Ingo Gerth

1
st
year BSc Student
Aerospace Engineering
Calculus2
nd
quarter
Summary of formulas
January 13, 2009
Disclaimer This document was prepared as a summary for myself. However, it might be useful for other
students as well, which is why it was published online. No rights can be claimed, the author is not responsible
for any wrong information spread through this document. Also, the author is not aliated to TU Delft in any
other kind than being a student.
1 Sequences
1.1 Basics and notation
Sequences come in multiple dierent notations. Here
are the most important ones:
a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, . . . , = a
n
= a
n

n=1
with n N.
It is possible to plot sequences. For that, take the x-
axis for n and the y-axis for the resultant values of
a
n
.
If you want to calculate the limit of a sequence, the
following theorem holds.
lim
x
f (x) = L, f (n) = a
n
, lim
n
a
n
= L
again, n N. In words: The limt of a sequence equals
the limit of the corresponding function.
1.2 Limit laws
Calculus is all about limits. Derivatives are limits, In-
tegrals are limits, limits are limits. So, gure that lim-
its are important. You should knowthe following laws.
For conviniences sake, from now on, by lim it is actu-
aly referred to lim
n
.
lim(a
n
+b
n
) = lima
n
+limb
n
lim(a
n
c
n
) = lima
n
limb
n
limca
n
= clima
n
lim(a
n
b
n
) = lima
n
limb
n
lim
a
n
b
n
=
lima
n
limb
n
, limb
n
0
lima
p
n
= [lima
n
]
p
, p > 0, a
n
> 0
limc = c
lim|a
n
| = L, then lima
n
= L
1.3 More about sequences
Another more confusing theorem is, that if you have a
term with variables inside of a function, it is possible
to solve only for the inner part of the function.
If lima
n
= L and f is continous at L, then lim f (a
n
) =
f (L).
An example will make this clear:
lim

sin

= sin

lim

= sin0 = 0
For solving limits, the following trick can very often
be applied. Pull out the highest exponential out of the
equation and simply solve the limit.
A special limit that you have to know is limr
n
.
This limit is convergent for 1 < r 1, else, it is diver-
gent.
1
Check
r > 1 r will constantly increase
E.g. 1.05
2
+1.05
3
etc.
1 < r < 1 will turn out to be zero.
E.g. 0.5
2
0.5
3
etc.
r = 1 convergent, since lim1
n
= 1
r = 1 divergent, since lim(1)
n
= .
Some more terms concerning sequence. a
n
is called
increasing if a
n
< a
n+1
for all n 1, decreasing if
a
n
> a
n+1
for all n 1.
If one of these conditions is fullled, the sequence is
called monotonic.
For several checks, these terms are of utmost impor-
tance. So, to prove if a sequence is monotonic, simply
take the derivative of its correlating function.
Example:
a
n
=
n
n
2
+1
f (x) =
x
x
2
+1
(1)
f

(x) =
1x
2
(x
2
+1)
2
< 0 (2)
for all x
2
>, so it will always become smaller and is
therefore decreasing, monotonic.
One last term for sequences:
A sequence is bounded, from above if a
n
M for all
n 1 and bounded from below when m a
n
for all
n 1.
However, these terms have to be treated with care! Al-
ways remember that not every bounded sequence is
convergent. Also, not every monotonic sequence is
convergent. But, when both is the case, it must be con-
vergent.
2 Series
Now that we have set the base, we can talk about se-
ries.
2.1 Basics and notation
Sequences are nothing else but the sum of all elements
a
n
up to n, where n N. So, when adding all terms of
a sequence a
n

n=1
, we get an innite series

n=1
a
n
.
For example

n=1
1
2
n
= 1 .
The sum of this series can be written as
s
2
= a
1
+a
2
[. . .]
s
n
= a
1
+. . . +a
n
=
n

i=1
a
i
For calculating limits of series, we agree upon the fol-
lowing notation:

n=1
a
n
= lim
n
n

i=1
a
i
From now on, as in the previous section, the notation

n=1
will for conviences sake be meant by

.
2.2 Geometric series
Geometric series are a special case of series. In fact,
besides of another type of series, they are the only se-
ries we can calculate the sum of rationally.
Geometric series are series of the form like

ar
n1
=
a
1r
|r| < 1 ,
a+ar
1
+ar
2
+. . .
which is convergent.
If |r| 1 the series would be convergent.
Geometric series occur quite often. In many cases, you
have to rearrange a series and such a way that a geo-
metric series is resulting. An example:

2
2n
3
1n
= (2
2
)
n
3
n1
=
4
n
3
n1
= 4

4
3

n1
Because r = 4/3 > 1 the series is divergent. Dont get
confused, also series like

x
n
are geometric series be-
cause a = 1, r = x.
2
Also, the series

1/x
n
is a geometric series with
a = 1/x and r = 1/x, because
1
x
1
x
n1
=
1
x
x
x
n
=
1
x
n
3 Convergence Tests
3.1 Test for divergence
From here on, some test for the convergence or diver-
gence of series will be listed.
If

a
n
convergent, then lima
n
= 0 .
This theorem might be a little bit confusing, because it
is not true in general! From the side of lima
n
= 0 we
can concluding absolutelty nothing about the conver-
gence or divergence of a series.
However:
If lima
n
does not exist or lima
n
0,
then

a
n
is divergent.
3.2 Integral test
Necessary conditions: f must be continuous, positive,
and decreasing in [1, ).
a
n
= f (n),

n=1
a
n
is convergent if

1
f (x)dx
and it yields a nite value.
Note that for the integral test as the lower integrating
boundary you have to take the start value of the series,
e.g. for

n=2
, take the integral from


2
.
3.3 P-series
This is the same as we have learnt for integrals in the
rst quater.

n=1
1
n
p
is convergent for p > 1 and divergent for p 1.
3.4 Comparison test
Once you have grasped the concept of the comparison
test, it is quite nice.
You are given a function g(x). Nowconsider a function
f (x) that is larger than g(x). If this function g(x) con-
verges, then also f (x) converges. If it should turnout
that this test indicates that the function might be di-
vergent, you may not stop yet, but rather compare it
to a smaller function, because if a smaller function di-
verges, then the larger function also diverges.
Summarized:
If a function g(x) is smaller than a function f (x)
which it is compared to, and that function is con-
vergent, then g(x) also is convergent.
If a function g(x) is larger than a function f (x)
which it is compared to, and that function is di-
vergent, then g(x) is also divergent.
Thus, when trying to prove that a function is conver-
gent, try to replace the function in the numerator such
that it gets bigger or do the opposite in the denomina-
tor. For instance, if there is a function that is always
smaller than 1 (e.g. cos x), you can replace it by 1.
3.5 Comparison test
Suppose that

a
n
and

b
n
are series with positive
terms. If
lim
n
a
n
b
n
= c
where c is a nite number and c > 0, then either both
series converge or both series diverge.
In general this means that if you have to comparable
series, you only have to test one series!
3.6 Ratio test
A series

a
n
is called
absolutely convergent if

|a
n
| is convergent,
conditionally convergent if it is convergent but
not absolutely convergent.
This fact can be exploited for some functions like

cosn/n
2
as follows

cosn
n
2

| cosn|
n
2

1
n
2
Thus, the comparison test can be applied. The series
must be convergent since this is a p-series.
3
This is the base for the ratio test:
lim
n

a
n+1
a
n

= L
If
L < 1 absolutely convergent convergent
L = 1 divergent
L > 1 inconclusive, choose other test
The ratio test should be applied if there are factorials
n! or functions raised to the power of n, e.g. 2
n
in the
series.
3.7 Root test
When there is a series with an exponential, the root
test can be applied:
lim
n
n

|a
n
| = L
If
L < 1 absolutely convergent convergent
L = 1 inconlusive
L > 1 or L = divergent
3.8 Alternating series test
The alternating series test is the coolest of all. It cant
get easier!
If the alternating series

n=1
(1)
n1
b
n
= b
1
b
2
+b
3
. . . b
>
0
satises
(i) b
n+1
b
n
for all n
(ii) lim
n
b
n
= 0
then the series is convergent.
Thats it!
4 Strategy for testing series
If it is obvious that lim
n
a
n
0, test for diver-
gence.
Is the series a p-series (1/n
p
)?
If yes,
p > 1 convergent
p 1 divergent
Is the series a geometric series (a r
n1
)?
If yes,
|r| < 1 convergent
|r| 1 divergent
If the series is similar to a geometric- or p-series,
then choose the comparison test. Especially if
it involves an algebraic function of n (involving
roots or polynomials). For the comparing series,
choose only the highest power of n as the p in
the p series (1/n
p
). If there are positive and neg-
ative terms, only apply the test to

|a
n
|.
For example

n
3
+2n
2
+n
3n
3
+6n
should be compared to

n
3
3n
3
=
n
3/2
3n
3
=
1
3n
3/2
which is a p-series.
If the series includes a term like (1)
n1
, obvi-
oulsy use the alternating series test.
In case a series includes factorials or products
involving a constant raised to the power of n,
then the ratio test should be useful.
Should there be something of the form like
(b
n
)
n
, then apply the root test.
If a
n
= f (n), where


