]PERMEABLE ZONE LOGS[ PE 520

Introduction:-
The first step in analyzing a set of logs, as outline previously, is to pick
out the permeable zones, which may be sand or carbonates, and discard
the impermeable shales.

The logs used for this purpose are the Spontaneous Potential log (SP) and
the Gamma Ray log (GR).

The two logs distinguish shales from non shales by quite different
mechanisms. The (SP) is an electrical measurement and the (GR) a
unclear measurement, sometimes when the one is poor, the other is
usually good.

Fig (1) compares (SP) and (GR) log in typical soft rock sand and shales.

Fig (1) compares (SP) and (GR) logs, soft formation (from applied open hole log
interpretation, courtesy D.W.Hilchie)

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Spontaneous potential (SP) log:-

In 1928 Conrad and Marcel Schlumberger discovered that a
Spontaneous Potential (SP) was generated in a well drilled with fresh
mud.

The SP log is a recording of the difference in electrical potential between

a fixed electrode at the surface and a movable electrode in the borehole.

The hole must be filled with conductive mud. No SP can be measured in

oil-base mud, empty holes, or cased holes. The scale of the SP log is in
mill volts.

The SP log curve is used to:-

 Select permeable zones

 Provide Rw values
 Estimate the degree of shale lines of reservoir rock.

Unit of measurement:-
Mill volts, the scale values being normally 10 to 20mv per scale
division. In salty muds scales of 4 to 5 mv/division are often used.

Calibration:-
By measuring galvanometer deflection for known electrical
potential source.

Objectives and property measured:-

Objectives are multiple as follow:-

1-formation water resistivity (Rw), may be obtained from fig(2) because

the SP deflections observe are a measure of the resistivity contrast
between mud filtrate in the well bore (Rmf) and formation water (Rw).

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Fig (2) for the determination of equivalent water resistivity Rwe, from the
electrochemical SP, Ec.

2- bed boundaries and effective pay thickness, it is shown in fig(3) to f

that an inflection point in SP curve always marks the boundary or contact
between shales and porous formations (sandstone and carbonates), even
though such formations may be highly resistive. Deflections on the (SP)
curve with negative trends (-) always indicate shales or shaly sections
whereas those with positive trends (+) always indicate porous and
permeable formations.

By eliminating sections having negative trends in a gross section showing

porosity on derives the effective pay. This procedure is known as making
as sand count.

3- Geologic correlation. Geologic correlation is one of the main uses of

the SP curve.

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Fi
g (3) SP curve shapes- thick beds

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Source of spontaneous potential:-

Fi
g (4) origin of spontaneous potential

The potential sensed is a combination of four electrical potential set in

motion of when the drill hole penetrates the formations.

These are shown in fig (4) with polarities appropriate for the usual fresh-
mud case where Rmf > Rw. They are, in order of importance.

An electrochemical potential, Esh, existing across the impermeable shale

between it is horizontal interface with a permeable zone and vertical
interface with the borehole.

Esh = - 59.1log (Rmfe/Rmce) (1)

An electrochemical potential, Ed, existing across the transition between

invaded and non invaded zones in the permeable bed.

Ed = -11.5 log (Rmfe/Rwe) (2)

An electro kinetic potential, Emc, existing across the mud cake.

Emc = 0.04P√ Rmc∗t mc∗f (3)

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Where:-
P = pressure differential between bore hole and formation, Psi
Rmc = mud cake resistivity, ohm.m
tmc = mud cake thickness, in
f = API water loss of the mud, cc/30min.

An electro kinetic potential, Esh, existing across a thin layer of shale next
the bore hole.

The total potential:-

Normally the net electro kinetic potential is negligible so that the total SP,
denoted SP (SSP), it is the electrochemical contribution.

SSP = - (61+0.13T) log (Rmfe/Rwe) (4)

Where:-
SSP = is in mill volts.
T = is in °f.

This is the fundamental SP equation. It is an important relation as it is

used to derive Rw from measured values of SSP and Rmf.

Application of SP log:-
1) to detect layer boundary.
2) to remark porous, permeable layers.
3) litho logical classification.
4) Rw determinations.
5) shale volume content (Vsh).
SSP−SPreading
Vsh = SSP
(5)

Where:
SSP=is the mv from shale line to sand line.

SPreading=is the mv for any formation.

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SP behavior over along log:-

As indicated by eq (5), the SP becomes zero when Rmfe=Rwe, they have the
same salinity, there is no SP potential or current flow (i.e.) no deflection.

When Rmfe<Rwe is reversed SP, then the deflection the right (+ve).

When Rmfe>Rwe the SP increases in magnitude (negatively) the deflection

to left (-ve).

As fig (5) illustrates. The SP in the permeable bed at 6300ft is normal; the
SP at 9100ft is reversed.

