Standards 02 00012

Review
An Overview of Indoor Positioning and Mapping

Technology Standards
Yuejin Deng 1, * , Haojun Ai 2 , Zeyu Deng 1 , Wenxiu Gao 3 and Jianga Shang 4
1 State Key Laboratory of Information Engineering in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing,
Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China; [email protected]
2 School of Computer, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China; [email protected]
3 School of Architecture and Urban Planning, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China;
[email protected]
4 School of Geography and Information Engineering, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]
Abstract: Technologies and systems for indoor positioning, mapping, and navigation (IPMN) have
rapidly developed over the latest decade due to advanced radio and light communications, the
internet of things, intelligent and smart devices, big data, and so forth. Thus, a group of surveys for
IPMN technologies, systems, standards, and solutions can be found in literature. However, currently
there is no proposed solution that can satisfy all indoor application requirements; one of the biggest
challenges is lack of standardization, even though several IPMN standards have been published
by different standard developing organizations (SDOs). Therefore, this paper aims to re-survey
indoor positioning and mapping technologies, in particular, the existing standards related to these
technologies and to present guidance in the field. As part of our work, we provide an IPMN standards
system architecture consisting of concepts, terms, models, indoor positioning technologies, software
and tools, applications, services and policies, and indoor mapping and modelling; and, we present
IPMN standards developed for our projects in practice, such as multi-source fusion positioning data
Citation: Deng, Y.; Ai, H.; Deng, Z.; interfaces; seamless cooperative positioning service interfaces; content model for indoor mapping
Gao, W.; Shang, J. An Overview of and navigation, and specification for digital indoor map products.
Indoor Positioning and Mapping
Technology Standards. Standards Keywords: indoor positioning; mapping and modelling; indoor navigation; standards system
2022, 2, 157–183. https://doi.org/
10.3390/standards2020012
Academic Editor: Hone-Jay Chu

1. Introduction
Received: 24 January 2022
Positioning technologies can be classified into two categories according to the ap-
Accepted: 4 March 2022
plication scenario: outdoor positioning and indoor positioning. The increasing demand
Published: 6 May 2022
for location-based services (LBS) is gradually extending from outdoor to indoor, and
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral indoor positioning systems (IPS) or indoor localization systems (ILS) are attracting sci-
with regard to jurisdictional claims in entific and enterprise interest because there is a huge market opportunity for applying
published maps and institutional affil- indoor positioning, mapping, and navigation technologies [1]. According to Technavio,
iations.
the indoor positioning and indoor navigation (IPIN) market has the potential to grow by
USD 23.03 billion during 2021–2025, and the market’s growth momentum will accelerate at
a CAGR of 33.21% [2]. Due to the benefits of indoor positioning, mapping, and navigation
(IPMN) technologies and systems, numerous indoor applications have been deployed in
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
large buildings—such as hospitals, airports, shopping malls, and train stations—to guide
This article is an open access article
visitors to their destinations [3]. However, IPS applications still face several technical and
distributed under the terms and non-technical challenges, such as location privacy, the quality of positioning services, and
conditions of the Creative Commons the availability of indoor maps [4].
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Different techniques, technologies, mechanisms, methodologies, systems, platforms,
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ applications, and standards related to indoor positioning have been proposed to provide
4.0/).
Standards 2022, 2, 157–183. https://doi.org/10.3390/standards2020012 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/standards

Standards 2022, 2 158
indoor localization services to improve the services provided to the users [5]. Mendoza-
Silva et al. [6] provide readers with a meta-review of indoor positioning systems, aiming to
guide the reader to easily find further details on each technology used in IPS. Nevertheless,
the problem of positioning in indoor environments is far from being solved, and there is still
no satisfactory IPS capable of being used in all indoor scenarios with standard behavior [7].
Indoor modelling and mapping play a key role in indoor positioning and navigation
systems. The scientific and technological progress in 3D spatial data acquisition as well
as 3D city and building modeling have been evolving into more sophisticated hardware,
software, standards, techniques, and uses specific to indoor modeling and mapping [8].
With regard to indoor environments, geographical information system (GIS) technologies
and tools can also undoubtedly be integrated to enhance an IPS functionalities; for exam-
ple, the utilization of GIS includes indoor data acquisition and management, geospatial
analysis, route planning optimization, and so forth [9]. Moreover, cartography has evolved
and improved the way maps are depicted and communicated, meanwhile the increasing
deployment of indoor positioning systems provides forceful motivation for improving the
cartography of indoor maps [10].
Standardization plays a significant role in the process of industrialization of indoor
positioning, mapping and navigation production and utilization, and it is an inevitable
choice. According to the definition from International Organization for Standardization
(ISO), standardization is an activity formulating common and reusable rules for practical
or potential problems to get the best order in a certain range. The challenge we are now
confronted with is how to popularize indoor positioning systems to realize industrialization
after the basic indoor positioning technologies have matured. Standardization work is an
effective means to promote this industrialization process, in the following two ways: firstly,
standardization is the premise and foundation of information sharing and interoperability
among various systems. In different industrial applications, most companies will adopt
the specialized standards common in that industry, resulting in a waste of resources that
impedes sharing and interoperability. Secondly, standardization benefits cost saving and
the enhancing quality of software products. When developing indoor positioning products,
standardization helps to shorten the development cycle and to improve the quality of
software products. Through standardization, we can set the specifications and narrow
the technologies and techniques; however, currently, there are a few standards that can
serve as a guide for designing localization and proximity techniques [5]. For this reason,
several standard developing organizations (SDOs) have published a series of standards
for indoor positioning, navigation, and mapping, including the International Organization
for Standardization and the International Electrotechnical Commission (ISO/IEC) Infor-
mation technology—Real Time Locating Systems (RTLS), ISO Technical Committee (TC)
204 Intelligent Transport System (ITS), IEEE standard for robot Map Data Representation
(MDR), ISO TC211 Geographic Information standards, Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC)
standards for spatial data encoding and exchanging, Industrial Foundation Classes (IFC) of
buildingSmart, and so forth. However, since these standards are published by different
SDOs for different purposes, their conformity and coordination need to be tested for specific
application scenarios. For example, CityGML and IndoorGML—developed by the Open
Geospatial Consortium (OGC)—provide similar frameworks for standard data models of
indoor spaces, but their goals and approaches are different so how they can be used in a
complementary way for applications must be clarified [11].
A review of the literature suggests that most survey articles on algorithms, modeling,
techniques, technologies, systems, standards, applications, and services in the field of
indoor positioning, mapping, and navigation focus on the individual arts of different
technologies. Subsequently, there is a lack of an overview on indoor positioning, mapping,
and navigation standards for IPS developers and applications. According to ISO 17438-
1:2016, a typical intelligent transport system’s (ITS) indoor navigation application usually
covers indoor positioning, and an indoor map and navigation service; thus, we aim to
present an overview on existing indoor positioning, mapping, and navigation technologies
and standards from the viewpoint of IPS developers and service providers. The purpose is
to provide a guideline for IPS developers to find suitable resource links for their applications,
that is, what kind of IPS technologies and standards should be selected or integrated into
applications. Furthermore, we present the requirements of the IPMN standards series,
that is, from the viewpoint of a standards system, as we need to develop more IPMN
standards beyond the published international standards. Consequently, we comment on
some developed standards or standards in development in our project, including content
model and data acquisition for indoor mapping, multi-source fusion positioning data
interfaces, seamless cooperative positioning services, and so on.
The remainder of the paper is structured as follows: in Section 2, we survey the ex-
isting indoor positioning, mapping technologies and standards based on reviews in the
literature. This overview provides a clue for IPS developers to search for suitable technolo-
gies and standards for specific applications. In Section 3, we discuss the requirements of
an IPMN standards system, which extends the published IPMN standards. For general
purposes, the standards series must cover concepts, terms, models, requirements, use cases,
tools, products, and other specifications. Later, in Section 4, we focus on some standards
developed for our project, which are expected to be a part of the standards system. Finally,
Section 5 presents the conclusions of this paper. Moving forward, we will now discuss
related work in detail.
2. Related Work
The problem of indoor navigation can be basically decomposed into three sub-problems:
positioning, environment mapping, and trajectory planning [12]. Additionally, according to
ISO 17438-1:2016, a typical intelligent transport systems (ITS) indoor navigation application
usually covers indoor positioning and indoor map and navigation services [13]. Navigation
refers to one kind of application among others, such as tracking, asset management, and
so on. We consider indoor positioning and mapping as the most fundamental technolo-
gies, whose requirements of various application situations vary from each other. In this
circumstance, in this section, we only briefly introduce the existing indoor positioning
and mapping technologies based on a broad review of the literature and then focus on the
relevant standards.
2.1. Indoor Positioning Technologies

Since there are numerous indoor positioning techniques and technologies, it is hard to
present a complete survey covering all existing and emerging technologies. Numerous sur-
veys on indoor positioning principals, approaches, methods, systems, solutions, platforms,
classifications, evaluations, comparisons, challenges, and future potential directions can
found in the literature [5,6,14–23].
Sakpere et al. [14] present an attractive survey of indoor positioning and navigation
systems observed from literature, and they propose an overview of positioning algorithms,
techniques, and technologies as shown in Figure 1. The technologies discussed include
infrared (IR), ultrasound/ultrasonic, audible sound, magnetic, optical and vision, radio
frequency (RF), visible light, pedestrian dead reckoning (PDR)/inertial navigation system
(INS) and hybrid. The RF technologies discussed include Bluetooth, ultra-wideband (UWB),
wireless sensor network (WSN), wireless local area network (WLAN), radio-frequency
identification (RFID), and near field communication (NFC). The authors analyzed the pros
and cons of the positioning technologies according to metrics such as accuracy, complex-
ity, cost, privacy, scalability, and usability. However, the survey needs to be updated to
cover the most recent and relevant technologies since IPSs are a rapidly evolving area.
For example, the arrival of 5G, IoT, and AI as well as big data have taken indoor posi-
tioning to a new level. Therefore, we reference their classification of indoor positioning
technologies as an overview of existing technologies and a guidance for indoor positioning
related applications.
Standards 2022, 2, FOR PEER REVIEW 4

positioning technologies as an overview of existing technologies and a guidance for in-
door positioning related applications.
Indoor positioning techniques and technologies
Techniques Technologies
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(AOA)
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(TOA)/Time of Trilateration
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Radio frequency
Time Difference of (RF)
Proximity
Arrival (TDOA)
Visible light (VL)