1
f (n)dn can be easily
evaluated, then the integral test should be ap-
plied.
5 Power series
Power series have the form:

c
n
x
n
= c
0
+c
1
x +c
2
x
2
+. . . +c
n
x
n
Where x is a variable and all cs are coecients. The
domain of a power series is all the x for which it con-
verges.
There are only three possibilities for a power series:

n=0
c
n
(x a)
n
1. converges only when x = a
2. converges for all x
3. there is a positive number R such that the the
series converges if |x a| < R and diverges if
|x a| > R
4
This number R is called the radius of conver-
gence.
Always take the ratio or root test to nd the radius of
convergence. If there is an endpoint, the test will al-
ways fail; in that case, take another test.
Example: When you nd the series to be convergent
for |x 5| < 1 and divergent for |x 5| > 1, the interval
of convergence is from 4 to 6, the radius of conver-
gence therefore is 1. Now, plug in the numbers into
the function and check how the series behaves. If it
the test diverges the bracket is (, for convergence [,
e.g. (4, 5]
5.1 Representation of functions as power
series
A function of the form f (x) = 1/(1 x) can be ex-
pressed as a power series:
f (x) =
1
1x
=

1+x +x
2
+. . . +x
n
=

n=0
x
n
Note that this is a geometric series with a = 1, r = x.
Example . . .
x
3
x +2
= x
3
1
2
1
1+
x
2
= x
3
1
2

n=0

x
2

n=0
(1)
n
x
n+3
2
n+1
It is possible to integrate/dierentiate such a function.
For this, simply integrate/dierentiate every single el-
ement of the series. This makes it possible to integrate
complicated functions.
(i) f

(x) = c
1
+2c
2
(x a) +3c
3
(x a)
2
+. . .
=

n=1
nc
n
(x a)
n1
(ii)

f (x)dx =
c +c
0
(x a) +c
1
(x a)
2
2
+c
2
(x a)
3
3
+. . .
= c +

n=0
c
n
(x a)
(n+1)
n+1
..
Example . . .
ln(1x) =

1
1x
dx =

(1+x +x
2
+. . .)dx
= x +
x
2
2
+
x
3
3
+. . . +c =

n=0
x
n+1
n+1
+c
=

n=1
x
n
n
+c
To obtain a value for c, put x = 0. ln1 = c = 0. The
same works for arctan(x).
6 Taylor and McLaurin series
With Taylor and McLaurin series, it is possible to ex-
press a function in terms of a series. This makes it pos-
sible to approximate functions up to a wanted degree
of accuracy. To obtain a Taylor series, the following
formula should be used:
f (x) =

n=0
f
(n)
(a)
n!
....
This is the coecient!
(x a)
n
For instance
f (x) = f (a) +
f

(a)
1!
(x a) +
f

(a)
2!
(x a)
2
+. . .
A McLaurin series is nothing else but a Taylor series
centred at 0.
f (x) =

n=0
f
(n)
(a)
n!
x
n
If a series is centred at a position other than 0, the
approximation of the values will be more accurate
around that point.
5
Example . . .
Finding Taylor series is extremely important. That
is why this long example is devoted to it.
Find the McLaurin series for f (x) = sin(x)
f

(x) = cos x
f

(0) = 1 f

(0) = 0 f

(0) = 1
f

(0) = 0 f

(0) = 1

n=0
f
(n)
(0)
n!
x
n
= f (0) +
f

(0)
1!
x +
f

(0)
2!
x
2
+. . .
= 0+
1
1!
x +
0
2!
x
2

1
3!
x
3
+
0
4!
x
4
+
1
5!
x
5
= x
x
3
3!
+
x
5
5!

x
7
7!

n=0
(1)
n
x
2n+1
(2n+1)!
= sin x
Note that when trying to nd such series, it is still of-
ten useful to use the integration trick. For instance,
when trying to nd the series for cos x, it is smart to
seize that fact that cos x is (sin x)

, because
cos x =

n=0
(1)
n1
x
2n1
(2n1)!

= 1
3x
2
3!
+
5x
4
5!

7x
6
7!
= 1
x
2
2!
+
x
4
4!

x
6
6!
+. . .
=

n=0
(1)
n
x
2n
(2n)!
Taylor series can also be used for approximating inte-
grals.
Example . . .
To approximate the integral, after writing down the
series as a binomial series, you only have to integrate
that series:
1/2

x
3
+1dx =
,
x +
1
8
x
4
+
1
56
x
7
+. . .