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Fig (5) example of normal and reversed SP deflections

Computation of Rw from the SP log :-

Eq(5)is used extensively to determine the formation water resistivity that
is required for water saturation calculations. First , the SSP is read from
the log as the difference in mill volts between the shale level and the thick
clean-water-sand level near the zone of interest. The shale line is taken as
the maximum SP excursion to the right the sand lines taken as the
maximum deflection to the left in zone.

Next, the Rmf value is read from the log heading and converted to the
temperature at the zone of interest. The temperature is obtained from

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linear interpolation between surface temperature and bottom hole

temperature that is

Td = ST + (BHT – ST)* d/D (6)

Where:-
Td = temperature at depth of interest d,ft.
ST = surface temperature, assumed in the (60-80) °f range.
BHT = bottom hole temperature °f, give on the log heading.
D = bottom hole depth from the log heading, ft.
D = depth at zone of interest,ft.

Rmfe at depth d is then given by:

T m (+ 7)
(Rmf)d = (Rmf)m * (T +7) (7)
d

Where:-
(Rmf)m = measured Rmf value from the log heading, ohm.m.
Tm = temperature of Rmf measurement from the log heading, °f.

1- Multiply Rmf by 0.85 to obtain Rmfe. Mark the value on stem 3 of fig
(7).

2- Mark the SSP value on stem 1 of fig (7) and project a line from that
point through the formation temperature to read Rmfe/Rwe on stem2.
From this point, project a line through the value of Rmfe on stem 3 to
read Rwe on stem4.

3- Enter the value of Rwe on the vertical axis of fig (8), project
horizontally to the formation temperature, and then project metrically to
the horizontal scale to read (Rw).

Example: - to obtain the (Rw)??

calculation of Rw from SP: well log heading data :- formation-morrow

sandstone

Rmf=0.71 @ 68F Surface temperature=75°f

Bottom hole depth=9400ft

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Bottom hole temperature=196°f

Fig (6) location of shale and clean sand lines on the SP

1) Draw the shale base line?

Fig (8) shows the solution.

2) How many permeable zones?

We have three permeable zones A.B.C

3) Formation temperature @ zone A?

d = depth at zone of interest = 4170ft

Td = ST+ (BHT-ST)*d/D
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Td = 75+ (196-75).4170/9400 = 129F

4) Rw from zone A?
(Tm+ 7)
(Rmf)d = (Rmf)m . ( Td+7)

(68+7)
(Rmf)d= 0.71*. (196+7) =0.39ohm-m

Rmfe = (Rmf) d × 0.85 = 0.39 × 0.85 = 0.33 ohm-m

SSP from fig (8) = -68mv

Mark the SSp value on stem 1 of fig (6) and project a line from that point
through formation temperature to read Rmfe/Rwe.
R mfe
= 7.1 from this point, project a line through the value of Rmfe on
R we
stem 3 to read Rwe on stem (4).

Rwe = 0.046 ohm.m. enter this value on vertical axis of fig(7) project
horizontally to the formation temperature (129F) and then project
vertically to the horizontal scale to read Rw.

Rw = 0.062

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Fig (7)determination of Rwe from the SP(courtesy schlumberger )

Fig (8) determination of Rw from Rwe (courtesy schlumberger)

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The Gamma ray (GR) log:--

The gamma-ray log which measures the natural radioactivity of
rocks continuously was introduced in 1939 by well surveys,inc. as a
technique that could determine the litho logy of cased wells which had
never been logged before. The introduction of this log was a great boon
for the oil industry and for subsurface correlation because it made it
possible to go back into old cased wells and determine tops and bottoms
of formations for which such records were not available.

Basic GR logs:-
The basic GR log is a recording of the natural radioactivity of
formations. The radioactivity arises from uranium (U), thorium (Th), and
potassium (K) present in the rock. These three elements continuously
emit gamma rays, which are short bursts of high-energy radiation similar
to x-rays. The gamma rays are capable of penetrating a few inches of a
rock a fraction of those that originate close to bore hole traverse the hole
and can be detector by suitable gamma-ray sensor. Typically, this is a
scintillation detector, 8-12in. in active length. The detector gives a
discrete electrical pulse for each gamma ray detected. The parameter
logged is the number of pulse recorded per unit of time by detector.
GR logs are scaled in API units (APIU). An APIU is 1/200 of the
response generated by a calibration standard, which is an artificial
formation containing precisely known quantities of uranium, thorium, and
potassium maintained by the American petroleum institute in Houston.
The response generated by this formation is defined as 200APIU.by
design the calibration standard has twice the activity of an average shale,
considered to contain 6ppm (parts per million) uranium, 12ppm thorium,
and 2% potassium. Consequently, shales read in the vicinity of 100APIU
on GR logs.

