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Halitosis and Periodontal Diseases

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 Halitosis

PERIODONTOLOGY
REVIEW ARTICLE

HALITOSIS
1
FARZEEN TANWIR, BDS, C orth, PhD
2
IMRAN ABDUL MOMIN, BDS

ABSTRACT

Halitosis is a broad term describing a range of unpleasant or offensive odours emitted in the
breath, due to multiple causes.2 Volatile sulphur compounds may be the main source of oral malodor.
The source may be oral or non-oral. Non-oral causes of bad breath are mostly related to systemic
conditions and/or drugs prescribed by the physicians to treat medical conditions such as diabetes,
liver disorder, kidney malfunctioning, pulmonary disease etc. Medications which reduce salivary flow
like antipsychotics, narcotics, antidepressants, decongestants, antihistamines and antihypertensives
may also be responsible.3 Oral causes of bad odor are mainly the gram-negative anaerobic bacteria,
especially those localized at posterior surface of the tongue and within the surface of tongue and in
throat.
Oral malodours were drastically reduced after treating chronic periodontitis. Diagnosis can be
confirmed by one of the 3 techniques which are; Organoleptic measurement, Gas Chromatography and
Sulphide Monitoring. The treatment plan comprises elimination of the causative agent and improve-
ment of the oral health status.
Key words: Halitosis, Periodontitis, Organoleptic score, Volatile sulphur compounds, Malodor

INTRODUCTION Classification

Bad breath usually originates in the oral cavity. Yaegaki and Coil (2000)5 classified halitosis into
It has different names; oral malodor, foetor ex ore, three categories: Genuine halitosis, Pseudo-halitosis
or halitosis. Bacterial products from deep periodontal and Halitophobia.
pockets, food stagnating in dental cavities and tongue Genuine Halitosis is an oral malodor beyond socially
coating cause bad breath. Bacterial products from acceptable levels and can be subdivided into Physiologi-
tonsils and pharynx may also be involved.1 Role of cal halitosis and Pathological halitosis and in some
anaerobic oral bacteria is important. They can flourish cases both may exist concurrently. Physiological Hali-
and survive in an atmosphere where oxygen is not tosis occurs through digestive process in the GI tract
present. They live in between the papillae (fibers) e.g intake of garlic or spicy foods, or through normal
that make up the tongue. These bacteria assist in putrefactive processes in oral cavity2,6,7 and is not asso-
digestion by breakdown of proteins found in specific ciated to systemic disease or any pathology.2 Pathologi-
food, blood, diseased oral tissue and mucous. Proteins cal Halitosis may have intra-oral and extra-oral etiol-
are amino acids; two basic types Cysteine and Methion- ogy. Intra-oral causes could be compromised periodon-
ine are rich in sulphur. In some circumstances these tal status, or pathology of mucous membranes, whereas
oral bacteria start breaking down proteins at a very extra-oral causes include respiratory tract infections
rapid rate hence more sulphur deposits and worse or systemic disorders, such as uncontrolled diabetes
aroma.3,4 mellitus, liver cirrhosis and kidney diseases.2,7

1
For Correspondence: Dr Farzeen Tanwir, Director of Postgraduate Studies and Research, Assistant
Professor & Incharge of Periodontology Department, Ziauddin University, 4/B, Shahrah-e-Ghalib, Clifton
Karachi–76500, Pakistan. Tel: (9221) 35862937-9, Fax: 35862940, Cell: 0301-2229469, Email:
[email protected], [email protected]
2
Lecturer, Department of Periodontology

