Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter is composed of related literatures and studies both foreign and local. The

researcher has gone through intensive reading of materials both printed and

downloaded through the internet which has great relevance to the topic presented in

this study.

Related Literature

According to the Southwest Washington website, K-12 education system is the

public education system that most people are familiar with today. Comprised of 13

grades, kindergarten through 12th, it refers to the public-school system in all of the

United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and parts of Europe as well. It is difficult to

pinpoint the exact history of education, as it has been occurring in some form for

centuries in all parts of the world.

Many Americans believe the purpose of K–12 education is not only to teach

academics, such as math and science, but to prepare students for work and to be good

citizens. In fact, most believe K–12 education has a lot of responsibility for ensuring

workers have the skills and education they need to be successful in today’s economy

(Silliman et. al. 2018).

According to Silliman and Schleifer in 2018, most Americans support the concept

behind the Common Core State Standards, but the name “Common Core” provokes
negative reactions. Although Americans understand the importance of science,

technology, engineering and math (STEM) studies, they may be shifting toward

emphasizing English, reading and writing. Americans also think it is important for

schools to provide factual information and teach students to think critically. They believe

the most important indicator of school quality is the teaching of cooperation, respect and

problem solving. Most Americans also believe it is important for K–12 education to

teach students to be good citizens. In terms of career readiness, most Americans

support offering more career skills classes, and most would favor having more career-

or skills-based classes over having more honors classes. While most Americans do

believe standardized tests should be administered and schools should be held

accountable for test scores, fewer believe testing does a good job at measuring what

they find most important, such as interpersonal skills.

In Asia, according to Erling’s book in 2014 entitled “The Role of English in Skills

Development in South Asia: Policies, Interventions and Existing Evidence”,

communication skills in English are framed as a ‘basic skill’, along with computer

literacy. This can be seen in the following quote from a major recruitment consultant in

India:

India’s language diversity means that English is like Windows; an operating

system. This has always been true for high end services but now applies to even many

unorganised services (security, door to door sales, electricians, etc) and manufacturing

because of the increased use of distributed IT systems for internal processes

(Teamlease, 2012).
 English is also increasingly instrumental as the language of migration: Capstick

(2011) shows how fluency leads to increased opportunities for migration among

migrants from Pakistan. Research from Bangladesh suggests that if migrant workers

were trained in vocational skills, including English, the remittance earnings could go up

by $30 billion a year (Haque, 2010).

As the demand for English has increased across South Asia, English education

has become more prominent in the national curricula of these countries – in part to

better equip school leavers for the job market. In Bangladesh, for example, it is

compulsory from Grade 1 and a mandatory part of a school-leaving certificate (Banu

and Sussex, 2001; Mc Arthur, 2002: 328). Low-cost private English-medium schools are

mushrooming across the region in response to parental demand for English and as a

reaction to the low quality of government school (Baird, 2009).

Since its independence, the Singaporean government has launched a bilingual

education policy with an ever-increasing emphasis on the use of English (Rubdy, 2001).

Therefore currently, English is the language of education in all levels and types of

schools in Singapore. English is the primary language in various sectors of the

Singaporean society including public administration, education, commerce, science and

technology (Lin, 2002). Letters and workplace documents in government offices,

business contracts, and public signs are written in English. All subjects except the

mother tongue classes are instructed in English.

In 2009, the Mexican Ministry of Education initiated the implementation of a new

program, called the National English Program for Basic Education, which incorporates

2½ hours of English instruction throughout the 13 years of K-12 public education

(Ramírez Romero, Sayer, & Pamplón Irigoyen, 2014). This new program, which affects

millions of Mexican children who previously did not study the language (or at least not

until seventh grade), is a drastic expansion of English teaching: an over 400% increase

in the number of hours of instruction in English a student in the Mexican public school

system receives. The curriculum charts a trajectory whereby public school students will

achieve a B1 level on the Common European Framework of Reference (Council of

Europe, 2001), defined as someone who is somewhat conversationally fluent. In total,

students are to receive 1060 hours of classroom instruction, which would allow them to

progress from level A0 (a “true beginner”) in kindergarten to level B1 (intermediate) by

the end of ninth grade (secundaria in the Mexican system).