Received Signal
Scene analysis and
Strength Indication
fingerprinting Pedestrian Dead
(RSSI)
Reckoning (PDR)
Hybrid
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techniques. Kunhoth et al. [17] propose a hierarchical classification of indoor navigation
systems; and, the first level is grouped into computer vision-based, communication-based,
and PDR-based navigation systems, where communication-based wayfinding systems are

sub-grouped into RFID, Wi-Fi, visible light communication (VLC), UWB, and Bluetooth
technologies. Most surveys present limitations and strengths analyses, performance evalua-
tions, comparisons of various heterogenous technologies and systems, as well as challenges,
opportunities and future research directions in this field.
From the indoor positioning device perspective, Xiao et al. [24] categorize wireless
indoor localization schemes into device-based and device-free, where device-based localiza-
tion refers to a wireless device (e.g., a smartphone) attached to the target that computes its
location through cooperation with other deployed wireless devices; in contrast, device-free
localization means the target carries no wireless devices, while the wireless infrastructure
deployed in the environment determines the target’s location by analyzing its impact on
wireless signals. The authors also present a performance comparison of smartphone-based,
tag-based, and device-free systems. Based on whether an IPS requires the deployment
of dedicated infrastructure or not, the existing indoor localization systems can also be
classified into infrastructure-based and infrastructure-free systems [22,23].
Zafari et al. [5] provide a detailed survey of indoor localization techniques such as
AOA, TOF, return time of flight (RTOF), received signal strength (RSS), RSSI, and channel
state information (CSI) based on technologies such as WiFi, RFID, UWB, Bluetooth, and sys-
tems that have been proposed in the literature. The authors grouped these technologies and
systems as device-based localization (DBL), monitor-based localization (MBL), and proxim-
ity detection. In contrast to the existing surveys, they analyzed how novel systems such as
Internet of Things (IoT), smart architectures (such as smart cities, smart buildings, smart
grids), and machine type communication (MTC) can impact or benefit indoor localization;
and, they evaluated different systems from the perspective of energy efficiency, availability,
cost, reception range, latency, scalability and tracking accuracy. However, as the authors
addressed, there is no system proposed so far that satisfies all these requirements. The
authors highlight the use of localization in context-aware location-based marketing, health
services, disaster management and recovery, security, asset management/tracking, and
IoT. Finally, the authors provide a checklist of the pros and cons of different technologies
and highlight their suitability and challenges for indoor localization. One of the biggest
problems is that there is no standard that can serve as a guide for designing localization
and proximity techniques.
Simões et al. [7] revisited the then current literature to present an expansion of the
range of technologies and methodologies for assisting the visually impaired in previous
works, providing readers and researchers with a more recent version of what was done
and the advantages and disadvantages of each approach. The authors reorganized IPS
structures into radio-based (range-based and range-free), no radio-based (inertial-based,
sound-based, light-based and vision-based), and hybrid indoor positioning systems.
Many more comprehensive reviews of various positioning technologies can be found
in the literature [4–6,16,17,20,21,25–30]. The main goal of most surveys is to provide a guide-
line for readers and IPS developers to better understand the weaknesses and strengths of
each technology and system. The performance evaluation metrics usually include accu-
racy and precision, coverage, cost, latency, complexity, robustness, availability/usability,
scalability, lower power, privacy, and security.
Currently, the fifth generation (5G) mobile network, big data, and artificial intelli-
gence (AI) are new technologies to improve indoor 3D localization by using new radio (5G
NR) technologies, Internet of Things (IoT), and machine learning probabilistic algorithms,
among other technologies [31]. In 2019, 5G cellular networks started to be deployed world-
wide, and the new technologies have enabled approaches for improving the performance
of wireless indoor positioning [32]. For example, El Boudani et al. [33] proposed (a deep,
learning-based cooperative architecture using 5G IoT networks for 3D indoor positioning,
and Horsmanheimo et al. [34] present an indoor positioning platform to support the de-
velopment of foreseen location-based 5G network functionalities and services. However,
indoor positioning in 5G IoT networks is still a very new research area, and a recent 5G
PPP technical report [35] set out the detailed indoor 3D positioning requirements and
challenges.
Although recent technologies have shown significant advances in terms of accuracy
and speed, they have been used in new algorithmic arrangements to improve the quality
of indoor positioning systems; and, there are continuous open efforts for guiding readers,
researchers, and developers to select reliable, user-friendly, and accurate solutions for
indoor positioning and navigation applications that are suitable for different scenarios.
Nevertheless, the problem of positioning in indoor environments is far from being solved.
There is still no satisfactory solution of an IPS capable of being used in all indoor scenarios
with standard behavior [7]. One of the significant challenges is a lack of standardization;
in other words, there is no standard that can serve as a guide for designing localization
and proximity techniques and indoor positioning systems [5], although several interna-
tional standards for RTLS and ITS have been published by ISO, which will be discussed
in Section 2.3.
2.2. Indoor Mapping Technologies

With the development of smart cities, digital twins, or the metaverse, there is a
growing demand for more effective spatial information acquisition, processing, modeling,
representation, and visualization of indoor environments. Unlike the outdoor space, the
indoor space is typically bounded and constrained by architectural structures [9]. The
challenges of the structural complexity of buildings and indoor location-based applications
have been growing in interest in indoor mapping and surveying.
Indoor mapping and modeling varies from that of outdoor in many ways due to the
complexity and constraints of the indoor space. Therefore, indoor spatial information is
acquired by mobile mapping systems (MMS), which makes it possible to acquire time-
saving and fully-equipped environmental data using laser scanners from moving platforms.
Research and development on multi-sensor mobile mapping systems has been ongoing
since the early 1990s. Indoor mapping and modeling (IMM) has greatly accelerated in
recent years given the advancements in photogrammetry, computer vision and image
analysis, computer graphics, robotics, and laser scanning [36].
Two common ways to examine this literature include identifying ethical issues and
the problem areas and applications. Zlatanova et al. [37] examined 35 interlinked IMM
problems related to indoor map data acquisitions and sensors, data structures and mod-
elling, visualization, applications, and legal issues and standards in the form of a problem
matrix detailing existing and emerging problems, their solutions, and best practices. This
problem matrix framework is evaluated and updated yearly. Gunduz et al. [8] presented a
research review in the fields of information acquisition by sensors, model definition, model
integration, indoor positioning and LBS, routing and navigation methods, augmented and
virtual reality applications, and ethical issues. Based on their work, we focus on a survey
of indoor map data acquisition, modelling and presentation.
Indoor map data acquisition refers to the measurement techniques, sensors, media,
and platforms used to acquire raw data of indoor environments [37]. Based on the measure-
ment device configuration, commercial mobile indoor mapping systems can be classified
into different groups: handheld; backpack and trolley [38] in indoor environments or
human-based; wheel-based; boat-based; and sledge-based [39] in outdoor environments.
The sensors used for 2D/3D indoor environment mapping usually consist of light detec-
tion and ranging (LiDAR), terrestrial laser scanner, RGB-D camera, inertial measurement
units (IMUs), etc. Di Stefano et al. [39] present a comprehensive review of mobile laser
scanning systems applied in both outdoor and indoor environments, grouped into five
application domains: the built and urban environment, cultural heritage and archaeol-
ogy, the underground environment, environmental monitoring, forestry, and agriculture.
Virtanen et al. [40] present an approach for reconstruction of virtual indoor environments
based on photogrammetry/image, terrestrial laser scanning, and depth camera, integrated
with game engine to evaluate the quality and usability of geometric indoor models. Others
have presented methods for searching the optimum location of the terrestrial laser scanner
by using a genetic algorithm. For information acquisition of the environment based on mo-
bile mapping systems, usually one or more sensors are used [36]. Simultaneous localization
and mapping (SLAM) refers to building a map of the environment without any prior infor-
mation and based on the data obtained from one or more sensors; it has been shown by the
research community to be a robust technology for indoor mapping. Lluvia et al. [12] present
a survey of major active SLAM methods as they relate to the robots used, the sensor from
which the information is gathered, how the world is represented, the core concept of the
contribution, the optimization objective, and where the test was performed. Chen et al. [41]
present an accuracy comparison among three different SLAM-based mapping systems:
Matterport, SLAMMER, and NAVIS in two different indoor scenes (an L-shaped corridor
and an open style library). The results indicate SLAM-based indoor mapping systems
with accurate LiDAR sensors can offer centimeter mapping accuracy in complex indoor
environments. Point clouds acquired by laser scanners, depth cameras, and other sensors
are a useful data source for the generation of 3D indoor models. Wu et al. [42] present
a deep learning approach to automatically generate indoor spatial data by parsing floor
plans, which is time-saving and relatively low cost.
Indoor modelling refers to the process supported by various tools and technologies
involving the generation and the management of digital representations of the physical
and the functional characteristics of indoor spaces; indoor maps can be regarded as the
output of indoor surveying; and modelling and representation are the foundation of most
indoor-based applications. Thereby, with the rapid development of smart cities, digital
twins, and the metaverse, there is an increasing need for accurate and up-to-date spatial
information and 3D building models of indoor environments. Recently, the ISPRS Working
Group IV/5 initiated a benchmark standard on indoor modelling to evaluate and to
document the performance of indoor modelling methods. The results are based on six-point
cloud datasets for different indoor environments as captured by different sensors. Eleven
submitted models are analyzed in [43]. Early surveys on indoor spatial models was done
in [44], which from a context-aware perspective introduced cell-based, boundary-based, set-
based, and graph-based models based on the requirements of localization, context-aware
and adaptive navigation, location-aware communication, activity-oriented interactions,
and spatial and behavioral analyses, as well as other efficiency-related requirements. As
expected, hybrid spatial models that integrate different coexistent indoor space models
combine the advantages of different models and thus effectively fulfill context-aware
application requirements. Geographic information systems (GIS), which is designed to
acquire, organize, manage, analyze, and visualize spatial data, can undoubtedly be used
to study indoor modelling [9]. As well as visualization, indoor cartography or indoor
map representation provide abstractions of the physical spaces based on indoor modelling
and applications. A systematic review focused on the utilization of GIS in the analysis of
indoor spaces was presented in [45]. Building information modeling (BIM), which aims
to develop a methodology to manage essential building design and project data in digital
format throughout the building’s life-cycle [46], and 3D city models, which aim to represent
urban environments with three-dimensional geometries of buildings and structures [47],
are widely extended to indoor space modelling [48–51]. Recently, indoor space modelling
has benefited from augmented reality (AR) technologies for indoor scenes; and, the use
of AR devices, such as the Microsoft HoloLens, now enhances the indoor navigation
experience [52,53].
With the development of IMM technologies and data quality improvement, for now, in-
door mapping and modelling solutions are experiencing a real revolution, thus many model-
ing standards and file formats, such as IFC, MDR, CityGML, and IndoorGML emerged [54].
We will further discuss these modelling standards later.
2.3. Standards for Indoor Positioning, Mapping and Navigation