1/2
0
7 Binomial series
Binomal series are just a special case of taylor se-
ries.
If k is any real number and |x| < 1, then
(1+x)
k
=

n=0

k
n

x
n
=1+kx+
k(k 1)
2!
x
2
+
k(k 1)(k 2)
3!
x
3
+. . .
8 Vectors
8.1 Dot product
Multiplying two vectors leads to a scalar. If the re-
sult is 0, the vectors are perpendicular to each other.
a

b = a
1
b
1
+a
2
b
2
+. . . +a
n
b
n
a a = |a|
2
It can also be used to evaluate the angle between two
vectors.
a

b = |a||

b| cos
The scalar projection of a vector

b onto another vecot

b is:
comp
a

b =
a

b
|a|
The vector projection is the scalar projection times the
unit vector of a.
proj
a

b =

b
|a|

a
|a|
8.2 Cross product
Sometimes also referred to as vector product, this
product gives you a vector perpendicular to both other
vectors.
a

b =

a
2
b
3
a
3
b
2
a
3
b
1
a
1
b3
a
1
b
3
a
3
b
1

It can also be used to nd the sine of two vectors.

|a

b| = |a||

b| sin
If a|

b, then a

b =

0
6
The length of the cross product is equal to the area of
the parallelogram determined by a and

b. In the same
manner, half of it is equal to the the are of the trian-
gle.
A

=
1
2
|a

b|
8.3 Tripple products
These kind of products can be used to calculate vol-
umes. The volume of a parallel piped is:
V = |a (

bc)|
Note
a

b
a

b =

ba
9 Vector functions and space curves
9.1 Denitions for vector functions
A vector function can be written in the form of
r(t) = ( f (t), g(t), h(t)) = f (t)

i +g(t)

j +h(t)

k
To compute the limit of such a vector function, one
simply has to take the limit of the separate functions
f , g, h.
A vector function is continuous at a if
limr(t) = r(a)
That means, if all functions of the vector function are
continous at a.
The set of points
x = f (t), y = g(t), z = h(t)
is called a space curve.
Example . . .
r(t) = (1+t, 2+5t, 1+6t)
Note that this is the equation of a line. The following
notation might be more familiar for you:
r(t) =

1
2
1

+t

1
5
6

9.2 Types of curves

A circle/spiral can be expressed as in the following ex-
ample:
r(t) = (cost, sint, t)
This is a spiral because
x = cost, y = sint
x
2
+y
2
= sin
2
+cos
2
= 1
So that all points lie on a circular cylinder with a radius
of 1.
A sphere is a set of points P(x, y, z) whose distance
from C is r. If P is on the sphere, then |PC| = r.
(x h)
2
+(y k)
2
+(z l)
2
= r
2
where h, k, l, are the coordinates of the centre.
To nd cutting points or functions of curves that
cut each other, simply plug the functions into each
other.
9.3 Derivatives and Integrals of vector
functions
Simply take the integral/derivative of all the func-
tions.
A tangent vector is the derivative of a vector function.
Often, it is looked for a unit tangent vector.
T(t) =
r

(t)
|r

(t)|
7
9.4 Arc length and curvature
The length of a space curve in an interval a, b is de-
ned as:
L =
b

,
f

(t)

2
+
,
g

(t)

2
+[h

(t)]
2
dt
Which can shortly be written as:
L =
b

(t)

dt
A curve is called smooth if r

is continous and
r

(t) 0. The curvatured is

(t) =

(t)
r

(t)

Sometimes, the following formula is more con-

vinient.
(t) =
|r(t) r

(t)|
|r

(t)|
3
A Some tricks
Algebraic relation:
1
x(x +1)
=
1
x

1
(x +1)
To Solve integrals like

1/(n
2
+4), substitue x = 2t,
dx = 2dt,
2dt
4t
2
+4
=
1
2

dt
t
2
+1
=
1
2
arctan x
Factorials:
(n+1)! = n!(n+1)
x
x!
=
1
(x 1)!
e.g.
4
4!
=
1
3!
Expression of e:

1+
1
n

n
e as n
Useful substitutions
The following substitution works well if there is a log-
arithmic function in the integral, because an e func-
tion can pretty well be integrated using integration by
parts.
ln x = u e
u
= x
For square roots:

x = u x = u
2
And never forget to dierentiate the substitution!
In the exam, when they give you a hint, it is very
likely that you have to dierentiate or integrate a se-
ries to obtain a result.
8