CHAPTER 9

SOUND WAVES

SOUND WAVES
• Longitudinal waves created from a vibrating source.
• Longitudinal waves that consist of varying pressures.
They can travel through solids, liquids, and gases.
• As a sound wave passes a point, the medium becomes
alternately squeezed and expanded, so the wave
consists of regions of compression and rarefaction
that follow each other.
Compression & Rarefaction
Sound waves are composed of compression and
rarefaction patterns. Compression happens when
molecules are densely packed together. Alternatively,
rarefaction happens when molecules are distanced from
one another. As sound travels through a medium, its
energy causes the molecules to move, creating an
alternating compression and rarefaction pattern. It is
important to realize that molecules do not move with the
sound wave. As the wave passes, the molecules become
energized and move from their original positions. After a
molecule passes its energy to nearby molecules, the
molecule’s motion diminishes until it is affected by
another passing wave. The wave’s energy transfer is
what causes compression and rarefaction. During
compression there is high pressure, and during
rarefaction there is low pressure. Different sounds
produce different patterns of high- and low-pressure
changes, which allows them to be identified. The
wavelength of a sound wave is made up of one
compression and one rarefaction.
• Sound is a regular mechanical vibration that travels
through matter as a waveform.
• Sound waves exist as variations of pressure in a
medium such as air.
• Sounds are created by the vibration of an object which
causes the air surrounding it to vibrate. The vibrating
air then causes the human eardrum to vibrate, which
the brain interprets as sound.
• The speed of sound is constant for a given material
under given conditions: in air at 1 atm pressure and
20°C it is 343 m/s. Sound travels faster in solids and
liquids than in gases.

• When sound waves spread uniformly in space, their

intensity decreases inversely with the square of the
distance R from their source. Thus, if the intensity of a
certain sound is I1 at the distance R1, its intensity I1 at
the distance R2 can be found from:

𝐈𝟐 𝐑 𝟏 𝟐
= 𝟐
𝐈𝟏 𝐑 𝟐
• Sound waves are pressure variations in the air, which
transfer energy from the source of sound to the ear.
They can travel through solids or liquids but mostly
through the air. No sound in a vacuum.

• Atmospheric pressure at sea level is about 1013 hPa

(hectopascal or mbar)
• This is equal to a weight of 10 tons per square meter.
Changes by 20-30 hPa from day to day.
• The pressure variations are ~1 000 000 000 times
smaller than atmospheric pressure but occur very
quickly.
• The response of the human ear to sound intensity is
not proportional to the intensity, so doubling the
actual intensity of a certain sound does not lead to
the sensation of a sound twice as loud but only of one
 that is slightly louder than the original. For this
reason, the decibel (dB) scale is used for loudness or
sound intensity level. An intensity of 10-12 W/m2
which is just audible, is given the value 0dB; a sound
ten times more intense is given the value 10dB; a
sound 102 times more intense than 0dB is given the
value 20dB; a sound 103 times more intense than 0dB
is given the value of 30dB; and so forth. Formally, the
sound intensity level β in dB of a sound wave whose
intensity is I, in W/m2 is given by:

𝐈
𝛃 (𝐢𝐧 𝐝𝐁) = 𝟏𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 ( )
𝐈𝐨

• Normal conversation might be 60dB, city traffic noise

might be 90dB and a jet aircraft might produce as
much as 140dB (which produces damage to the ear)
at a distance of 30m. Long term exposure to intensity
levels of over 85dB usually leads to permanent
hearing damage.
 • If the power input to an amplifier or other signal
processing device is Pin and the power output of the
device is Pout, the power gain (G) of the system in
decibels is defined as

𝐏𝐨𝐮𝐭
𝐆(𝐝𝐁) = 𝟏𝟎𝐥𝐨𝐠 ( )
𝐏𝐢𝐧

• Sound travels at a speed of 330 m/s (1200 kph). Bit

faster than a jet airliner. Speed depends on air
temperature but not pressure.
• The air molecules vibrate in the same direction as the
wave moves but don’t move along with wave. This is
called a longitudinal wave. Most waves are
transverse, vibration at 90° to motion.