The purpose of learning English has developed periodically due to the demands

of English learners. In general, the purpose of learning the English language has

changed from reading comprehension to oral proficiency. This change is also linked to

changes and developments in academic theories and concepts (Richards & Rodgers,

2001). Many of the current theories and concepts are the result of the development of

traditional concepts. In other words, many scholars have decided to enhance and

improve the traditional theories in order to satisfy contemporary needs and demands of

current language learners. Language learning is gradual progress rather than a

completed goal; researchers and teachers continue to invest in learning concepts in

order to continue their teaching purpose (Kelly, 1969).

According to Kola Aina et. al., in 2013, The importance of English language for

enhancing educational attainment through improved communication ability can never be

over emphasized. Students who have so much difficulties with their communication skill
in English language may not function effectively, not only in English language but in

their academic and this is no reason than the fact that English language in Nigeria today

is the language of text-books and the language of instruction in schools. When

Students’ Proficiency in English Language is high, it will definitely affect and improve the

academic performance of such students. Nevertheless, where the proficiency in English

is lacking in any academic setting, it will definitely lower the academic performance of

such students. Adegboye, A. O. (1993) vehemently, revealed that lack of proficiency in

English language is one of the factors contributing to poor performance in Mathematics.

In his research, he observed that the performance of students in Mathematics’

examination at Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination (SSCE) is poor but

further stated that the performance in English is more than that of Mathematics and this

he linked to poor reading ability. He then suggests that there is need to improve the

teaching of English language to improve Mathematics’ education.

In the K to 12 curriculum, it covers Kindergarten and 12 years of basic education

(six years of primary education, four years of Junior High School, and two years of

Senior High School) to provide sufficient time for mastery of concepts and skills,

develop lifelong learners, and prepare graduates for tertiary education, middle-level

skills development, employment, and entrepreneurship (Official Gazette of the

Philippines, 2015). The 12 years or more is in accordance with international practice as

stipulated in the Washington Accord, Bologna Process as well as in the ASEAN and

APEC Mutual Recognition Projects and much more (Sarmiento & Orale, 2016). A

holistic human development is at the heart of the K to 12 basic education program. It

envisions a graduate who has a mastery of core competencies as well as a solid

training on work and life skills (Sergio, 2012). K to 12 Curriculum encompasses six

salient features as follows: a) strengthening early childhood education through universal

kindergarten; b) making the curriculum relevant to learners through contextualization

and enhancement; c) ensuring Integrated and Seamless Learning (Spiral Progression);

d) building proficiency through language (Mother tongue-based Multilingual Education);

e) gearing up for the future through Senior High School; and f) nurturing the holistically

developed Filipino through College and Livelihood Readiness, 21st Century Skills. After

going through Kindergarten, the enhanced Elementary and Junior High curriculum, and

a specialized Senior High program, every K to 12 graduate will be ready to go into

different paths – may it be further education, employment, or entrepreneurship. Every

graduate will be equipped with: a) information, media and technology skills; b) learning

and innovation skills; c) effective communication skills; and d) life and career skills

(Official Gazette of the Philippines, 2015). Preparing and implementing a K to 12

transition absorbs considerable financial and human resources. It follows that the

reasons for restructuring must be compelling. At the macro-level, apprehensions about

competitiveness in an interlocked and dynamic global economy or concerns about

growing inequities drive development agendas, which in turn shape sector development

plans. At the sector level, rationales for transition often include meeting international

norms and standards, better preparing students for life, conserving national identity, and

improving student competencies (Sarvi, Munger, & Pillay 2015).