In this sub-section, we will introduce a series of standards for indoor positioning, and
navigation and mapping, including the International Organization for Standardization and
the International Electrotechnical Commission (ISO/IEC) Information technology—Real
Time Locating Systems (RTLS), ISO Technical Committee (TC) 204 Intelligent Transport
System (ITS), IEEE standard for robot Map Data Representation (MDR), ISO TC211 Geo-
graphic Information standards, Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) standards for spatial
data encoding and exchanging, and Industrial Foundation Classes (IFC) of buildingSmart.
2.3.1. ISO/IEC RTLS

The RTLS are systems with the ability to locate the position of a device anywhere
in a defined space at any time. There are many situations and applications calling for
RTLS. Rácz-Szabó et al. [55] provided a comprehensive overview of the application and the
development possibilities of RTLS in the manufacturing field.
The ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 31 (Joint Technical Committee 1, Information Technology
Subcommittee) developed a series of international standards in the field of automatic
identification and data capture techniques, including ISO/IEC 24730, ISO/IEC 24769,
ISO/IEC 24770 and ISO/IEC 18305.
Standard ISO/IEC 24730 defines a single application programming interface (API)
and three air interface protocols for RTLS. Standard ISO/IEC 24730-1:2014 [56] provides
an API which defines a boundary across which application software uses the facilities of
programming languages to collect information contained in RTLS tag blinks received by
the RTLS infrastructure and enables software applications to utilize a RTLS infrastructure
to locate assets with RTLS transmitters attached to them. The other three air interface
protocols are:
1. Based on a direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), ISO/IEC 24730-2 defines a
networked location system that provides X-Y coordinates and data telemetry, and
it is comprised of this main document [57] and two additional components, that
is ISO/IEC 24730-21:2012 [58], which specifies transmitters operating with a single
spread code and employing a differential binary phase shift keying (DBPSK) data
encoding and binary phase shift keying (BPSK) spreading scheme and ISO/IEC 24730-
22:2012 [59], which specifies the air interface for a system that locates an asset in a
controlled area.
2. Standard ISO/IEC 24730-5 [60], based on a chirp spread spectrum (CSS) technique,
defines an air interface protocol which utilizes CSS at frequencies from 2.4 GHz to
2.483 GHz. This protocol supports bidirectional communication and two-way ranging
between the readers and tags of an RTLS.
3. The ISO/IEC 24730-6 UWB air interface protocol is also comprised of two parts:
ISO/IEC 24730-61:2013 [61] defines the physical layer (PHY) and tag management
layer (TML) of an UWB air interface protocol that supports one directional simplex
communication readers and tags of an RTLS that operate within the 6~10.6 GHz
unlicensed band; and ISO/IEC 24730-62:2013 [62] defines the air-interface for RTLS
using a physical layer UWB signaling mechanism (based on IEEE 802.15.4a UWB)
with high rate pulse repetition frequencies (PRF) of 16 MHz or 64 MHz.
Device conformance test methods are specified in ISO/IEC 24769, which consists of
four parts, namely ISO/IEC 24769-2:2013 [63], ISO/IEC 24769-5:2012 [64], ISO/IEC 24769-
61:2015 [65], and ISO/IEC 24769-62:2015 [66]. These standards contain the measurements
required to be made on a product to establish whether it conforms to the corresponding
part of ISO/IEC 24730, and to define the test methods for determining the conformance of
RTLS tags or/and readers with the specifications given in the corresponding subclauses of
ISO/IEC 24730-2, ISO/IEC 24730-5, ISO/IEC 24730-61, and ISO/IEC 24730-62, respectively.
Test methods for measuring the performance of equipment compliant with ISO/IEC
24730 are specified by ISO/IEC 24770, which correspondingly consists of four parts, namely
ISO/IEC 24770:2012 [67], ISO/IEC 24770-5 [68], ISO/IEC 24770-61:2015 [69], and ISO/IEC
24770-62:2015 [70]. These standards define the test methods measuring the performance
of equipment compliant with ISO/IEC 24730-2, ISO/IEC 24730-5, ISO/IEC 24730-6, and
ISO/IEC 24730-62, respectively.
On the other hand, ISO/IEC 18305:2016 [71] provides a standard methodology for
evaluating indoor localization systems and detailed test and evaluation procedures, per-
formance metrics, and scenarios for localization and tracking systems. Potorti et al. [72]
gave detailed comments on different scenarios for performing tests, the overall framework,
common evaluation criteria, standardized methodologies, test and evaluation procedures,
and performance metrics. The authors also analyzed compliance with the standard of IPIN
and Microsoft indoor localization competitions.
2.3.2. ISO TC204 ITS

According to Mordor Intelligence [73], ITS is the application of sensing, analysis,
control, and communications technologies in transportation in order to improve safety,
mobility, and efficiency, and it refers to the advanced technologies that are being applied
to vehicles, infrastructure, and operating systems, which make the vehicles intelligent.
The intelligent transport systems market was valued at USD 22.88 billion in 2020, and it
is expected to reach a value of USD 30.65 billion by 2026, at a CAGR of 5.11% over the
forecast period (2021–2026) [73]. Thus, many ITS standards were developed by SDOs to
satisfy the fast-growing ITS application and service requirements. Early in 2000, the Joint
Program Office (JPO) of the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) asked the National
Research Council’s (NRC’s) Transportation Research Board to undertake a review of JPO’s
ITS Standards Program [74] and the reviewers presented their views and shared their
experiences with the ITS Standards Program.
Since ITS is a very complicated ecosystem that comprises humans, vehicles, and the
backbone network, many standardization bodies are continuously working on the devel-
opment of standards and protocols that define how ITS components must communicate
with one another [75]. Williams [76] presented a detailed list of ITS standards that were
developed before 2008, and his book can be used as a reference of standards in the ITS
sector. Nevertheless, none of standards in the list was intended for the indoor space. With
the spread of mobile devices such as smart phones, and consequently the massive demands
of various indoor navigation-based applications, several indoor navigation standards for
ITS have been published, including ISO 17438.
The ISO 17438 standard provided the documents and the references required to
support the implementation of indoor navigation, consisting of four parts under the general
title Intelligent transport systems—Indoor navigation for personal and vehicle ITS station.
The ISO 17438 Part 1 standard [77] specified the indoor navigation system architecture,
use cases, and requirements in providing indoor navigation to various types of users.
The architecture follows the existing ITS communication architecture with four additional
components. The indoor data server component generates and provides indoor map
data and indoor positioning reference data, the indoor data server registry component
in the central ITS station manages metadata for indoor map data; the indoor positioning
infrastructure component facilitates indoor localization; and the indoor navigation function
module component in the P/V ITS station provides navigation functionality. Applications
supporting indoor navigation for personal and vehicle ITS stations need to obtain indoor
map data and positioning reference data.
Parts 2 and 3 of ISO 17438 are under development. Part 2 is planned to specify require-
ments and specification for indoor map data format and Part 3 is to specify requirements
and specification for indoor positioning references data format. Part 4 of ISO 17438 [13] de-
fined use cases, requirements, and message specifications for supporting indoor navigation
in intelligent transport systems.
Besides ISO 17438, several ITS standards can also be used as a reference for indoor nav-
igation applications and services. The ISO 17267:2009 standard [78] specified an application
programming interface (API) for ITS navigation, including a set of function calls, access
interface, the data that may be retrieved from the map database, and application examples.
The ISO 14825:2011 standard [79], which specified the conceptual and logical data model
and physical encoding formats for geographic databases for ITS applications and services,
has been replaced by ISO 20524-1:2020 [80] and ISO 20524-2:2020 [81]. The GDF5.1 is an
evolution of GDF5.0 that introduces the concept of sharable features, cooperative ITS and
public transport. The data model and encoding formats may be adapted for indoor map
data representation.
2.3.3. OGC CityGML and IndoorGML