Pakistan Oral & Dental Journal Vol 31, No. 2 (December 2011) 304
 Halitosis

Pseudo-Halitosis is described as a condition in present in the oral cavity. Amongst these variety of
which patient believes significant malodour is pre- bacterial organisms the most associated with periodon-
sent but on examination there is no evident pungent tal and periapical inflam-mations and infections in-
odour.2 clude Prophyromonas gingivalis, Treponema denticola
and Prophyromonas endodontalis which are rarely
Halitophobia is a psychic problem characterized by
found in healthy oral cavity.10
patients assumption that he or she is having halitosis
in spite of reassurance, treatment and necessary coun- Physical and chemical conditions of the oral
seling.2,6,9 Halitophobia patients should be referred to cavity in producing malodour
psychiatrists.6
The pH, pO2 (oxygen level), and Eh (oxidation-
Etiology of Halitosis reduction potential) varies depending on bacterial
metabolism. If the sources of nutrient for bacterial
Oral conditions like acute necrotizing ulcerative
metabolism are carbohydrates, their fermentation
gingivitis (ANUG), severe periodontitis, dry socket,
ulcers and other oral diseases are most likely to cause move the oral environment to an acidic side on pH
scale, and it ultimately limits the volatile sulphur
oral malodour.10 Delanghe et al presented the scientific
compound production. Whereas if the source is simply
information regarding the origin of oral malodour.11
They examined 260 patients and reported that 87% of a protein whose metabolic end result like nitrogenous
compounds e.g, urea shift the oral environment to a
the patients had halitosis which were of oral origin, 8%
higher pH scale. Therefore the neutral or alkaline
of them had malodour which originated from ears, nose
and throat whereas in 5% of the patients etiology was nature of the oral cavity favors the volatile sulphur
compound production hence causing halitosis and typi-
unknown. Amongst the group of oral origin halitosis,
cal bad breath.10
41% of them had tongue coating, 31% were having
gingivitis and remaining 28% were periodontally com- Role of Substrates
promised patients.10, 11 Halitosis can be due to the result
of serious systemic illness. Anaerobic infections of Saliva is a composite of discharge from salivary
upper respiratory tract like tonsillitis and sinusitis, glands along with different species of bacteria, desqua-
abscess in lungs or any neoplasm can be the cause of mated epithelium, leukocytes and food debris. Saliva is
oral malodour. Systemic causes are unusual but are odorless under normal circumstances. When the pH of
very important in dealing with a patient of bad breath. saliva fluctuates it develops a pungent smell. Saliva is
Such conditions include liver failures or infections, rich in urea and proteins under normal conditions and
diabetic acidosis and trimethylaminuria.10 glucose and carbohydrates components are in very
little amounts. High protein proportion in saliva aids in
Aromatic gases expelled continuously from the
oral cavity are also the cause of halitosis. Volatile
sulphur compounds like hydrogen sulphide, methyl
mercaptan, and dimethyl sulphide are the gases which
are mostly involved in causing halitosis. Other non-
sulphur gases are also known to be involved in causing
bad breath as Volatile aromatic compounds like indole,
skatole, organic acids like acetic and propionic and
amines like cadaverin and putrescine.10, 12

Volatile sulphur compounds are formed mainly due

to putrefactive activities of bacteria in oral cavity in
saliva, gingival sulcus, tongue and other sites within
oral cavity (Flow chart 1).10, 13

Role of Bacterial agents in producing Halitosis

The odoriferous compounds responsible for Halito- Flow Chart – 1: Production of Volatile Sulphur
sis are formed only because of suitable microorganisms Compounds (VSCs) 10

Pakistan Oral & Dental Journal Vol 31, No. 2 (December 2011) 305
 Halitosis

TABLE 1: MALODOR POSSIBLE CAUSES AND SOURCES15

Problem Probable cause / sources of Halitosis
Odor after fasting, dieting, sleeping, taking Dryness in the mouth, insufficient saliva flow
medications, prolonged speaking, exercise
Gums bleed and / or smell Gum problems, poor cleaning between teeth
Odor upon talking Postnasal drip on back of tongue
Odor at onset of menstrual cycle Swelling of gums
Small whitish stones with foul odour appear on tongue Tonsilloliths from crypts in tonsils
Odor appears suddenly from mouth of young students Onset of throat infection
Odor appears suddenly from nose of young children Foreign body placed in nose
Taste or smell of rotten fish Trimethylaminuria (rare)
Odor in denture wearers Dentures kept in mouth at night or not cleaned
properly
Odor from nose Sinusitis, polyps, dryness, foreign body,
hindered air or mucus flow
Bad taste all day long Poor oral hygiene, gum disease , excessive
bacterial activity on tongue

TABLE 2: ORGANOLEPTIC SCORES10,26 production of volatile sulphur compound which is the