In Asia, the Philippines was the last country to have a 10-year basic education

and pre-university program (SEAMEO & INNOTECH, 2012 as cited in Sarmiento &

Orale, 2016). Worldwide, the Philippines was joined by Djibouti and Angola of Africa
having the shortest pre-university education system with other countries having 13 or

14-year cycles (Senate of the Philippines, 2011 as cited in Sarmiento & Orale, 2016).

The ten-year Philippine basic education system became a disadvantage for Filipino

workers abroad and for those who intend to study outside the Philippines. Many Filipino

professionals desire working abroad for greener pastures but they tend to land a job

apart from the diploma they pursued in the Philippine higher education institutions.

Some persistent overseas workers submit themselves to state policies on earning

professional license besides having earned the same in their home country in order to

practice a profession abroad. Children of Filipino migrants to other countries tend to

repeat a grade level already earned in the Philippines or to enroll additional courses to

fit into the basic education program of their new home country (Cabansag, 2014).

The much-needed overhaul of the Philippine basic education system becomes a

reality through Republic Act 10533, also known as the Enhanced Basic Education Act,

which was passed last May 2013 making the pre-university and basic education from 10

to 13 years (Congress of the Philippines, 2011 as cited in Sarmiento & Orale, 2016).

The new curriculum, K to 12 is a landmark reform that brings the basic education of the

country at par with international standards. The K to 12 is also aimed at addressing the

deficiency of the Philippine educational system particularly in the basic education, the

elementary and high school, in order to meet the standards of the international

education criteria and for the students to be at par with the students in neighboring

countries (Alonzo, 2015). The program addresses the defects of the country’s basic

education curriculum. As claimed by the proponent of the K to 12 program, the

curriculum is seamless, ensuring the smooth transition between grade levels and
continuum of competencies. It is also relevant and responsive, enriched and learner-

centered curriculum (SEAMEO INNOTECH, 2012 as cited in Sarmiento & Orale, 2016).

In relation to this, English language education in our country, the Philippines, has

evolved multiple times to continually address the issues in developing the language

competencies and academic achievement of the Filipinos. However, with the

introduction and implementation of new policies, several debates have heated up

regarding the curriculum design and language teaching. Some of the notable issues, as

mentioned in Madrunio, Martin & Plata’s article on English Language Education in the

Philippines: Policies, Problems and Prospects (2016), include the medium of instruction

to use, the alignment of the educational system’s vision, content standards and

instruction especially in basic education, the absence of a clear and coherent

assessment framework, the effectiveness of the top-down processing, and the

challenges in the implementation of the K-12 in the country.

The most pervasive issue in regard with enhancing Filipino’s competence in

English, as a second language, and Filipino, the adopted national language, is about

the MOI to use especially in public schools. As a multilingual country, criticisms

opposed bilingual education when the linguistic minorities argued that using Filipino is

only favorable to Tagalogs and Manilans (Gonzales, 1990 in Madrunio, et al., 2016),

whereas English is good only for those areas with rich resources (Licuanan, 2007 in

Madrunio, et al., 2016). Moreover, the usage of the mother-tongue the MOI in grades 1-

3 in the 2013 EBEC is also being criticized by parents who favor enhancing their

children’s English literacy at early stages, especially in Manila and Tagalog-speaking

provinces.
 With the 2002 Revised Basic Education Curriculum and 2010 curriculum

anchored on Understanding by Design, ELE is viewed Integrated English Language

Arts in basic education level, which mainly focused on literature (Plata, 2010 in

Madrunio, et al., 2016). Apparently, being literature-based deviates from the goal of our

educational system for Filipino learners to “achieve a desired level of competence in

listening, speaking, reading, [and] writing” (2002 RBEC) and viewing. To exemplify,

literature competencies as “identifying elements of a specific genre and expressing

appreciation for sensory images used” (2013 K-12 English) do not necessarily require

the development of the five macro skills nor introduce to the students the functional

skills that will better help them survive life in the 21st century.