In the last decades, 3D city models have been used in dozens of application domains
for diverse purposes, such as urban planning, facility management, 3D cadaster, energy
demand estimation, aiding positioning and navigation, and emergency response, etc. [47].
CityGML is an open encoding standard of the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) for
representation, storage, and exchange of semantic 3D city models based on the Geography
Markup Language version 3.1.1 (GML3) [82]. Over a decade of development, CityGML is
generally considered as the most internationally widespread open reference standard for
3D city model management, storage, and exchange, partly because of its characteristics,
such as [82]:
• Modularization
The CityGML data model is thematically decomposed into a core module and thematic
extension modules. The core module comprises the basic concepts and components of
the CityGML data model, and based on the core module, each extension covers a specific
thematic field of virtual 3D city models. CityGML 2.0 introduces 13 thematic extension
modules, i.e., Appearance, Bridge, Building, CityFurniture, CityObjectGroup, Generics,
LandUse, Relief, Transportation, Tunnel, Vegetation, WaterBody, and TexturedSurface.
These modules contain one or more classes representing specific types of objects, and the
most used module in practice is the Building module [83].
• Application Domain Extensions (ADE)
Even though CityGML modularization provide a mechanism to extend core module,
the advent of dozens of applications still requires some additional information that is not
readily available in the CityGML data model, but it is beyond the scope of current standard
version. Thereby, one of the significant requirements is to specify extensions to the existing
CityGML data model. Basically, there are two ways to support augmenting the CityGML
data model: through extending generic objects and attributes, and mainly using the ADE
mechanism [84]. The ADE mechanism is orthogonally aligned with the modularization
approach in CityGML, but it has to be defined in an extra XML schema definition file
with its own namespace. Two examples for ADEs (i.e., Noise Immission Simulation and
Ubiquitous Network) are included in the CityGML 2.0 standard [82]. Biljecki et al. [84]
presented a survey of many more ADEs developed for a variety of purposes.
• Multi-scale modelling
CityGML supports five different levels of detail (LOD), that is, level LOD0 is es-
sentially 2.5D Digital Terrain Model (DTM) over which an aerial image or a map may
be draped; LOD1 is the well-known block model comprising prismatic buildings with
flat roof structures; building in LOD2 has differentiated roof structures and thematically
differentiated boundary surfaces; LOD3 denotes architectural models with detailed wall
and roof structures potentially including doors and windows; while, LOD4 completes a
LOD3 model by adding interior structures (for example, rooms, interior doors, stairs, and
furniture) for buildings [82]. Each object in CityGML can have a different representation for
every LOD, thus making possible efficient visualization and data analysis to meet different
application requirements.
• Other characteristics
Other characteristics of CityGML are introduced in [82], including coherent semantical-
geometrical modelling, closure surfaces, Terrain Intersection Curve (TIC), code lists for
enumerative attributes, external references, city object groups, appearances, prototypic ob-
jects/scene graph concepts, and generic city objects and attributes. For example, semantical-
geometrical modelling is one of the most important design principles for CityGML as
real-world entities are represented by features with geometry and attributes, as well as
relations and aggregation hierarchies between features.
Although the CityGML LoD 4 is capable of describing indoor objects such as ceilings,
windows, doors, furniture, etc., and indoor ADE can include indoor space features and
indoor facility features for indoor facility management [85], the OGC IndoorGML standard
aims to support location-based services for indoor navigation; however, CityGML has
some missing elements for indoor applications, particularly indoor navigation. In this
respect, indoorGML is a complementary standard to CityGML, KML, and IFC [86]. Based
on GML 3.2.1, IndoorGML provides a cellular and structured space model, which supports
semantic, geometric, topological, and multi-layered representation of indoor environments.
While the basic concepts of IndoorGML are discussed in detail in [87,88], Ryoo et al. [11]
presented a comparison between CityGML and IndoorGML; and, Kim et al. [89] discussed
the issues on the integration of IndoorGML and CityGML LoD 4 by two methods: automatic
derivation of IndoorGML data from CityGML LoD 4 data set and external references from
IndoorGML instance to an object in CityGML data. Future changes and improvements are
being considered in the IndoorGML2.0 standard proposal [90].
2.3.4. IEEE MDR

The requirements raised by robot navigation tasks in 2D indoor and outdoor environ-
ments may include: map quality in terms of metric accuracy, probabilistic behavior of robot
navigation, and capability of handling metric and topological maps [91]. In order to satisfy
robot navigation requirements, the IEEE Robotics & Automation Society (RAS) developed
a standard for Robot Map Data Representation (MDR) for navigation, which specified data
models and data formats for two-dimensional (2D) metric and topological maps.
The IEEE 1873–2015 standard defines a global map concept, considered as a tree
consisting of a collection of 2D local maps. The local map, which is either a metric or a
topological map, is represented by nodes and arcs, where nodes represent local maps and
arcs represent the relations (for example, transformation of coordinate system) between
two local maps. A metric map may contain grid maps and geometric maps, where a grid
map decomposes the representation of an environment into square cells that constitute
atomic pieces of information, and a geometric map comprises a list of continuous geometric
features. A topological map represents an environment in the form of a graph consisting
of a set of nodes and edges connecting them [92]. This standard also specifies the XML
implementation according to this data model. More information about the XML data format
in practice can be found in [91,92].
2.3.5. IFC of BuildingSMART

The Industry Foundation Classes (IFC), originally the buildingSMART open standard
for BIM, has been adapted as the ISO 16739 international standard (ISO 16739-1:2018 [93]),
which specifies a data schema (represented as an EXPRESS schema) and an exchange file
format structure. The exchange format consists of definitions that are required during the
life cycle phases of buildings and that are required by the various disciplines involved
within the life cycle phases. The IFC includes several hundred entity classes in an entity-
relationship model, which supports the semantic description and geometric representation
of typical construction elements and their relationships.
Supported by the GeoBIM benchmark project, Noardo et al. [94] presented a specific
study of the interoperability of the IFC standard, testing 33 software packages that support
the IFC and focusing on the themes of georeferencing, semantics, and geometry. The general
functionalities include visualization, editing, query, analysis, and export possibilities, and
so on. However, the authors did not comment on the applicability of the IFC standard for
indoor map representation and navigation. Liu et al. [49], however, presented a survey
of indoor navigation approaches, applications, and solutions supported by IFC. These
survey results indicate that the most active research direction is to generate the navigation
models from IFC data. Another group of researchers have investigated the transformation
from IFC to other different data models and their integrations. For example, Lim et al. [95]
presented a graph transformation approach from IFC to CityGML, Linet al. [96] introduced
a method to cope with path planning for 3D indoor space through an IFC file as input, and
Gilbert et al. [97] discussed some of the problems that occur when integrating three built
environment standards: CityGML, IFC, and LandInfra.
2.3.6. Other Standards and Formats

Besides these standards for indoor positioning, mapping, and navigation, several other
standards and formats are also relevant to indoor applications, including the OGC Land
and Infrastructure standard (LandInfra) aimed at land and civil engineering infrastructure
facilities representation [98]; the green building data model (gbXML) (https://www.gbxml.
org, accessed on 3 March 2022) aimed at the representation of buildings for energy analysis;
the Indoor Map Data Format (IMDF), published by Apple and OGC, that provides the
definitions of selected indoor feature types and certain venue types such as airports, malls,
and train station based on GeoJSON [99]; the OSM for indoor environments [100], and
so on.
Hopefully, a group of ISO TC211 Geographic Information standards, which specify
methods, tools, and services for geographic data management, acquisition, processing,
analysis, access, and presenting and transferring geographic information between differ-
ent users, systems and locations, may be extended and utilized in indoor environments,
for example:
• ISO 19116:2019 Positioning services, which specifies the data structures and contents
of an interface between position-providing device(s) and position-using devices(s) so
that position information can be interpreted unambiguously.
• ISO 19133:2005 LBS—Tracking and navigation, which describes the data types, and
operations associated with those types, for the implementation of tracking and naviga-
tion services.
• ISO 19134:2007 LBS—Multimodal routing and navigation, which specifies the data
types and their associated operations for the implementation of multimodal location-
based services for routing and navigation.
• ISO 19147:2015 Transfer Nodes, which specifies the data types and code lists associ-
ated with those types for the implementation of transfer nodes and their services in
transport modelling and location-based services.
3. Requirements and Architecture of IPMN Standards System

Although research on indoor positioning, mapping, and navigation show great ad-
vances over the past two decades, as observed from literature, there are still several technical
and non-technical challenges in the development of LBS, including indoor positioning,
availability of indoor maps, and location privacy [4]. In terms of positioning technolo-
gies, reliable, accurate, inexpensive, seamless, indoor/outdoor positioning is needed for
many LBS applications, particularly concerning safety and security applications, which
are potentially life-saving such as emergency services. For indoor maps, issues such as the
complexity for modeling and analysis, contextual information inference, data storage, and
streaming, together with privacy concerns comprise quite a challenge considering map
coverage and availability of the content [4].
The biggest challenge is lack of standardization [5], even though several IPMN stan-
dards have been published, as mentioned previously. In particular, there is no standard that
can serve as a guide for designing localization and proximity techniques [5]. Current IPMN
standards have been developed by various SDOs for specific purposes; for example, ISO
17438—developed by ISO Technical Committee (TC) 204—identifies the requirements and
use cases for ITS navigation, and they do not specify either indoor positioning technologies
and reference data or indoor map formats. Furthermore, the requirements and use cases
may vary from one application (for example, safety and security applications) to another
(for example, ITS or assets management).
From the perspective of IPMN standards and system theory, this paper focuses on the
re-thinking of the IPMN standards system. First of all, we need to study the basic informa-
tion theories, concepts, and models behind the existing and emerging IPMN technologies,
asking for instance, such as what is the underlying theory of IPMN? Secondly, from the
viewpoint of engineering, can current technologies, standards and systems meet the re-
quirements of most applications? And finally, what can we do to tackle the IPMN problem
in the coming years? Therefore, regarding the whole process of IPMN, which includes
positioning equipment deployment, indoor map data acquisition and organization, indoor
and outdoor seamless positioning and navigation services, and testing and evaluation, we
summarize the IPMN requirements as follows.
1. Positioning device deployment. Indoor positioning technology can be divided as
one requiring external equipment and the other, device-free. When utilizing ex-
ternal equipment, such as WIFI, as positioning method, deployment of equipment
in indoor scene is needed in advance. Standardization in this stage is required in
choosing a deployment method and the equipment and testing method suitable for
indoor environments.
2. Indoor map data acquisition and organization. Indoor positioning cannot be separated
from the visualization of indoor scenes. First, indoor map data models must be
built to express indoor scenes explicitly. Second, standards for data acquisition
and organization are required because indoor maps are usually limited by wireless
network transmission rates and mobile network terminal resolution. In addition, map
visualization of large-scale indoor spaces should consider the expression of symbols,
color, and semantic information, which also needs relevant standards.
3. Seamless indoor and outdoor positioning and navigation services. In large-scale appli-
cations, only indoor positioning is not of practical significance. When the environment
of pedestrians switches from indoors to outdoors, the corresponding location method,
map data, and coordinate system should be switched accordingly, meaning that there
must be provision of standards for these transformations. For the final development of
an integrated multi-mode indoor positioning systems, software and related protocol
standards are required. To achieve navigation, standards for navigation models are
a requirement.
4. Testing and evaluation. The last stage is testing and evaluating accuracy and cost of
positioning technologies. A consistency test is also required for software development.
Both of the tests should have standards as guidance.
Based on these considerations, in this paper, we propose a standard system architec-
ture, composed of four layers: the basic general layer, the data layer, the application layer,
and the environment and software layer. As shown in Figure 2, the general class includes
terms, pattern language, reference models, coordinate reference system, and consistency
test. The data sources class includes metadata, indoor map data acquisition, data models,
resource catalog, database building and updating. the application service class includes
information transmission and exchange, visualization, SDK interface, services, and prod-
ucts. The environment and tools class includes deployment of positioning infrastructure
and software. The standard system will intersect, coordinate, and share with other related
standard systems, such as RTLS, surveying and mapping geographic information standards
and smart city standards.
Standards 2022, 2, FOR PEER REVIEW 14
products. The environment and tools class includes deployment of positioning infrastruc-
Standards 2022, 2 ture and software. The standard system will intersect, coordinate, and share with other
170
related standard systems, such as RTLS, surveying and mapping geographic information
standards and smart city standards.
intersect, RTLS
IPN standards system coordinate, share
surveying and
mapping geographic
information standards
smart city standards
Data sources Application Environment