Pressure
The peaks in pressure move along with the wave. The air
molecules just vibrate back & forth.

Frequency Range
The human hearing range is conventionally given as 20
Hz to 20 kHz.
1 Hz = 1 cycle per second
Elephants & whales hear lower frequencies (infrasonic),
while small animals like bats can hear at much higher
frequencies (ultrasonic).

Infrasonic Waves (Infrasound)

Infrasonic waves have frequencies below 20Hz, which
makes them inaudible to the human ear. Scientists use
infrasound to detect earthquakes and volcanic eruptions,
to map rock and petroleum formations underground, and
to study activity in the human heart. Despite our inability
to hear infrasound, many animals use infrasonic waves
to communicate in nature. Whales, hippos, rhinos,
giraffes, elephants, and alligators all use infrasound to
communicate across impressive distances – sometimes
hundreds of miles!

Ultrasonic Waves (Ultrasound)

Sound waves that have frequencies higher than
20,000Hz produce ultrasound. Because ultrasound
occurs at frequencies outside the human hearing range,
it is inaudible to the human ear. Ultrasound is most often
used by medical specialists who use sonograms to
examine their patients’ internal organs. Some lesser-
known applications of ultrasound include navigation,
imaging, sample mixing, communication, and testing. In
nature, bats emit ultrasonic waves to locate prey and
avoid obstacles.

Perceived loudness also depends slightly on frequency.

This is not significant except at the low and high
frequency limits.

Characteristics of Sound Waves

A sound wave has the same characteristics as any type
of waveform. It has wavelength, frequency, velocity, and
amplitude.

1. Wavelength
It is the distance from one crest to another of a wave.
Since sound is a compression wave, the wavelength is
the distance between maximum compressions.
Corresponding wavelengths are:
20 Hz 16.5 m
20 kHz 16.5 mm
This means that low frequencies can’t travel in small
rooms and that normal sized objects diffract sound
waves easily.

2. Speed or velocity
The sound waveforms move at approximately 344m/s or
1130ft/s or 770 miles per hour at room temperature of
20°C.

3. Frequency (or pitch)

It is the rate at which the waves pass a given point. It is
also the rate at which a guitar string or a loudspeaker
vibrates. It refers to the highness or lowness of a sound.
The frequency of a wave dictates the pitch of a sound.

4. Amplitude (or loudness or dynamics)

Since sound is a compression wave, its amplitude
corresponds to how much the wave is compressed, as
compared to areas of little compression. Thus, it is
sometimes called pressure amplitude. It refers to how
soft or how intense the sound is.
The sound intensity in Watt/m2 drops with the inverse
square of the distance. Same sound energy spread over
larger area. But the loudness is measured in decibels,
which is related to the intensity in W/m2.
This is a logarithmic scale, which corresponds better to
the way our ears detect loudness.

Sound W/m2 dB
Threshold 10-12 0
Soft 10-7 50
Loud 10-3 90

The threshold of hearing is arbitrarily set at 10-12 W/m2,

which is below the limit of any human ear.
Above 90-100 dB we get hearing damage, either
temporary or permanent.

5. Timbre (or tone color)

Timbre refers to the tone color, tone quality or “feel” of
the sound. It is used in differentiating two different
sounds that have the same pitch and loudness. Sounds
with various timbres produce different wave shapes,
which affect our interpretation of the sound. The sound
produced by a piano has a different tone color than the
sound from a guitar. In physics, we refer to this as the
timbre of a sound. It’s what allows humans to quickly
identify sounds (e.g. a cat’s meow, running water, the
sound of a friend’s voice).
6. Duration (or tempo/rhythm)
In music, duration is the amount of time that a pitch, or
tone, lasts. They can be described as long, short, or as
taking some amount of time. The duration of a note or
tone influences the timbre and rhythm of a sound. A
classical piano piece will tend to have notes with a longer
duration than the notes played by a keyboardist at a pop
concert. In physics, the duration of a sound or tone
begins once the sound registers and ends after it cannot
be detected.