Related Studies

In the study of Martirosyan, et. al. entitled, “Impact of English Proficiency on

Academic Performance of International Students” in 2015, it is concluded that (a) there

are significant differences in the academic performances of international students with

different English language proficiency levels, and (b) there are significant differences in

the academic performance of international students who speak multiple languages. This

study intended to contribute to existing research on the relationship between English

language proficiency and academic performance of international students, and to fill the

research gap on the relationship between the number of languages spoken and

academic performance.
 The research project entitled “FACTORS INFLUENCING PERFORMANCE OF

ENGLISH AS A SUBJECT IN KENYA CERTIFICATE OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN

NAKURU TOWN, EAST SUB-COUNTY, KENYA” by Kotut in 2016, derived various

conclusions regarding factors influencing KCPE performance of English language in

primary schools in Nakuru Town East Sub-county, Kenya, as a result of the findings

from the study.

Firstly, the study concluded that training of teachers have no significant influence

on the performance of students in English in KCPE. Correlation analysis indicated that

teacher training has statistically significant relationship with students’ performance of

English in primary schools in Nakuru East sub-county. Therefore, teacher training alone

is not sufficient to enhance students’ performance of English.

Secondly, the study came to the conclusion that for the students, the presence of

teaching and learning materials has a significant influence on their performance of

English. Consequently, providing sufficient learning materials to the student is of

paramount importance in as far as performance of English is concerned. However, the

presence of teaching materials for the teachers has no significant influence on the

performance of the students in English. As such, it is much more important to provide

students with the learning materials since the same are used by the teachers in

teaching.

Thirdly, the study concluded that students’ attitudes significantly influence their

performance of English in primary schools in Nakuru East sub-county, Kenya. The

findings indicated a positive significant relationship between students’ attitude, and the

performance of English. Thus, boosting students’ attitude in learning English would

enhance their performance. To the contrary, teachers’ attitude on teaching and learning

had no significant relationship with the performance of students in English. As a result,

the study concluded that it is only students’ attitude and not teachers that influences

students’ performance of English in primary schools in Nakuru East Sub-County.

Additionally, the study led to the conclusion that on overall, teacher training,

presence of teaching and learning materials, and students attitudes significantly

influences students’ performance of English in primary schools in Nakuru East sub-

county Kenya. Thus, performance of English would greatly be enhanced through

improving on all these factors.

According to the study findings and discussions on the thesis of Simba in 2019

with the title “FACTORS INFLUENCING PUPILS’ ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN

ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN MWINGI CENTRAL SUB

COUNTY, KENYA”, the following conclusions were made:

Most of the public primary schools in Mwingi Central Sub County had a school

policy on languages but its implementation was weak. In most of the schools both

teachers and pupils were supposed to converse in English language four days per week

in order to enhance the English macro skills of speaking, listening, and writing. A few

schools that had enforced their policies were noted to have higher KCSE English mean

scores.

Over half of the public primary schools in Mwingi Central Sub County had

adequate
English text books for class eight learners. Additionally, there sufficient materials such

as felt pens, manila papers, adhesive tapes and other teaching aids. However, there

was a laxity among teachers to issue the books and make use of the available materials

as teaching aids. Since English assignments were expected to be given on daily basis it

was appropriate for each learner to have the main pupils’ text book. Most of the schools

lacked audio, audio visual instruments and generally ICT materials. Thus ICT integrated

teaching and learning was not possible. The few schools that had these materials were

found to have performed relatively better in KCSE English.

English teachers in Mwingi Central Sub County used various teaching techniques

such as group discussion, eliciting and scaffolding, question and answer, among others.

However, debating and research-oriented techniques that could enhance composition

writing were rarely used.

Apart from the main scheduled monthly and terminal tests, most of the teachers

did not have other assessment tests citing the challenge of marking and recording due

to high pupil to teacher ratio. Rampant use of readymade tests exposed most of the

schools to low quality English and left both teachers and pupils deprived of the critical

concepts in language acquisition. Thus, pupils are doomed to fail when required to

apply the learned concepts in a different situation in KCPE. It was also established that

self-assessment techniques that could greatly enhance pupils competence in writing

macro skill was hardly practiced.