General class
class service class and tools class
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indoor map data
terms transmission positioning
acquisition
and exchange infrastructure
models metadata visualization software
resource
pattern language SDK interface ……
catalog
database
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building and
reference system products
updating
consistency test …… ……
……
Figure2.2.Standard
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information
informationstandards,
standards,detailed
detailedininSection
Section4.4.
4.4.Our
OurResearch
Researchon onIPMN
IPMNStandards
Standards
Although
Although there are IPMNstandards
there are IPMN standardsdeveloped
developedby bydifferent
differentSDOs,
SDOs,thethenew
newindoor
indoor
positioning, mapping, and navigation technologies, such as 5G, IoT, smart
positioning, mapping, and navigation technologies, such as 5G, IoT, smart cities and cities and digital
dig-
twins, IPS is continuously evolving. Our work was focused on the indoor intelligent
ital twins, IPS is continuously evolving. Our work was focused on the indoor intelligent hybrid
positioning and GIS and
hybrid positioning technology with high
GIS technology availability
with and accuracy
high availability project, project,
and accuracy which began
which
inbegan
the year of 2016 and it is supported by the National Key Research and Development
in the year of 2016 and it is supported by the National Key Research and Develop-
Program of China.
ment Program The goal
of China. of our
The goal research
of our is tois design
research to designa hybrid
a hybridindoor
indoorpositioning
positioning
system
system architecture, develop IPMN standards, and integrate various indoorpositioning
architecture, develop IPMN standards, and integrate various indoor positioning
technologies and GIS.
technologies and GIS.
4.1. Hybrid Indoor Positioning System Architecture
Our IPMN system architecture, as shown in Figure 3, is very similar to the indoor
navigation architecture for ITS. Typically, an IPMN system contains a backend layer, which
represents different servers in the cloud computing environment, and a client layer, which
represents the applications for smartphones or mobile robotic devices. Large data, such as
static indoor map data, positioning fingerprints database, containing all kinds of informa-
which represents the applications for smartphones or mobile robotic devices. Large data,
such as static indoor map data, positioning fingerprints database, containing all kinds of
information (sensors, energy efficiency, etc.) about smartphones, and so on, should be
stored on the backend side and should be updated frequently. The client can download
Standards 2022, 2 needed data when it generates coordinates or runs a path-finding algorithm using various 171
positioning and GIS technologies. Sometimes, a client needs to update the device location
to the server for monitoring or tracking services. The key characteristic of our architecture
is that the GIS technologies, and functionalities such as semantic analysis, are integrated
tion (sensors, energy efficiency, etc.) about smartphones, and so on, should be stored on
into the individual positioning technology for enhanced accuracy and reliable positioning.
the backend side and should be updated frequently. The client can download needed data
In this paper, we discussed the standards for the architecture. We classified the stand-
when it generates coordinates or runs a path-finding algorithm using various positioning
ards used in this architecture into three parts:
and GIS technologies. Sometimes, a client needs to update the device location to the server
1. Standards for
for monitoring or indoor map
tracking data. The key characteristic of our architecture is that the
services.
2.
GIS Standards for positioning
technologies, technologies.
and functionalities such as semantic analysis, are integrated into the
3. Standards for navigation service.
individual positioning technology for enhanced accuracy and reliable positioning.
Database of
3
fingerprints(RS Localization services Indoor map services
Database of Indoor map
SI, images,
smartphones data
magnetic Navigation/Tracking
1 field, etc.) services
Server in cloud computing
Download Update
Individual technolgies Localization,

Sensor data(Pose, Battery,…) Proximity,Direction
2
Environmental data(temperature, humidity, ...) High accuracy Low accuracy
Semantic map(GIS) Optimization
(UWB, Visual, (PDR, Wifi,
(Kalman filter,
Acoustic, …) Blueteeth, …)
Deep learning)
Smartphone/robotic devices
Figure 3. A GIS integrated hybrid indoor positioning system architecture.

Figure 3. A GIS integrated hybrid indoor positioning system architecture.
In
In the
thisfollowing
paper, we sub-section,
discussedwe thewill briefly discuss
standards for thesome standardsWe
architecture. used for our pro-
classified the
ject, including the:
standards used in this architecture into three parts:

1. Content
Standards model for indoor
for indoor mapmapping.
data.
2. DataStandards for positioning maps.
collection for indoor technologies.
3. GIS model for
Standards for navigation
indoor spatial data.
service.
 Indoor map symbols.
In the following sub-section, we will briefly discuss some standards used for our
 Specification for digital indoor map products.
project, including the:
 Multi-source fusion positioning data interfaces.
• Content model
Seamless for indoor
cooperative mapping.
positioning service interfaces.
• Data collection for indoor maps.
• Standards
4.2. GIS model forfor indoor
Indoor Map spatial
Data data.
• Indoor map symbols.
4.2.1. Content Model for Indoor Mapping
• Specification for digital indoor map products.
• High-accuracy
Multi-source fusion indoor map data data
positioning playsinterfaces.
an important role in the indoor navigation ap-
plications,
• Seamless cooperative positioning service interfaces.can use the semantic information
for example, some positioning technologies
from indoor maps to correct the accumulated location bias, so many standards have been
developed
4.2. Standardsto specify theMap
for Indoor mapData
data collection procedures and methods, data formats, data
models, representations
4.2.1. Content Model for and symbology,
Indoor Mapping web map services, etc. Indoor map data can be
High-accuracy indoor map data plays an important role in the indoor navigation
applications, for example, some positioning technologies can use the semantic information
from indoor maps to correct the accumulated location bias, so many standards have been
developed to specify the map data collection procedures and methods, data formats, data
models, representations and symbology, web map services, etc. Indoor map data can be
collected using SLAM, Lidar, traditional total station survey, or automatically produced
from CAD building drawings and floor plan images. However, we first need to determine
the elements that should be contained in the indoor map for a specific application. This
led to a standard entitled the “content model for indoor mapping,” which specifies the
basic conceptual, content, and topological models for indoor mapping. The purpose
of this standard is to provide common understanding and sharing of indoor map data
collected using SLAM, Lidar, traditional total station survey, or automatically produced
from CAD building drawings and floor plan images. However, we first need to determine
the elements that should be contained in the indoor map for a specific application. This
Standards 2022, 2 led to a standard entitled the “content model for indoor mapping,” which specifies the 172
basic conceptual, content, and topological models for indoor mapping. The purpose of
this standard is to provide common understanding and sharing of indoor map data con-
tent for indoor
content mapmap
for indoor elements when
elements collecting
when data,data,
collecting creating database,
creating and modeling
database, spa-
and modeling
tial relationships.
spatial relationships.
conceptualmodel
The conceptual modelforfor indoor
indoor mapping
mapping can becan be described
described by the
by the terms terms
Building-
BuildingComplex,
Complex, Building,Building, Floor,
Floor, Door, Door, UnitSpace,
UnitSpace, and Pathway,
and Pathway, as shownas in
shown in Figure
Figure 4.
4. Build-
BuildingComplex
ingComplex usuallyusually corresponds
corresponds to a largetoarea
a large area consisting
of interest, of interest, consisting of
of heterogeneous
heterogeneous
buildings. buildings.
The concept of The concept
building of building is straightforward
is straightforward and comprehensive.
and comprehensive.
BuildingComplex
1..*
Building Floor
1 1..*
1 1
1..* 1..*
Door UnitSpace
0..* 0..*
0..* 0..*
0..* 0..*
Pathw ay
(a) (b)
Figure 4. Conceptual model of indoor map. (a) elements and their relationships of indoor map, (b)
Figure 4. Conceptual model of indoor map. (a) elements and their relationships of indoor map, (b) an
an illustration of building element.
illustration of building element.
Based on
Based on the
the conceptual
conceptual model
model for
for indoor
indoor maps,
maps, the
the content
content model
model is given in
is given in the
the
form of UML, as in Figure 5, which specifies the content and mandatory attributes
form of UML, as in Figure 5, which specifies the content and mandatory attributes required re-
quired to describe an element in a building. However, the basic information may
to describe an element in a building. However, the basic information may be inadequate be inad-
equate
for fornavigation
some some navigation or tracking
or tracking applications.
applications. Undercircumstances,
Under these these circumstances,
users can users can
extend
extend the content model, for example, a navigation information model can
the content model, for example, a navigation information model can be derived from be derived
from navigation
navigation application
application scenarios,
scenarios, as shown
as shown in Figure
in Figure 6. 6.
Some specifications matching the content model were also developed in our project,
including (1) specification for data collection of indoor maps—Part1: floor plan, (2) specifi-
cation for GIS model of indoor spatial data, (3) indoor map symbols for general geospatial
elements, and (4) technical specifications for digital indoor map production.
4.2.2. Data Collection for Indoor Maps