Equations for Sound Speed

In an ideal gas of molecular mass (M) and absolute
temperature (T), the speed of sound v is given by

𝛄𝐑𝐓
𝐯= √
𝐌
where:
R = gas constant
γ = ratio of specific heats (cp/cv)
γ = 1.67 for monatomic gases (He, Ne, Ar), and about
1.40 for diatomic gases (N2, O2, H2).
The speed of compression waves in other materials is
given by

𝐦𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐬
𝐯=√
𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲

Young’s modulus (Y) for solid

Bulk modulus (B) for liquid

Speed of Sound in Air

The speed of sound in air at 0°C is 331 m/s. The speed
increases with temperature by about 0.61 m/s for each
1°C rise. More precisely, sound speeds v1 and v2 at
absolute temperatures T1 and T2 are related by:

𝐯𝟏 𝐓𝟏
=√
𝐯𝟐 𝐓𝟐

The speed of sound is essentially independent of

pressure, frequency, and wavelength.
Human Voice
We produce sounds by blowing air past our vocal cords.
These vibrate and the sound resonates in our windpipe.
Bass voice 80 – 400 Hz
Soprano 200 – 1200 Hz
Piano 20 – 4000 Hz
Larger windpipe produces lower frequency.
We also produce harmonics of the basic frequency, 2x,
3x, etc. These add to the quality of the sound.
Telephones only transmit up to 4 kHz, but we recognize
speech. Sound quality poor for music.

Doppler Effect
• When there is a relative motion between a source of
waves and an observer, the apparent frequency of the
waves is different from their frequency (fs) at the
source. This change in frequency is called the
Doppler effect.
• When the source approaches the observer, the
wavelength of the waves is shorter than when there
is no relative motion, and the observed frequency is
higher.
• When the source moves away from the observer, the
wavelength of the waves is longer, and the observed
frequency is lower. Similar effects occur when the
 source is stationary, and the observer is moving
toward or away from it.
• In case of sound waves, the frequency f that the
listener hears is given by:

𝐟𝐬(𝐯 + 𝐯𝐋 )
𝐟=
𝐯 − 𝐯𝐬
where:
v = velocity of sound
vL = the velocity of the listener (considered positive
for motion toward the source and negative for motion
away from the source)
vs = velocity of the source
• The Doppler effect in electromagnetic waves (light
and radio waves are examples) obeys the formula:

𝐯
𝟏+
𝐟 = 𝐟𝐬 ( 𝐜)
𝐯
𝟏−
𝐜
where:
c = velocity of light (3.00 x 108 m/s)
v = relative velocity between source and observer
Parts and Functions of the Ear
The human ear is divided into five parts. These five parts
of human ear have specific functions that help in the
process of hearing.
1. Outer Ear
2. Middle Ear
3. Inner Ear
4. Acoustic Nerve
5. Central Auditory Processing Centers

o Outer ear is divided into the pinna and the external

auditory meatus. The pinna, also known as the auricle
is the external ear part that is located and seen on
each side of our head. It is made up of cartilage and
soft tissue. This helps in maintaining a particular ear
shape and also remains pliable. The pinna is like a
funnel that collects the sound vibrations from around
us and funnels them towards the external auditory
meatus. The external auditory meatus is also called
the ear canal. The ear canal helps understand and
determine the source and direction of the sound. It is
only ¼ inch in diameter and extends from the pinna to
the tympanic membrane. The tympanic membrane is
commonly called the eardrum. Skin and hair cover the
outer ear canal foundation and the cerumen gland, or
the wax gland is present in this area. The ear canal
 develops into a bony structure tightly covered by skin,
near the eardrum.

Fact File: The ear drum is an extremely sensitive organ. It

can detect the sounds with an intensity range of
approximately 100,000,000 to 1. When the softest sound
hits the ear drum, it moves approximately one-millionth of
an inch and this vibration is transferred to the inner ear for
further processing within the brain.

o The middle ear is the structure that begins at the end

of the tympanic membrane. There are three tiny
bones known as the ossicles that make up the middle
ear. These bones connect the eardrum to the inner
ear. Sound waves funneled in through the pinna, hit
the eardrum. This causes the eardrum to move back
and forth, in other words, vibrate, causing the ossicles
to move. This causes the sound waves to convert into
mechanical vibration.

o The external auditory meatus is also called the ear

canal. The ear canal helps understand and determine
the source and direction of the sound. It is only ¼ inch
in diameter and extends from the pinna to the
tympanic membrane. The tympanic membrane is
commonly called the eardrum. Skin and hair cover the
 outer ear canal foundation and the cerumen gland or
the wax gland is present in this area. The ear canal
develops into a bony structure tightly covered by skin,
near the eardrum.