In the article “Factors Affecting Students' Achievement in English Language

Learning” by El-Omari in 2016, secondary school students' achievement at learning of

English as a foreign language is clearly affected by different factors. The aptitude to

learn English as a foreign language is high. This is realized form the high-status which

English has obtained in most walks of life. English has become a necessity to excel in

science and technology and to catch up with the ever-developing discoveries and

inventions. Policy makers are called upon to take care of the welfare of individuals and

societies whose lives are strongly affected by modern life requirements where English is

the main means of communication (this does not mean neglecting the role Arabic, their

own language, has in this regard). The four factors this article investigates are closely

related to the learning of English as a foreign language. Therefore, improving the

environment to raise learners' achievement at learning English should receive more

attention from educationists and linguists. Public and private sectors are called upon to

work hand in hand to take care of English language university graduates to excel in

using English by providing English departments at universities with English language

learning facilities and organize activities in which English is the medium language. The

same could be done at schools for more contact and communication in English.

Factors affecting school students' language learning achievement has been the

concern of socio-linguists and educationist since the last quarter of the twentieth

century. Ramirez, (1986) conducted a study on students in a small rural school taught

by the same teacher. It was found that the communicative abilities of students in the

rural school were lower than those in urban schools. Moreover, urban school students

produced more descriptions and speech acts.

The issue has gained more interest with the beginning of the twenty first century.

Genc and Aydin (2011) examined some factors affecting the motivation level of the

preparatory school students in using a web-based computer-assisted language-learning

course. The sample group of the study consisted of 126 English-as-a-foreign-language

learners at a preparatory school of a state university. It was found that there were no

statistical differences between such selected demographic variables as learners' age,

gender, grades, compulsory and optional status, type of high school, parents'

educational status, the period of the participants' language-learning process, and

experience of computer use. The only variable found to be statistically significant was

the degree of importance of learning English for the participants; more than half the

participants possess moderately high motivation level. Jurkovic (2010) examined the

effect of two factors on achievement test scores in English as a foreign language for

specific purposes in higher education: preexisting linguistic competence and frequency

of use of language learner strategies. The results of this study indicated a statistically

significant positive effect of general linguistic competence on achievement test scores.

Among the constructs of language learner strategies, however, the only construct

having a statistically significant effect on achievement test scores was metacognitive

strategies. Suh et al (2010) investigated the effectiveness of massive multiplayer online

roleplaying game (MMORPG)-based (massive multiplayer online role-playing game)

instruction in elementary English education. The results indicated that students studying

English utilizing online role-playing games showed higher scores in areas of listening,

reading, and writing than those who attended face-to-face instruction classes. It was

also found that prior knowledge, motivation for learning, and network speed were

factors affecting achievement in English learning.

Hungi and Thuku (2010) employed a multilevel analysis procedure in order to

examine the pupil and school levels factors that contributed to variation in reading
achievement among Grade 6 primary school pupils in 14 southern African school

systems. The most important factors affecting variation in pupil achievement across

most of these school systems were grade repetition, pupil socioeconomic background,

speaking the language of instruction at home, and pupil age. South Africa, Uganda and

Namibia were among the school systems with the largest between-school variation

while Seychelles and Mauritius had the largest within-school variation. Low social equity

in reading achievement was evident in Mauritius, Seychelles and Tanzania. Small

(2010) reported that children whose parents are involved with their education tend to

perform better in school. Students demonstrate higher academic and behavior levels,

have higher aspirations, and display other positive school behaviors when parents are

knowledgeable, encouraging, and involved. It is agreed that parental involvement can

positively impact student achievement in urban schools. Findings indicate that two

significant factors affecting parents' active involvement are the time school events or

interactions are scheduled, and direct communication from the school, such as personal

invitations to attend events. The study also identifies effective strategies to increase

parental involvement applicable to similar urban school settings.