Several methods, such as SLAM, Lidar, and traditional total station surveys can be
used for data collection of indoor maps. Indoor maps can also be produced automatically
at low cost by extracting indoor elements from the existing floor plans, which are usually
in the format of CAD drawings. This specification presents a procedure and detailed
techniques to obtain digital indoor maps from existing floor plan, as shown in Figure 7.
Standards 2022, 2, FOR PEER REVIEW
«CodeList» BuildingComplex
BuildingComplexTypeCode
+ name: string [1..*]
+ ForOffice + description: string
+ ForCommercial + address: string
+ ForEntertainment + type: BuildingComplexTypeCode
+ ForEducation + buildingCount: int
+ ForResidentical + origin: PointCoordinate
+ ForTransportation
+ Other
1..*
Building «DataType»
Floor PointCoordinate
+ name: string [0..*] + description: string [0..*] + x: double
1..*
+ floorNo: string + overGroundFloorCount: int = 1 + y: double
+ description: string [0..1] + underGroundFloorCount: int [0..1] + z: double
1..*
1..*
0..*
UnitSpace «CodeList»
Door
UnitUsageCode
+ name: string
+ description: string [0..1] 0..* + Store
0..* + description: string [0..1]
+ location: PointCoordinate [0..1] + InformationCenter
+ location: PointCoordinate
+ usage: UnitUsageCode + Exhibition
0..* + ParkingPlace
0..*
0..* 0..*
Pathway «CodeList» «DataType»

PathwayTypeCode TrafficDirection
+ name: string [0..1]
+ pathwayType: PathwayTypeCode [0..1] + IndoorPathway + from: string
+ direction: TrafficDirection [0..1] + OutdoorPathwayWithSunshade + to: string
+ OutdoorPathwayWithoutSunshade
«ColdeList»
StairTypeCode
VerticalPathway «CodeList»
+ Elevator
ElevatorTypeCode
+ type: StairTypeCode + Escalator
+ location: PointCoordinate + PassengerElevator + Stairs
+ elevatorType: ElevatorTypeCode [0..1] + FreightElevator + MovingWalkingway
Figure
Figure 5. Content 5. of
model Content
indoormodel of indoor
map—Core map—Core
Information Information Model.
Model.
Standards 2022, 22, FOR PEER REVIEW
Standards 2022, 174
18
«DataType» BuildingComplex
RoutePoint
+ name: String + description: string [0..1]
Landmark
+ location: PointCoordinate + address: string [0..1]
+ name: string + fromPoint: PointCoordinate + type: BuildingComplexTypeCode [0..*]
+ location: PointCoordinate + toPoint: PointCoordinate + buildingNum: int
+ description: string [0..1] + IsVirtualPoint: boolean + origin: PointCoordinate
0..*
1..*
Building
POI
+ score: int [0..*] Floor + usage: string [1..*]
+ comments: string [0..*] 1..*
+ name: string [0..*] + overGroundFloorNum: int
+ description: string [0..1] + floorNo: float + underGroundFloorNum: int [0..1]
+ location: PointCoordinate [0..1]
0..* 0..*
1..*
UnitSpaceForNavigation UnitSpace
Door
+ beginDate: DateTime [0..1] + name: string [1..*]
+ location: PointCoordinate [0..1] + name: string [0..*]
+ endDate: DateTime [0..1] 0..*
+ description: string [0..1] 0..* + description: string [0..1]
+ routePoint: RoutePoint [0..*]
+ usage: UnitUsageCode + location: PointCoordinate
+ height: double [0..1]
1..*
0..*
0..* 1..*
DoorForNavigation
Pathway
+ hight: double [0..1]
+ name: string [0..1] + width: double [0..1]
+ pathwayType: PathwayTypeCode [0..1] + openPeriod: DateTime [0..*]
+ direction: TrafficDirection [0..1] + routePoint: RoutePoint [2]
+ accessRight: AccessibilityRightCode [0..1]
PathwayForNavigation VerticalPathway
+ availablePassing: AvailabilityTypeCode [0..1] + type: StairTypeCode
+ emergencyAccess: EmergencyAccessCode [0..1] + location: PointCoordinate
+ height: double [0..1] + elevatorType: ElevatorTypeCode [0..1]
+ width: double [0..1]
+ routePoint: RoutePoint [1..*]
«CodeList»
AvailabilityTypeCode «CodeList»
EmergencyAccessCode
+ Luggage «CodeList»
+ Normal + Not Clear AccessibilityRightCode
+ Stroller + EmergencyAndNormalAccess
+ Wheel + NormalAccess + NoLimitted
+ Visual Impaired + OnlyforEmergencyAccess + OnlyForStuff
Figure 6. Content model of indoor map—Navigation Information Model.

Figure 6. Content model of indoor map—Navigation Information Model.
Some specifications matching the content model were also developed in our project,
including (1) specification for data collection of indoor maps—Part1: floor plan, (2) speci-
fication for GIS model of indoor spatial data, (3) indoor map symbols for general geospa-
tial elements, and (4) technical specifications for digital indoor map production.
4.2.2. Data Collection for Indoor
4.2.2. Data Maps
Collection for Indoor Maps
Several methods, such as
Several SLAM,such
methods, Lidar,
as and traditional
SLAM, totaltraditional
Lidar, and station surveys can besurveys ca
total station
used for data collection
used for of indoor
data maps.ofIndoor
collection indoormaps
maps.can also be
Indoor produced
maps can alsoautomatically
be produced automati
Standards 2022, 2 at low cost by extracting
at low cost indoor elementsindoor
by extracting from the existing
elements floor
from theplans, which
existing floorare usually
plans, which
175 are us
in the format of in
CADthe drawings.
format of CADThis drawings.
specification presents
This a procedure
specification presentsand detailed tech-
a procedure and detailed
niques to obtainniques
digitaltoindoor
obtainmaps from
digital existing
indoor mapsfloor
fromplan, as shown
existing in Figure
floor plan, 7. in Figure 7.
as shown
Floor plan Floor plan CAD layer settingCAD layer settingEntities extraction and extraction and
Entities
Building
Building information modelinformation model
Elements filteringElements filteringgeometry processing
geometry processing
Check out and validate

Check out and validate Georeference
Georeference
Attributes editingAttributes editing
Indoor map data Indoor map data
Figure
Figure 7. Figure
7. Procedure
Procedure of 7. Procedure
of digitalizing
digitalizing of digitalizing
indoor
indoor map fromindoor
map from existedmap
existed from
floor
floor existed floor plan.
plan.
plan.
The key
The processThe
key process key process
in Figure in Figure
7 is entity
entity 7 is entity
extraction
extraction and extraction
andhandling and handling
handlingelement
element element
geometry
geometry withageometry
with
apriori a
prioriknowledge.priori
knowledge.Figureknowledge.
Figure8 8shows Figure
showssome 8 shows
someexamples some examples
examplesofofelement of
elementgeometry element geometry
geometryextraction.
extraction. extraction.
(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 8. Examples of element geometry extraction. (a) original floor plan, (b) door geomet
Figure 8. Examples of element
traction, geometry
(c) vertical extraction.
pathway geometry(a) extraction.
original floor plan, (b) door geometry ex-
Figure 8. Examples of element geometry extraction. (a) original floor plan, (b) door geometry
traction, (c) vertical pathway geometry extraction.
extraction, (c) vertical pathway geometry extraction.
This approach can quickly generate indoor maps in accordance with a content m
This approach canlow
at very quickly
cost,generate
especially indoor
in themaps in accordance
scenarios where indoor withsurveying
a content model
This approach can quickly generate indoor maps in accordance with a contentismodel
prohibited.
at very low cost, especially in the scenarios where indoor surveying is prohibited.
at very low cost, especially in the scenarios where indoor surveying is prohibited.
4.2.3. GIS Model for Indoor Spatial Data
4.2.3.
4.2.3. GIS
GISModel
Modelfor Indoor
IndoorSpatial
forAlthough Spatial Data
Data and spatial analysis are widely used in outdoor settings,
GIS models
Although GIS
Although GIS models
models
are some and spatial
foranalysis
and spatial
limitations analysis
indoor GIS are widely
aredue
widely used
used ininoutdoor
to complicated outdoor settings, there
settings,structures
and isomeric there of in
are some limitations
are some limitations for indoor
for indoor
elements. GIS due to complicated
GIS due to complicated
This specification and isomeric
and isomeric
frames the indoor structures
GIS model,structures
whichofof indoor
is indoor
somewhat diff
elements.
elements. This
Thisspecification
specification
from frames
the existing GISthe
frames the indoor
modelindoor GIS
GIS model,
in terms data which
model,
of which isis somewhat
organization,somewhat different
different
management, and repres
from
from the
the existing GISFigure
GIS
tion. model9in
model inshows
termsof
terms ofdata
the data
basic organization,
organization, management,
indoor GISmanagement,
model, whichand and representa-
representation.
mainly consists of three p
tion.
FigureFigure 9 shows
9 shows the
the basic
Firstly, basic
indoor
indoor indoor GISare
GIS model,
spatial data model,
which which
mainly
organized mainly
andconsists consists
managed of threeofparts.
threetoFirstly,
according parts.
the content m
Firstly, indoor spatial
indoor spatial dataeachare data
core are
organized organized
element is and and
managed
grouped managed
according
or classified according
to the
into to the
content
logical content
model,
layers. model,
each the
Secondly, coregeometry
each coreiselement
element grouped is or
grouped or classified
classified
resentation should into logical
support into logical
layers.
2D, layers.
3D Secondly,
2.5D,Secondly,
and the geometry
coordinates, theand
geometry
representationrep- time o
furthermore,
resentation
should supportshould2D, support
namic2.5D, and2D,
properties 3D2.5D, and 3Dshould
coordinates,
of elements coordinates,
and furthermore,andtime
be considered furthermore,
or dynamic
for time or dy-
properties
spatiotemporal analysis. In
namic properties
of elements should of elements
be considered shouldforbespatiotemporal
considered foranalysis.
spatiotemporal
Indoor analysis. Indoor
spatial data can
be stored, transferred or exchanged with MDR, Indoor GML, and other indoor map data
formats. Lastly, topological relationships can be derived from the geometry data or cached
for immediate pathway finding. From an overall view, this GIS model for indoor spatial
data conforms with those for outdoor data, however, the existing commercial or open-
source GIS software hardly supports indoor spatial data.
Standards
Standards2022,
Standards 2022,2,
2022, 2,FOR
2, FORPEER
FOR PEERREVIEW
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 20
20
20
spatial data can be stored, transferred or exchanged with MDR, Indoor GML, and other
spatial
spatial data
data can
can be
be stored,
stored, transferred
transferred or
or exchanged
exchanged with
with MDR,
MDR, Indoor
Indoor GML,
GML, andand other
other
indoor map data formats. Lastly, topological relationships can be derived from the geom-
indoor
indoor map
map data
data formats.
formats. Lastly,
Lastly, topological
topological relationships
relationships can
can be
be derived
derived from
from the
the geom-
geom-
Standards 2022, 2 etry data or cached for immediate pathway finding. From an overall view, this GIS model 176
etry
etry data
data or
or cached
cached for
for immediate
immediate pathway
pathway finding.
finding. From
From an
an overall
overall view,
view, this
this GIS
GIS model
model
for indoor spatial data conforms with those for outdoor data, however, the existing com-
for
for indoor
indoor spatial
spatial data
data conforms
conforms with
with those
those for
for outdoor
outdoor data,
data, however,
however, the
the existing
existing com-
com-
mercial or open-source GIS software hardly supports indoor spatial data.
mercial or open-source GIS software hardly supports indoor spatial
mercial or open-source GIS software hardly supports indoor spatial data. data.
Indoor environment LBS applications
Indoor
Indoorenvironment
Indoor
Indoor environment
environment
environment LBS
LBSapplications
LBS
LBS applications
applications
applications
GIS enhanced Indoor Monitoring/tra
Shopping mall Airport Smart home …… GIS enhanced Indoor Monitoring/tra ……
Shopping …… positioning
GIS
GIS
GIS enhanced
enhanced
enhanced navigation
Indoor
Indoor
Indoor cking
Monitoring/tra
Monitoring/tra
Monitoring/tra ……
Shoppingmall
Shopping
Shopping mall
mall
mall Airport
Airport
Airport
Airport Smart
Smarthome
Smart
Smart home
home
home ……
……
…… positioning
positioning navigation
navigation cking
cking
……
……
……
positioning
positioning navigation
navigation cking
cking
Elements/Entities/Features/Layers Geometry representation Topology representation