Organoleptic Scale (0-5) major cause of halitosis.10

0 = no appreciable odor Approximately 30% of the population suffers

from bad breath upon wakening (morning breath),
1 = barely noticeable odor
and the reason is decreased salivary flow from
2 = slight but noticeable odor major salivary glands, causing dry mouth (xerostomia).
3 = moderate odor Dry mouth can be due to multiple causes such as by
use of various medications, salivary glands problem
4 = strong odor
or continuous breathing from mouth.10,14 During the
5 = extremely foul odor sleep, especially at night salivary glands slow down.
In elders they stops secreting saliva, and ultimately
when saliva is decreased mouth becomes dry and
TABLE 3: TREATMENT NEEDS (TN) hence bad breath. For people who are mouth brea-
FOR HALITOSIS10 thers and who snore at night, the continuous flow of
Category Description air from palate creates a parched area on tongue and
TN - 1 Explanation of halitosis and instruc- becomes breeding ground for anaerobic bacteria thus
tions for oral hygiene (support and initiating the putrefaction process that cause bad
reinforcement) breath.10
TN - 2 Oral prophylaxis, professional clean- Role of Tongue surface
ing and treatment for oral diseases
especially periodontal disease Tongue surface serves as the chief source for
production of volatile sulphur compounds both in healthy
TN – 3 Referral to a physician or medical and in periodontally compromised patients. Anaerobic
specialist
bacteria can flourish and survive in an atmosphere
TN – 4 Explanation of examination data, where oxygen is not present, and for this particular
further professional instructions, reason they are present on the surface of the tongue as
education and reassurance
tongue coating. They also live in between the papillae
TN - 5 Referral to a clinical psychologist, that make up the tongue.3,4,10 The morphology and
psychiatrist or other psychological anatomy of tongue in some patients is such that deep
specialist fissures and crypts are present and they protect the

Pakistan Oral & Dental Journal Vol 31, No. 2 (December 2011) 306
 Halitosis

microorganisms from flushing away and also favors Diagnosis of Halitosis

them in creating an environment where they can
Diagnosing bad odor from an individual is mainly
survive in low oxygen levels.10 Table 1. 15
done by three techniques: organoleptic measurement/
Relationship between Periodontal problems and Sniff test, gas chromatography and sulphide monitor-
Halitosis ing.10,27
Organoleptic Measurement can be done by sniffing
Up to date evidence has confirmed an obvious
the individual’s breath to score oral bad breath. A
relation between halitosis and compromised periodon-
translucent tube (2.5cm diameter and 10cm length) is
tal conditions. Microorganisms colonizing the tongue
given to the patient to exhale slowly into the tube to
and periodontal sulcus aids in the formation of volatile
collect the exhaled breath undiluted by room air. The
sulphur compounds in both periodontally healthy indi-
exhaled breath in the tube is later evaluated and given
viduals and periodontally compromised diseased indi-
a suitable score from organoleptic measuring table
vidual.22 Yaegaki et al in a study stated that periodontal
(Table 2).25 For organoleptic measuring method it is
pocket is the main source for volatile sulphur com-
necessary for both the patient and the observer to
pounds in aggressive periodontitis.10,23
follow certain sets of guidelines. The patients are pre
Oral malodors in periodontally compromised pa- informed to desist from strong foods at least 48 hours
tients were also related with thick tongue coating, as prior the test. The patients are also instructed to avoid
tongue is a territory for oral microorganisms and using any scented cosmetics 24 hours prior appearing
therefore the potential need for tongue cleaning as part for the organoleptic measuring test. They are also
of daily oral hygiene.17,18,22 Volatile sulphur compounds warned to limit their usual oral hygiene practices like
are a family of gases which are solely responsible for oral rinses, breath fresheners, tea or coffee, juices and
bad breath, a condition in which offensive odors are smoking at least 12 hours prior the test. The examiner
expelled from the oral cavity of an individual. Amongst should have a normal sense of smell, and should avoid
VSC the hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and methyl mercaptan doing smoking, drinking tea, coffee, juices or drinks
(CH3SH) are chiefly accountable for causing objection- before or during the assessment.10,26
able mouth odor. Production of these gases especially Gas Chromatography is considered to be the Gold
the production of methyl mercaptan (CH3SH), at high standard to measure bad breath because it is specific
levels is principally limited to periodontal pathogens. for VSCs, which is the main etiology of halitosis.10 Gas
The methyl mercaptan (CH3SH) not only increases the chromatography is the preferable technique.27 The GC
permeability of intact mucosa but also stimulates apparatus is huge and costly, therefore an expert
production of cytokines which have been associated operator is needed to operate this equipment and its
with periodontal disease. In addition to it methyl use has been limited to research purpose only and not
mercaptan are also capable of inducing toxic changes in for clinical use.10
both the extracellular matrix and the local immune
response of periodontium to plaque antigens. 19 Sulphide monitoring is done by sulphide monitors to
Considerable associations have been found between measure total sulphur content of the individual’s ex-
oral malodour and the specific periodontal para- pelled air. The equipment used for it is cheap, handy
meter. Levels of oral malodour were drastically re- and simple to use.10
duced after treating chronic periodontitis via non- Treatment of Halitosis
surgical periodontal treatment procedures and laser
applications.20 The treatment modalities include the following:
(Table 3)
The amounts of volatile sulfur compounds and
1. Oral hygiene instructions to emphasize and
methyl mercaptan/hydrogen sulfide ratio in expelled
encourage brushing, flossing and denture hy-
air from patients with periodontal involvement were 8
giene.
times greater than the individuals with healthy peri-
odontium, and volatile sulphur compound concentra- 2. Mechanically scaling and root planning of the
tion was 19% less in periodontally healthy individu- root pockets, and tongue cleaning can help in
als.10,21 eradicating the cause of halitosis.

