6% compared to
ment must be punished and punishment must not be only in
its economic size. However, as per the Scopus analysis, 70% of
nature of fine and even imprisonment must also be done.
the total research on AI that is being conducted by India is done
Although digital accessibility has been brought within the
by the non-Indian companies’ headquarters in India [16] (Vem-
ambit of the Act for availing the Digital facilities certain amount
pati, 2020).
of knowledge is required which must be granted to the person
There is only one Indian Company TCS which contributes to
with Disabilities and they must be given proper guidance con-
most of the research in India i.e., 13% while the leading companies
cerning that. So, though the Digital Accessibility has been
are Google and IBM. Lack of research means lack of innovation in
granted still it need must improvement to user-friendly and
India and hence less contribution to be done for the Persons with
properly accessible for the person with Disabilities [22] (Srivas-
Disability where AI can be a boon lack of research and innovation
tava, 2015).
will ultimately make the situation the same [17] (Sinha, 2018)

 Discrimination of Persons with Disability in Employment - 3. Conclusions and suggestions

It’s not strange to ascertain that in hiring practices also the per-
sons with disabilities face discrimination when it comes to Though there are various shortcomings in the field of Imple-
employment. One of the recent field studies has mentioned that mentation of the Technology for the Persons with Disability yes
the chance of getting a positive response from the employers it has posed a way for the improvement of the society as well as
reduces to 26% when a person discloses his disability no matter the life of the persons with disability as a whole. There has to be
whether that disability is directly related to the productivity in more allocation of budgets for persons with disabilities which
that job [18] (A. Mason, 2018) Even if the hiring is inclusive, it was less in India in the year 2020. Though the amount was more
has been found that the individuals show less interest to work than the past years still it was found that it is not an adequate
with the person who suffers any form of disability [19] (Free- amount. The rebate on the taxes in innovative technologies and
man, 1984). There are cases where exclusion can be uninten- their selling can boost the society by making the assistive tech-
tional. Like, if a particular job requires verbal communication nologies affordable. Artificial Intelligence can prove to be acting
skills might lead to disqualification of a qualified deaf candidate as a catalyst in the lives of persons with disabilities. It will not only
who speaks through an interpreter and can do the job efficiently enhance their participation but also help in bridging the gap that
by the use of accommodations. has been created for so long. Even the outlook of others will also
change towards them. The contribution of AI towards the lives of
The data from the past has also revealed that the level of Persons with Disabilities is remarkable and also shortly we can
employment of Persons with Disabilities is already very low. The expect much more. But yes science has been both a Boon or Bane
rate of employment for persons with disabilities was 19.1% in as warned by Stephen Hawking where he stated that Artificial
2018 while the employment percentage stood to 65.9% for persons Intelligence is a new form of Life but there is a threat that AI
without disabilities [20] (Srinivas, 2019). Nowadays, in hiring prac- may replace humans altogether. So assistive technologies should
tices, employers are relying on technology to a greater extent. AI- be used with caution.
driven recruitment is a great solution available in the market today
which not only results in the online tests but also helps in analyz- Declaration of Competing Interest
ing the resumes, online profiles, etc. Although it has been a boon on
the other side of the coin it is raising potential concern for Disabil- The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
ity Discrimination. There have been various incidents related to cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
disability discrimination in the AI recruitment process too. For to influence the work reported in this paper.
e.g.- if an applicant (a person with a disability) is taking up for
an online test using assistive technology, it will take more time
to answer the question especially when the test which is being References
conducted is not well designed to be accessible for the persons
[1] A. Chaboud, E. H. The Need for Speed: Minimum Quote Life Rules And
with disability. Another very possible assortment can be made if
Algorithmic Trading. Australia: Federal Reserve Board. 2015.
an applicant who is having a low facial effect is prone to the pos- [2] A. Mason, L. S. The Disability Employment Puzzle: A Field Experiment on
sibility of being screened out by a selection process that is using Employer Hiring Behaviour. ILR Review Vol 71, No. 2, 329-364. 2018.
video analysis of eye gaze, facial movements, or voice characteris- [3] J. Bodh. (14, June 2020). Artifical Intelligence. Retrieved from Science Daily:
Https://Www.Sciencedaily.Com/Terms/Artificial_Intelligence.Htm.
tics, even though that person possesses high skills [21] (Kushi, [4] A. Bugtan. Usingn AI to Empower People with Disabilities. Retrieved from
2020). This is a very possible outcome of the AI recruitment pro- Microsoft On The Issues: . 2018.

4
N. Chakraborty, Y. Mishra, R. Bhattacharya et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

[5] A.K. Chugh. AI and Accessibility . Retrieved from World Institute of Disability: . [13] H. Kushi. Expanding Employment Success for People with Disabilities.
2020. Retrieved from Benetech. 2020.
[6] M.G. Deborah Vollmer Dahlke. Emerging Opportunities and Challenges in [14] S.M. Lazar Jonathan. ‘‘E-Books and Human Rights.” In Disability, Human Rights,
Optimal Aging with Virtual Personal Assistants. Retrieved from Public Policy & and Information Technology. USA: PHILADELPHIA: University of Pennsylvania
Aging Report 68: . 2017. Press. 2017.
[7] W.H. Freeman, Social Stigma: The Psychology of Marked Relationships, E Jones, [15] Jonathan Lazar, Michael Ashley Stein (Eds.), Disability, Human Rights, and
New York, 1984. Information Technology, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2017.
[8] S. Goldberg, Artificial Intelleigence and the Essence of Humanity, NYU Press, [16] S.H. Marquez Brennan, Artificial intelligence and role-reversible judgment, J.
New York, 1994. Crim. Law Criminol. (2019) 137–164.
[9] K. Harrason. Artificial Intelligence as a Tool for People with Disabilities. [17] S. Sinha. Where Artificial Intelligence Research In India Is Heading. Retrieved
Retrieved from Equal Entry: . 2020. from Analytics India Magazine: . 2018.
[10] K. Harrassen, Superhumans-Parahumans: Disability and Hightech in [18] A. Srinivas, Persons with a disability: labor force characteristics, AU Press,
Competitive Sports, Transaript Verlag, Bielefeld, 2017, pp. 165–171. Canada, 2019.
[11] N. Hook. (2018, October 31). A New Reading Machine from Vietnam for Blind [19] S. Srivastava. Report of the international conference on disability studies in
People Is All Set to Reach India. Retrieved from Newz Hook - Changing India: reflections on future, Indian Anthropol. 45(2) 2015 97-99.
Attitudes towards Disability: https://newzhook.com/story/20413/. [20] S. Vempati. India and the Artificial Intelligence Revolution. Retrieved from
[12] C. Jannu. Artificial Intelligence - What it is and Why it matters. Retrieved from Carnegie India: . 2020.
SAS: . 2019. [21] E. Venebles. Artificial Intelligence. Retrieved from Medium: . 2020.
[22] W, T. Disability inclusion Overview. Retrieved from World Bank: . 2020.