Elements/Entities/Features/Layers Geometry Topology
Topologyrepresentation
Elements/Entities/Features/Layers
Elements/Entities/Features/Layers
Elements/Entities/Features/Layers Geometryrepresentation
Geometry
Geometry representation
representation
representation Topology
Topology representation
representation
representation
Content model
(core elements)
Content
Content
Content
Content model
model
model
model
(core
(coreelements)
(core
(core elements)
elements)
elements)
2D 2.5D 3D
2D
2D
2D
2D 2.5D
2.5D
2.5D
2.5D 3D
3D
3D
3D
Building Path network (2D)
Building Path
Building
Building
Building Pathnetwork
Path
Path network(2D)
network
network (2D)
(2D)
(2D)
Floor
Floor
Floor
Floor
Floor
UnitSpace
UnitSpace
UnitSpace
UnitSpace
UnitSpace
ConnectionPoint GML/CityGML/IndoorGML/gbXML
ConnectionPoint GML/CityGML/IndoorGML/gbXML
GML/CityGML/IndoorGML/gbXML
GML/CityGML/IndoorGML/gbXML
GML/CityGML/IndoorGML/gbXML Path network (2.5D)
ConnectionPoint
ConnectionPoint
ConnectionPoint
Path
Pathnetwork
Path
Path network(2.5D)
network
network (2.5D)
(2.5D)
(2.5D)
Boundary
Boundary
Boundary
Boundary
Boundary
Pathway
Pathway
Pathway
Pathway
Pathway
BIM/IFC/MDR/GeoJSON/WKB
……
BIM/IFC/MDR/GeoJSON/WKB Grid map Semantic map
……
……
……
……
Grid
Gridmap
Grid
Grid map
map
map Semantic
Semanticmap
Semantic
Semantic map
map
map
IPMN Standards
IPMN
IPMNStandards
IPMN Standards
Standards
Figure 9. GIS model of indoor spatial data.