Woo (2009) investigated the multiple factors affecting English language learners'

(ELLs) low reading achievement in standardized tests by exploring the complex,

hierarchical relation in student, classroom, and school levels. Specifically, this study (a)

identified the impact of student-, teacher-, and school characteristics on ELLs and non-

ELLs' standardized reading achievement and (b) examined how these characteristics

impact on their reading achievements differently for ELLs and non-ELLs. The HLM

(hierarchical linear modeling) analyses determined that some factors were related to
ELLs' and non-ELLs' reading achievement differently after controlling for student,

teacher, and school variables. Specifically, the frequency of a language other than

English spoken at home yielded different results for ELLs and non-ELLs. The frequency

of a language other than English spoken at home was a significant, positive predictor of

reading achievement for ELLs.

Meanwhile, it was a non-significant, negative predictor for non-ELLs. Positive

influence of the frequent uses of a language other than English at home on ELLs'

reading performance implied a positive effect of first-language speaking on ELLs'

reading. Another implication that this study brought was the importance of providing

equal opportunity to learn to all students. Huang and Brown (2009) discussed the

cultural factors that affect Chinese students' academic learning at North American

universities. They found that university classrooms are failing to meet the educational

expectations of Chinese students. Students mentioned six areas where they feel

discomfort: (1) They feel uncomfortable with the classroom behavior of North American

students; (2) They question the value of a professorial focus on discussion rather than

lecture; (3) They query the professor's failure to follow the textbook; (4) They feel there

is too much emphasis on group work; (5) They note a lack of lecture summaries along

with an apparent lack of organization; and (6) They share no common interests (e.g.

sports, religion) with their North American counterparts.

Harb and El-Shaarawi (2007) found that the most important factor which affected

student performance was their competence in speaking English. The sample was a

group of 864 business and economics students in The United Arab Emirates. The

authors used regression analysis for the study. The results of the study showed that
students who participated in class discussions and who were on leave from their jobs

outperformed other students. Missing many lectures and living in a crowded household

negatively affected student performance. The results of the study also showed that non-

national students outperformed national students, and female students outperformed

their male counterparts. Helm (2007) reviewing several related research suggested that

if a model could be developed to guarantee student success it would include a teacher

who: (1) is highly qualified; (2) possesses the proper teaching license for their area; (3)

possesses the dispositions of caring and empathy; (4) has a strong work ethic and

critical thinking ability; (5) has supportive classroom parents; (6) has an eighteen to one

pupil-teacher ratio; and (7) has adequate funding. Kang (2006) examined factors that

affected a Korean

physician's learning and use of ESL in an English-speaking country. Data from

interviews, observations, notebook memos and e-mails were used. The findings

indicated that individual factors: personality (perfectionism and extroversion),

occupation, beliefs, and motivation, and social-contextual factors: lack of contact with

native speakers and insecurity about speaking English in the presence of other

Koreans, influenced the participant's learning and use of ESL.

The findings also revealed that the participant's motivation and extroversion

played a role in overcoming the socialcontextual obstacles limiting learning

opportunities, which illustrates interactions between individual and social-contextual

factors. In another study, Aduwa-Ogiegbaen and Iyamu (2006) examined the factors

responsible for the poor quality of the teaching of English as a second language in

public secondary schools across the six geopolitical zones in Nigeria. Three thousand
senior secondary school students were asked to respond to a questionnaire consisting

of three variables: (1) Frequency of the use of instructional media; (2) Frequency of the

use of instructional techniques; and (3) The school learning environment. Results

revealed that English language teachers do not frequently use modern instructional

technologies and variety of teaching techniques in their English language lessons. It

was also found that students learn under harsh environment, which is often rowdy,

congested and noisy. Lamb et al (2006) provided an overview of the major factors and

interventions affecting migrant students' academic performance/outcomes. Factors

outside the school, such as poverty, family, and English language proficiency, are

discussed. Next, factors inside the school, such as student records, credit accrual, and

school curriculum, will be reviewed. May et al (2006) carried out a study with students

and staff from a college of further education in south London. The college has a mix of

male and female students from a range of ethnic groups, the largest of which is white