Table (1) Radiation Non radiation rock

Non radiation rock Radiation rock
Sand stone Shally
limestone Shale
Carbonates Clay
dolomites

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Equipment:-
The GR sonde contains a detector to measure the gamma radiation
originating in the volume of formation near the sopde. Scintillation
counters are now generally used for this measurement. They are much
more efficient than the Geiger-Mueller counters used in the past. Because
of its higher efficiency, a scintillation counter need only be a few inches
in length; therefore, good formation detail is obtained. The GR log may
be, and usually is, run in combination with most other logging tools and
cased hole production services

Unit of measurement:-
One unit of calibration is micrograms of radium equivalent per ton
of formation or mg Ra-eq/ton is use by Schlumberger. This unit was
derived in attempt to standardize gamma-ray log presentations.

The unit of μg Ra eq/ton is also used by the Atomic energy commission.

This is a property of the formation rather than of the tool.

Calibration:-

The primary calibration standard for GR tools is the API test

facility in Houston. A field calibration standard is used to normalize each
tool to the API standard and the logs are calibrated in API units. The
radibactivities in sedimentary formations generally range from a few API
in anhydrite or salt to 200 or more in shale's Prior to the API calibration
procedure, GR logs were scaled in micrograms of radium-equivalent per
ton of formation. Conversions from these units to API units are shown in
Table 2.
Table (2) Conversion from old units to API units for Schlumberger gamma ray logs.
Equipment Old Unit API Units
Per Old
Unit
GNT-F or -G Gamma Ray 1 μgm Ra-eq\ton 16.5
GNTJ, -K Gamma Ray, GLD-K 1 μgm Ra-eq\ton 11.7

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Application of GR log:-
1) For defining shale beds when SP log is distorted , for example :
when # Rw=Rmf
#non Conductive mud(oil base mud )
#cased hole

2) To detect radioactive deposits (minerals) and non radioactive

deposits.
3) Gamma ray log is good in hard rock, where SP log is difficult.
4) Litohology (formation tops).
5) To find shale content
GR reading−GRmin
Vsh = GR −GR (8)
max min

Where:
GRreading= is the API for any formation.
GRmax= is the API for shale.
GRmin= is the API for clean sand formation.

Depth of penetration and vertical resolution:-

The depth of penetration of the GR log is 6-12in, being some what

higher at low formation density (high porosity) than at high density.

Vertical bed resolution is about 3ft. it is dependent on logging speed.

Shale determination:-
Because uranium, thorium, and potassium are largely concentrated
in clay minerals, the GR log is used extensively in shaly sand
interpretation to estimate the fraction of shale by volume, Vsh, in the sand.
This procedure is basically, it is matter of estimating the clean sand and
100% shale levels on the log and interpolating between them to determine
Vsh in a partially shaly interval. It is not a very precise technique, so
other shale indicators are used as well.

Response to different formation:-

Gamma Ray log are effective in distinguishing permeable zone by
virtue of the fact that the radioactive elements tend to be concentrated in

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the shales, which are impermeable, and are much less concentrated in
carbonates and sands, which are generally permeable. Fig(9) shows
typical responses limestone's and anhydrites have the lowest reading, 15-
20 APIU, dolomites and clean sands have slightly higher values, about
20-30APIU.

Shales average about 100 APIU but can vary from 75 to 150. A few very
radioactive shales-the Woodford, for example – may read 200-300 APIU.

Normally, therefore, the GR log separates clean sands and carbonates

from shale quite nicely. However, there are localized areas where sands
and dolomites, even though fairly free of clay, are radioactive enough that
distinguishing them from shales is difficult. Among the less commonly
encountered formations, coal, salt, and gypsum give quite low readings
volcanic ash and potash beds give high readings.

Fig (9) Gamma ray response in typical formation

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Summary
Spontaneous potential log

 A recording of voltage generated by electrochemical and electro

kinetic action at the junction of permeable zone and shale.
 Distinguishes impermeable shales from permeable sands or
carbonates.
 Shales appear as excursions to the right, permeable formations to
the left.
 Bed boundaries are at points of inflection, not halfway points.
 Bed resolution is good at high porosity, poor at law porosity.
 Magnitude depends on contrast between Rmf and Rw. Thus, SP
delineates permeable zones well in fresh mud where Rmf >>Rw
but poorly in salt mud where Rmf ≈Rw.
 Rw obtainable from SP, but values must be chosen carefully,
especially at depths at lees than 3,000 ft.

Gamma ray log

 A measurement of gamma-ray intensity in the borehole due to

natural disintegration of U, Th, and K.
 U, Th, and K tend to concentrate in shales and occur least in clean
sands and carbonates.
 Shales appear as excursions to right; clean formation to the left.
 GR curve is good in hard rock regions where SP is deficient.

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References:-
1- John T.Dewan, essentials of modern open-hole log interpretation,
pennwell books, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 1983.
2- Schlumberger company, Schlumberger Log Interpretation
Principles/Applications, Texas,1991.
3- Sylvain J. Pirson, well log analysis for oil and gas formation
evaluation ,prentice- hall, INC. Englewood cliffs, N.J.,1963.

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