Fact File: The ear drum is an extremely sensitive organ. It

can detect the sounds with an intensity range of
approximately 100,000,000 to 1. When the softest sound
hits the ear drum, it moves approximately one-millionth of
an inch and this vibration is transferred to the inner ear for
further processing within the brain.

o The middle ear is the structure that begins at the end

of the tympanic membrane. There are three tiny
bones known as the ossicles that make up the middle
ear. These bones connect the eardrum to the inner
ear. Sound waves funneled in through the pinna, hit
the eardrum. This causes the eardrum to move back
and forth, in other words, vibrate, causing the ossicles
to move. This causes the sound waves to convert into
mechanical vibration.

o The three tiny bones forming the ossicles are

malleus, incus and stapes. The malleus also known
as the hammer is connected to the eardrum on one
side and the incus, known as the anvil on the other
 side. The anvil is connected to the third bone stapes,
also called the stirrup. The sound waves converted
into mechanical energy are transferred through this
ossicular chain. There is an in and out movement at
the stirrup base known as the stapes footplate, that
matches the incoming sound waves. The beginning
of the inner ear is marked by the oval window that fits
in the stapes footplate.

o The middle ear is present in the mastoid section of

the temporal bone. The temporal bone is the skull
bone that is present on each side of the head that is
filled with air. The Eustachian tube runs from the
middle ear front wall to the back of the nose and
nasopharynx, that is, throat. The function of the ear
tube, that is the Eustachian tube is, to provide
ventilation and access to the external air and balance
the air pressure on the both sides of the eardrum.

o The inner ear houses the sensory organs that help in

hearing and maintaining balance. The part of human
ear involved in the function of hearing is the cochlea.
Another major function of the human ear is to
maintain balance of the body. The different parts of
the human ear that help in balancing are the
 semicircular canals consisting of the utricle and the
saccule present in the inner ear.

o The bony structure that is shaped like a snail and

filled with endolumph and perilymph fluid is called
the cochlea. The sensory receptor called the Organ of
Corti is present inside the cochlea. It has hair cells
and nerve receptors, required for hearing.

o The middle ear movement pushes the mechanical

energy in the oval window inside the cochlea. The tiny
hair cells are stimulated due to the force that moves
the fluids inside the cochlea. Pitches or the specific
sound frequencies stimulate specific individual hair
cells in the inner ear. Thus, certain frequencies are
responded by certain hair cells. The hair cells
translate signals into nerve impulses. The cochlear
portion of the VIII cranial nerve, the acoustic nerve,
transmit the nerve impulses to the brain.

o The acoustic nerve is the part of human ear that

transmits impulses from the cochlea to the mid brain
region, the cochlear nucleus, and further on to other
pathways in the brain, that end in the auditory cortex
of the brain. The nerve fibers of each ear are divided
into two pathways from the cochlear nucleus. Of
 these two pathways, one ascends towards the
auditory cortex in one hemisphere of the brain and
the other crosses over and ascends to the other
hemisphere of the brain. Thus, the function of the
human ear nerve fibers pathway is to transmit data or
information received from both ears to both the
hemispheres of the brain.

o The central auditory system function of human ear is

to process auditory information carried to the brain.
The central auditory system plays role in the
following functions of human ear:
▪ The localization and lateralization of the sound
▪ Differentiating between the different sounds
▪ Temporal resolution, masking, integration and
ordering
▪ Reducing the auditory performance when there
are competing acoustic signals
▪ Reducing the auditory performance when there is
a presence of degraded acoustic signal