British. In this article the qualitative findings from data on the experiences and

perceptions of the staff and full -time students are discussed in the context of the

variable completion and achievement rates of the students and results from other

studies. The main themes linked to ethnicity, gender, completion and achievement

emerging from the analysis indicate broad agreement between students and staff over

issues around learning and teaching and written and spoken English; however, their

particular perspectives led to their having differing views on the most important factors

external to the college and those affecting student motivation. Abedi and Gandara

(2006) studied the factors that contribute to the performance gap between subgroups

and mainstream students. To understand and control for factors leading to the
performance gap between subgroups and mainstream students one must clearly

understand the issues specific to each subgroup. They focus on assessment and

performance issues for English language learner (ELL) students as a subgroup.

Identifying factors affecting the performance gap between ELL and non-ELL students

may help gain insight into assessment issues for other subgroups of students as well as

strengthen assessment of this group.

Saeed, Gondal, and Bushra (2005) conducted a paper which aimed to focus on

achievement level of primary grade students in different subjects taught at primary level

and the factors affecting the student achievement in this regard. The instruments were:

the achievement tests in three subjects mathematics, Urdu (national language) and life

skills (Islamyat, social studies and science); and questionnaires for teachers and

students to know various possible factors affecting achievement. Overall the

performance of the female students was relatively better than their male partners.

Location-wise, the rural students performed better than the urban students. Among the

factors affecting students achievement were parental education, their occupation and

guidance, teacher guidance, social status, transport facility, self study, book reading and

home work--all have a positive or negative correlation with students' achievement. This

paper is of use to those wishing to understand the achievement levels of students at

primary grade in developing countries.

Andreou et al (2005) studied the affecting factors in second language learning.

They investigated the influence of gender, among other factors, on the performance of

phonological, syntactical and semantic tasks in L2. Females performed better than

males in syntax and semantics which is explained by the general female superiority on
verbal tasks based on differences in hemispheric specializations for language functions

between the two sexes.

Based on the findings of Racca and Lasaten in 2016, the study, “English

Language Proficiency and Academic Performance of Philippine Science High School

Students” concludes that majority of the Grade 8 students of the Philippine Science

High School in Northern Luzon have English language proficiency belonging to the

satisfactory level.

Further, the study concludes that the students’ academic performance in Science

and Mathematics fall under the very good level while good level in English. Likewise,

the study concludes that there is a significant relationship that exists between the

students’ English language proficiency and their academic performance in Science,

Mathematics and English. The higher the English language proficiency levels of the

students are the higher their academic performance levels in Science, Mathematics and

English.

Thus, the study further concludes that students’ English language proficiency

could be a predictor in the students’ academic performance in Science, Mathematics

and English since the medium of instruction used in the teaching of the said subjects is

English. Thus, English language program in school should be prioritized.

In the study of Gemora and Arellano in 2016, entitled “Performance and

Students’ Attitude towards English Subjects: Basis for a Language Skills Program”,

Owing to their contextual understanding, the Teacher Education students yielded

positive attitude towards English as a subject. This is more likely attributed to their
background, stored knowledge, and frequent use of English as required in their basic

education curricula and may sometimes their language used at home. They may have

also known its pivotal role in global communication. Perhaps, English becomes an

interesting subject to them because it may have provided them varied comprehension,

problem solving and critical thinking activities as enhancement to their proficiency of the

language. It also serves as a foundation for the rest of the subjects in elementary, high

school or college.