Pakistan Oral & Dental Journal Vol 31, No. 2 (December 2011) 307
 Halitosis

3. Using a mouthwash to control halitosis. 10 Marino Sanz, Silvia Roldan, David Herrera. Fundamentals of
Breath Malodour 2001;2(4):1-13.
4. Dietary guidance to emphasize mouth cleaning 11 Delanghe G, Bollen C, van Steenberghe D, et. al. foetor ex ore.
after eating or drinking dairy products, fish, Ned. Tijdsch. Tandheelkd. 1998;105:314-17.
meat, garlic, onion, coffee, and smoking. 12 Goldberg S, Kozlovsky A, Gordon D, et al. Cadaverine as a
putative component of oral malodor. J Dent Res 1994 Jun;
5. Regular follow up visits.28 73(6):1168-72.

CONCLUSION 13 Yaegaki K, Sanada K. Volatile sulfur compounds in mouth air

from clinically healthy subjects and patients with periodontal
disease J. Periodontal Res.1992 Jul;27(4 Pt 1):233-38.
From the above review it is concluded that volatile
sulfur compounds and tongue coating score were dras- 14 ADA; http://www.ada.org/public/faq/breath.html; 2002 Jun.

tically reduced after scraping of tongue was done along 15 Mel Rosenberg: 1996 Jun; http://www.tau.ac.il/~melros/bda/
with periodontal therapy provided to the patients. index.html

Tongue coating could re-build up therefore oral hy- 16 Morita M, Wang HL. Association between Oral malodor and
adult periodontitis. J Clin Periodontal. 2001 Sep;28(9):
giene instructions should be given to the patients to 813-19.
control it. Thus results indicated that tongue scraping
17 Morita M, Wang HL. Relationship between sulcular sulphide
can improve malodor extensively. The study shows level and oral malodor in subjects with periodontal disease. J
that halitosis is highly associated with bad oral hy- Periodontol. 2001 Jan;72(1):79-84.
giene, periodontitis and tongue coating. It is not easy 18 H Takeuchi, M Machigashira, D Yamashita et al. The Associa-
to assess to what extent periodontal treatment alone is tion of Periodontal disease with oral malodour in a Japanese
population. Oral Dis. 2010 Oct;16(7):702-06.
helpful in controlling halitosis. Therefore periodontal
therapy in combination with tongue scraping appears 19 Ratcliff PA, Johnson PW. The relationship between oral
malodor, gingivitis, and periodontitis. A review. J Periodontol.
fruitful in controlling oral pathogenic halitosis. 1999 May;70(5):485-89.

20 Kara C, Demir T, Orbak R, Tezel A. Effect of Nd: YAG

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Pakistan Oral & Dental Journal Vol 31, No. 2 (December 2011) 308

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