Figure
Figure 9.
Figure 9. GIS
9. GISmodel
GIS model of
model of indoor
of indoor spatial
indoor spatial data.
spatial data.
data.
4.2.4. Indoor
4.2.4. Indoor Map
Map Symbols
Symbols
4.2.4.
4.2.4. Indoor
Indoor Map
Map Symbols
Symbols
This
This specification
specification providessymbols,
symbols,labels,
labels, styles and rules used for indoor maps,
This specificationprovides
This specification provides
provides symbols,
symbols, labels, styles
labels, and
styles
styles rules
and
and used
rules
rules for for
used
used indoor maps,
for indoor
indoor and
maps,
maps,
and easily
easily understood.
understood. So, So,merely
we we merely
list list some
some symbols
symbols in in Table
Table 1. 1.
and
and easily
easily understood.
understood. So,
So, we
we merely
merely list
list some
some symbols
symbols in in Table
Table 1.
1.
Table 1.
Table 1. Examples
Examples of
of indoor
indoor map
map symbols.
symbols.
Table
Table 1.
1. Examples
Examples of
of indoor
indoor map
map symbols.
symbols.
Code
Code
Name
Name
Symbol
Symbol
Code
Code Name
Name Symbol
Symbol
A.1.1 exit
A.1.1
A.1.1
A.1.1 exit
exit
exit
A.1.4 stair
A.1.4
A.1.4
A.1.4 stair
stair
stair
A.1.5 elevator
A.1.5
A.1.5
A.1.5 elevator
elevator
elevator
A.1.6 escalator
A.1.6
A.1.6
A.1.6 escalator
escalator
escalator
Standards
Standards2022,
2022,2,2,FOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 2121
Table 1. Cont.
Code Name Symbol
A.2.5
A.2.5
A.2.5 parking
parking
parking
A.4.1.3
A.4.1.3
A.4.1.3 ATM
ATM
ATM
4.2.5. Specification
4.2.5.Specification
4.2.5. for
Specificationfor Digital
forDigital Indoor
DigitalIndoor Map
IndoorMap Products
MapProducts
Products
This
This specification
Thisspecification
specification determines
determines
determines how
how
how indoor
indoor
indoor maps
maps cancan
maps canbecome
become
become authorized
authorized
authorized digital
digital
digital in-
in-
indoor
door
door map
map production,
production, public
public or
orgovernment
government assets.
assets.It
Itspecifies
specifiesthe
thebasic
basicrequirements
requirements
map production, public or government assets. It specifies the basic requirements for indoor for
for
indoor
indoor
map map
mapproducts,
products, just likejust
products, justlike
liketraditional
digitaldigital
traditional
traditional digitaloutdoor
outdoor outdoor map
mapproducts,
map products, products,
such assuch
suchasasDigital
Digital Digital
Line
Line Graphic
Line Graphic
Graphic (DLG)
(DLG)(DLG) products.
products.
products.
4.3.
4.3.Multi-Source
Multi-SourceFusion
FusionPositioning
PositioningDataDataInterface
Interface
Interface
This kind of standard specifies
specifies the datainterface
This kind of standardspecifies the data interfaceamong
amongpositioning
positioningengines.
positioning engines.Usually,
engines. Usually,
Usually,
there are
thereare two
aretwo kindsofof
twokinds ofpositioning
positioning
positioning engines,
engines,
engines, one
oneone is
thethe
isisthe mainmain
main engine,
engine,
engine, which
whichwhich integrates
integrates
integratesposi-
posi-
positioning
tioning results
tioningresults
resultsfromfrom
from different
different
different technologies,
technologies,
technologies, andandthe
and theothers
the othersare
others are called
arecalled sub-engines.
sub-engines.Each
calledsub-engines. Each
sub-engine
sub-engineinvolves
involvestypically
involves typicallyan
typically ananindividual
individualtechnology,
individual technology,as
technology, illustrated
asasillustrated
illustratedin Figure
ininFigure10.
Figure10.
10.
Sub
SubEngine
Engine
Technology
Technology1 1
Positioning
Positioning Positioning
Positioning Positioning
Positioning
Client
Client Fusion
Fusion Engine
Engine
Technology
Technology2 2
Response
Response Technology
TechnologyN N
Figure
Figure10.
10.Multi-source
Multi-sourcefusion
fusionpositioning
positioningdata
datainterface
interface(From
(FromGB/T
GB/T38630-2020,
38630-2020,[101]).
[101]).
Figure 10. Multi-source fusion positioning data interface (From GB/T 38630-2020, [101]).
The protocol
Theprotocol
protocol for information exchange between two engines isisbased on
onrequest/re-
The forfor information
information exchange
exchange between
between twotwo engines
engines is based based request/re-
on request/respo-
sponse
sponse mechanism,
mechanism, but
but not
not specified
specified with
with concrete
concrete protocols
protocols ininthis
this standard;
standard; however,
however,
nse mechanism, but not specified with concrete protocols in this standard; however, both
both
both the
thesensor
sensor data
data and
and the
the positioning
positioning results
resultsare
are specified
specified
the sensor data and the positioning results are specified in detail. inin detail.
detail.
Related standards
Relatedstandards
Related specified
standardsspecified
specifiedthe the data
thedata structure,
datastructure, format,
structure,format, type,
format,type, and
type,and etc.
andetc. ofofindividual
etc.of individual
individual
positioning
positioning technologies,
technologies, such
such as
asGB/T
GB/T 38627-2020
38627-2020 [102],
[102], specify
specify the
the magnetic
positioning technologies, such as GB/T 38627-2020 [102], specify the magnetic positioningmagnetic positioning
positioning
data
data interface.
datainterface. Other
interface.Other
Other indoor
indoor
indoor positioning
positioning
positioning standards,
standards,
standards, such
suchsuchas as
asvisual
visual
visual positioning
positioning
positioning data data
data inter-
inter-
interface,
face,
face,protocols
protocols for
forinformation
information superposition
superposition based
based on
on ubiquitous
ubiquitous location,
location,
protocols for information superposition based on ubiquitous location, and so on are planned and
and so
soon
on are
are
planned
planned or
orare
are under
under
or are under development. development.
development.
4.4.
4.4.Seamless
SeamlessCooperative
CooperativePositioning
PositioningService
ServiceInterface
Interface
Based on the integrated hybrid indoor positioningsystem
Based on the integrated hybrid indoor positioning systemarchitecture
architecture(see
(seeFigure
Figure3),3),
the standard
thestandard for
standardfor indoor
for indoor and outdoor multi-mode
outdoormulti-mode
indoor and outdoor cooperative
multi-modecooperative positioning
cooperativepositioning service
positioning interface
service
service inter-
interface
[103]
face
[103] can
canbe
[103] beused
can ininsome
be used
used scenarios
in some
some that
thatapplications
scenarios
scenarios that need
applications
applications totoget
needneed tothe
get getdevice
the locations
the device
device from
locations
locations from
the
thedata
dataserver.
server.This
Thisstandard
standardspecifies
specifiesthe
thebasic
basicservice
serviceelements
elementsand andservice
serviceinterfaces
interfaces
for
forseamless
seamlesscollaborative
collaborativepositioning,
positioning,andanddesigned
designedaccording
accordingtotothetheOGC
OGCWeb WebServices
Services
Common Standard [104] and specifies five operations as in
Common Standard [104] and specifies five operations as in Figure 11. Figure 11.
from the data server. This standard specifies the basic service elements and service in-
Standards
Standards 2022,
2022, 2,
2, FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 22
terfaces for seamless collaborative positioning, and designed according to the OGC Web22
Services Common Standard [104] and specifies five operations as in Figure 11.
User
User GetCapabilities
GetCapabilities
Request
Request metadata
metadata
InitPositioningClient
InitPositioningClient
SetPositioningOption
SetPositioningOption
Response
Response capabilities
capabilities
OpenPositioningSession
OpenPositioningSession
Initiate
Initiate service
service
Response
Response of
of status
status ClosePositioningSession
Positioning
Positioning options
options ClosePositioningSession
Response
Response of
of status
status
Start
Start positioning
positioning
Response
Response of
of location
location
Stop
Stop positioning
positioning
Response
Response of
of status
status
Figure 11.Sequence
Figure11. Sequencediagram
diagramofoflocation
locationservice
serviceprocess
process(From
(FromGB/T
GB/T35629-2017
35629-2017[103]).
[103]).
For
Foraalocalization
localization system
system oror service,
service, the
theservice
serviceshould
shouldretrieve
retrieveadequate
adequate informa-
information
tion
for for applications,
applications, including
including thethe service
service provider,
provider, coordinate
coordinate reference
reference system,
system, quality
quality in-
information, positioning technology type, and potential service exceptions.
formation, positioning technology type, and potential service exceptions. The service The service
metadata
metadataisisalso
alsospecified
specifiedininthis
thisstandard,
standard,asasdetailed
detailedininFigure
Figure12.
12.
cl
cl ass
ass Ser
Ser vi
vi ceM
ceMet
et aDat
aDat aa
Posi
Posi tt ii onioni ngAr
ngAr ea ea
Ver
Ver si
si on + ar
on + ar eaI
eaI dd :: st
st rr ii ng
ng
+ avai + ar eaN am e : st r i ng
+ avai ll abl
abl ever
ever si
si on
on :: st
st rr ii ng
ng +
+
ar eaName : st r i ng
ar eaAddr ess : st r i ng
+
+ cur
cur rr ent
ent ver
ver si
si on
on :: st
st rr ii ng
ng + ar eaAddr ess : st r i ng
+ ar
ar eaD
eaDescr
escr ii pt
pt ii on
on :: st st rr ii ng O
+
+ ar
ng OCS
CS
+ ar eaBoundBox
eaBoundBox :: 3D 3D_Poi
_Poi nt nt [[ ]] + nam
+ namee :: st
st rr ii ng
ng
+
+ descr
descr ii pt
pt ii on
on :: st
st rr ii ng
ng
«C« »
CodeLi
odeLi st
st » Ser
Ser vivi ceM
ceMet et aDat
aDat aa «
«abst »
Posi
Posi tt ii oni
oni ngTech
ngTech abst rr act
act »
+ ver Coor
Coor di
di nat
nat eRef
eRef erer ence
A
A + ver si
si onon :: VerVer si
si on
on ence
+
+ posi
posi t i oni ngAr ea : Posi t ii oni
t i oni ngAr ea : Posi t oni ngAr
ngAr ea[
ea[ ]]
+
+ posi
posi tt ii oni
oni ngTech
ngTech :: st st rr ii ng
ng
+
+ coor
coor di
di nat
nat eR
eRefef er
er ence
ence :: C Coor
oor di
di nat
nat eR
eRef
ef erer ence
ence
+
+ qual
qual ii tt yI
yI nf
nf oo :: Q
Qual
ual ii tt yI
yI nf
nf oo
+
+ updat
updat eI eI nt
nt er
er val
val :: U Updat
pdat eI eI nt
nt er
er val
val
Updat
Updat eIeI nt
nt er
er val
val «
II CS
CS
«abst
abst rr act
act »
»
+ m
mii nU
nUpdat
pdat eTi
eTi m
mee :: ii nt Q + ocs
ocs :: O
OCCS
+ nt Qual
ual ii tt yI
yI nf
nf o
o + S
+
+ def
def aul t Updat eTi mee :: ii nt
aul t Updat eTi m nt =
= 5000
5000 +
+ xx :: doubl
doubl ee
+
+ yy :: doubl
doubl ee
+
+ zz :: doubl
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Figure12.
Figure 12.Metadata
Metadataofofcooperative
cooperativepositioning
positioningservice.
service.
Similarly,applications
Similarly, applications can
can getget indoor
indoor maps
maps or entities
or entities through
through the the
OGC OGC
WMSWMS
[105][105]
or
or WFS [106] standards.
WFS [106] standards.
5.5.Conclusions
Conclusions
The
Theemergence
emergence of indoor based
of indoor applications
based and markets
applications promotes
and markets advances
promotes in IPMNin
advances
technologies and standards. Different techniques, technologies, mechanisms,
IPMN technologies and standards. Different techniques, technologies, mechanisms, method-
meth-
ologies, systems, platforms, and standards have been developed for indoor localization
odologies, systems, platforms, and standards have been developed for indoor localization
services
servicesand
andapplications.
applications.However,
However,IPMN
IPMNapplications
applicationsstill
stillface
faceseveral
severaltechnical
technicaland
and
non-technical
non-technicalchallenges, such
challenges, as quality
such of positioning
as quality service,
of positioning availability
service, of indoor
availability of maps,
indoor
maps, and location privacy. Currently there is no proposed solution that can satisfy all
indoor application requirements. One of the biggest challenges is a lack of standardiza-
tion. The existing IPMN standards published by different SDOs, such as ISO, IEEE, and
OGC differ from each other, and they focus on different viewpoints of indoor positioning,
and location privacy. Currently there is no proposed solution that can satisfy all indoor
application requirements. One of the biggest challenges is a lack of standardization. The
existing IPMN standards published by different SDOs, such as ISO, IEEE, and OGC differ
from each other, and they focus on different viewpoints of indoor positioning, mapping,
and navigation, such as automatic identification and data capture techniques (RTLS), com-
munications technologies in transportation (ITS), city and indoor models (CityGML and
IndoorGML), building information model (BIM), and robot navigation (MDR).
This paper updates the review of indoor positioning and mapping technologies and
standards. As we re-think the results, we present an architecture for IPMN, and standards
based on the architecture for our project. We found by our project experience that the
coordinate IPMN standards system needs to be formed from the concepts, models, and
technologies to the industrial application schemas. Thus, we proposed several standards
including hybrid indoor positioning, content model for indoor map, data collection, GIS
model, symbols, and indoor positioning service. The main purpose here is to provide
readers and researchers with guidance to IPMN technologies and standards; and, for
standard developers to have a way to develop complementary standards to form the
backbone for an integrated IPMN standards system.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization and standards review, Y.D.; indoor positioning method-
ology review, H.A.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.D.; content model for indoor maps,
W.G.; data collection standard, J.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Key Research and Development Programs, grant
number 2016YFB0502201, and National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant number 61971316.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Review

An Overview of Indoor Positioning and Mapping

Academic Editor: Hone-Jay Chu

Standards 2022, 2, 157–183. https://doi.org/10.3390/standards2020012 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/standards

2.1. Indoor Positioning Technologies

Standards 2022, 2 160

Indoor positioning techniques and technologies

Angle of Arrival Audible sound

Visible light (VL)

and PDR-based navigation systems, where communication-based wayfinding systems are

2.2. Indoor Mapping Technologies

2.3. Standards for Indoor Positioning, Mapping and Navigation

2.3.1. ISO/IEC RTLS

2.3.2. ISO TC204 ITS

2.3.3. OGC CityGML and IndoorGML

2.3.4. IEEE MDR

2.3.5. IFC of BuildingSMART

2.3.6. Other Standards and Formats

3. Requirements and Architecture of IPMN Standards System

smart city standards

Data sources Application Environment

models metadata visualization software

Individual technolgies Localization,

Figure 3. A GIS integrated hybrid indoor positioning system architecture.

4.2.2. Data Collection for Indoor Maps

Pathway «CodeList» «DataType»

Figure 6. Content model of indoor map—Navigation Information Model.

Check out and validate

(a) (b) (c)

Elements/Entities/Features/Layers Geometry representation Topology representation

Figure 9. GIS model of indoor spatial data.

Code Name Symbol

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