Functions of the Ear

We have understood the different parts of a human ear
and got an overview of their functions. Now, let us have
a look at the functions of the ear, in a little detail.
• The pinna and the ear canal deliver the sound waves
to the middle ear. Foreign bodies like insects, dust,
etc. are prevented from gaining entry into the ear due
to the presence of wax and hair in this region. This
helps in preventing many ear infections.
• The ear drum vibrates according to the frequency and
the amplitude of sounds that strike it.
• The middle ear function of human ear is to transmit
and amplify the sounds vibrated from the eardrum
towards the oval window. It also acts as a dampener
to loud sounds that may damage the cochlea.
• The round window is a flexible membrane present at
the opposite end of the fluid filled channels from the
oval window. The round window function of human
ear is to keep the cochlear fluids contained within the
scala vestibuli and scala tympani. It also functions as
a multiplier of the sound waves generated from the
oval window membrane.
• The malleus transmits sound vibrations from the
eardrums to the incus.
• The incus transmits the sound vibrations to the
stapes.
• The stapes transmits the vibrations to the membrane
of the inner ear present inside the fenestra ovalis.
 • The semicircular canal’s function is to maintain the
balance by responding to gravity and the acceleration
changes of the head.
• The mastoid bone acts as an amplifier of certain
sounds that are in the low frequency range.
• The cochlea, the actual organ that helps in hearing
functions as a sound wave interpreter and converter.

Parts and Functions of the Ear Involved in Balancing

The sense of equilibrium is controlled by the vestibular
system. This system is present in the inner ear. The
temporal bone space is shared between the vestibular
and the cochlea. The fluids present in the cochlea are
present in the vestibular. To maintain balance and
equilibrium when standing, sitting, running, walking etc.
in relation to gravity without falling over, is taken care by
the vestibular system. Many other systems like vision,
muscle response, help the vestibular system in
performing its balancing function of human ear
effectively.

Sensitivity to Loudness
Normal hearing is most sensitive at ~ 4 kHz and is less
at low and high frequencies. As we age, or hearing is
damaged, the range and sensitivity of hearing is lost.
▪ Need louder sound to be heard
 ▪ Loss of frequency range, mainly at high f
A loss of 40 – 60 dB can be tolerated, as there is a lot of
dynamic range left.
Loss of high frequencies only matters when it drops to
~4 kHz and effect speech.
Lose ~ 1 kHz for every 10 years older.

Deafness
Damage to middle or inner ear caused by:
• Ageing
• Injury
• Disease
• Genetic effects
• Loud noise
Total deafness is rare, usually due to damage to nerves
in ear. Most people have some hearing, which can be
assisted.

Hearing Aid
o A simple hearing aid amplifies all frequencies equally
and is mainly useful for mild deafness.
o More advanced hearing aids amplify differently at
different frequencies. This allows compensation for
high f hearing loss without amplifying the low f too
much.
o This is used to bypass the ear where there is little or
no hearing. In an operation, about 30 wires are
attached to nerves in the cochlea and go to a loop
under the skin. The external hearing aid transmits the
electrical signal through the skin. The small currents
stimulate the nerves and mimic sound.
o Frequency discrimination is poor. 30 wires replace
30,000 hairs in the cochlea.
Sample Problems

1. What is the intensity in Watts per square meter of the

70dB noise of a truck passing by?
2. A certain person speaking normally produces a sound
intensity level of 40dB at a distance of 1 m. If the
threshold intensity for reasonable audibility is 20dB, how
far away can the person be heard clearly?
3. Seventy-six trombones are being played, which each
one producing a sound intensity level of 70dB in the
audience. What is the total sound intensity level?
4. Find the power gain of an amplifier whose power input
is 0.2W and whose power output is 80W.
5. A record player pick up has an output of 0.002 W. What
is the output power when a 100dB amplifier is used with
it?
6. The siren of fire engine has a frequency of 500Hz.
a. The fire engine approaches a stationary car at
20m/s. What frequency does a person in the car
hear?
b. The fire engine stops, and the car drives away from
it at 20 m/s. What frequency does the person in the
car hear now?
7. A car moving at 20 m/s with its horn blowing
(f=1200Hz) is chasing another car going at 15m/s. What
is the apparent frequency of the horn as heard by the
driver being chased? Take the speed of sound to be 340
m/s.