According to Barrot in 2018, in her study, “English Curriculum Reform in the

Philippines: Issues and Challenges from a 21st Century Learning Perspective”, the

Philippines has initiated English curriculum reforms to respond effectively to the

demands of21st century education and the current educational problems of the country

such as low achievement test scores and congested curriculum. Overall, the current

curriculum may need to improve its clarity, specificity, and internal coherence as well as

the integration of some essential principles of21st century learning and language

teaching and learning.

Given these findings, teachers may encounter various challenges in

implementing the curriculum. First, the teachers may not be able to fully practice

principled teaching in their respective classrooms because of the lack of integration of

essential principles of 21st century language pedagogy. The lack of specificity and

clarity of the curriculum may also contribute to the mismatch between what teachers

want to teach and what learners want or need to learn. Moreover, the gap between the

intended and implemented curriculum is more likely to happen if the curriculum is not

clear to the teachers. This is because teachers tend to interpret curriculum in a way that
it conforms to their own teaching style and beliefs (Rahman, 2014). As such, policy

makers may need to clarify some provisions in the LAMC and specify ways on how the

new English curriculum can be translated into specific classroom practices. It may be

necessary to incorporate examples of classroom practice after each outcome statement

to show how various components can be linked with one another.

Another potential challenge that might be encountered is the changing of

teachers’ views on their role as a facilitator of learning (not merely as a knowledge

transmitter), on the role of their students, and on the teaching-learning process including

assessment. Thus, teachers’ skills and knowledge need to be upgraded and enriched

through teacher training to match the demand of the new curriculum. Training and

orientation must be given as early as pre-service training and teacher education

courses. These trainings should be continuous and developmental to provide them

sufficient support and knowledge in implementing the changes (Malderez & Wedell,

2007). Since teachers interpret curricula in the light of their own teaching style and

embedded framework, training should also focus on helping teachers embrace new

ideas in teaching English. As emphasized by Kırkgöz (2008), in-service and pre-service

trainings have a positive impact on the teacher’s ability to embrace and implement

curricular innovations. Finally, there is the issue of very limited instructional time. In

total, students spent about 160hours of instruction in the LAMC over the 40-week

academic year. This meant four hours per week contact time. Unless out-of-class

activities that expose students to L2 samples are explicitly provided, the reduction in the

English subject makes the contact hours fewer than what is needed to see a

measurable progress; that is at least 200 hours per year (Nunan, 2003). Thus, future
revisions of the curriculum may require the inclusion out-of-class activities that will

reinforce and supplement in-class contact hours. Moreover, with only four instructional

hours per week, teachers might struggle to cover eight to ten different learning

competencies in one week. To address this issue, English curriculum for lower grade

levels may focus mainly on fostering positive attitudes towards communication rather

than treating it as a means of starting English language education (Butler & Iino,2005).

It might be necessary also to integrate some of the related learning competencies

and/or focus on the essential ones. In other words, the LAMC should aim to provide

quality rather than quantity.

Summary of Related Literature and Studies Review

The study has reviewed literature on the factors that influence learners’

proficiency and academic performance in English from all over the world. As the

demand for English has increased across Asia, English education has become more

prominent in the national curricula of these countries – in part to better equip school

leavers for the job market, not just locally, but all over the world.

Some literature reviewed state that where the proficiency in English is lacking in

any academic setting, it will definitely lower the academic performance of such students,

especially in the subjects Mathematics and Science.. There are also various factors that

affect English proficiency among learners and it varies in different countries. In the

Philippines, there are many challenges in the English proficiency of learners especially

after the implementation of the K to 12 curriculum.

 The factors cited in the literature this article reviews are mainly social, situational,

socioeconomic, attitudinal, or extracurricular. The factors cover issues such as students'

age, gender, grades, type or location of school. Student families' situation and position,

parents' education status is also amongst the factors the literature reviews, as well as

linguistic competence and frequency of use of language learner strategies. The factors

also cover the teacher’s capacity and attitude towards teaching the English Language

and the availability of materials in the teaching – learning process.